Teaching notes

First Compiled: September 2011

For

Communication Skills II- LDC 121

By
Dr. Experencia Madalitso Jalasi

Department of Agriculture Education and Development Communication

Lilongwe University of Agriculture and Natural Resources
Po. Box 219
Lilongwe

_____________________________________________________________
Note: Only for use for learning purposes by students at the university. The notes are updated
every academic year and some topics may not be included under current curriculum. Therefore,
you need to attend classes and secure Power Point slides and presentations from your lecturers.

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The communication process

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The meaning of communication

Communication is the process of sharing our ideas, thoughts, and feelings with other people and
having those ideas, thoughts, and feelings understood by the people we are talking with. When we
communicate we speak, listen, and observe.

The way we communicate is a learned style. As children we learn from watching our parents and
other adults communicate. As an adult we can learn to improve the way we communicate by
observing others who communicate effectively, learning new skills, and practicing those skills.

Attention: The ability to effectively communicate at work, home, and in life is probably one of the
most important sets of skills a person needs. We cannot get along without communication.
Communicating effectively is not easy, and we all have probably had experiences where our
communication failed or ran into a barrier. So, if we can understand the communication process
better and improve it, we will become a more effective and successful communicator.

The meaning of Effective Communication

A good working definition for effective communication is to share meaning and understanding
between the person sending the message and the person receiving the message. The key element
is- ‘understanding.’

Every message has a purpose or objective. The sender intends -- whether consciously or
unconsciously -- to accomplish something by communicating. Messages typically have a definite
objective: to motivate, to inform, to teach, to persuade, to entertain, or to inspire.

Principles to effective communication

Communication whether oral or written, is all about understanding. Our aim is to communicate a
message successfully so that it is received as we intended without any misunderstanding. Effective
communication may be achieved by having a thorough knowledge of the communication cycle, being
aware of the barriers that exist and by considering carefully the following factors:

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 a. What is the objective of the communication? Is it intended to persuade, to request, to
inform, to entertain, educate, apologize, condole, etc.
b. Who will receive the communication? What is the relationship between the sender and
the recipient? What is the recipient’s background knowledge and experience?
c. Under what circumstances is the communication taking place? Why is the
communication happening? Is it urgent, serious, dangerous, emotive (sensitive),
informative?
d. How will the recipient react to the communication? How will the message affect the
recipient? Is it important? Will the recipient be offended or angered? Will it achieve the
desired aim?
e. What is the position of information technology? In recent years there has been
information technology revolution. In the area of text creation, computer experts are trying
to make the task of creating documents much easier. Programs are available that will
produce standard layouts for most business documents when the inputs are keyed in. In
other words, the originator does not decide on the layout, the computer program does.
However, some computer programs may not correspond to the modern display of some
business documents.

The fundamental skills of structure, tone and composition will always be of vital importance
in ensuring effective communication. Therefore, as the originator of printed communications,
you have control over these factors. However, while technological developments are making
your role more interesting and challenging, the basic presentational conventions should not
be allowed to suffer. No matter how technology develops in the future, high standards must
be set and maintained in order to ensure that all your communications are not only
appropriately worded and logically structured, but are also consistently and attractively
presented.

Barriers to effective communication (Reasons why Communication may fail)

Many problems encountered in businesses and personal lives result from miscommunication. What
a recipient understands by a message may not always be the message that the sender intended.
Several communication barriers exist between the sender and the recipient. They may be

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responsible for a message not being understood correctly or the message becoming distorted.
Below are the common barriers to effective communication:

[As you study the barriers, you can begin to group them in smaller groups. Some of the groups
include: sender oriented barriers, receiver oriented barriers, shared barriers (between sender and
receiver) and other barriers which are not under our control as communicators. Secondly, you need
to start finding and explaining ways of overcoming each of the barriers to effective communication.

a. Non-Verbal Signals

Body language can provide valuable feedback where verbal or oral communication is concerned.
Signals include facial expressions, movement, nodding the head, gestures, eye contact, etc. Lack of
it can hinder effective communication, in the same way, inappropriate signals/ or signals that do not
match the verbal communication can hinder effective communication.

b. Language

Choice of words is vital to the effectiveness of any communication. Many words have different
meanings. Our background knowledge and experience affect our understanding. Foreign language,
dialects, regional accents and the use of technical/ specialist language should always be considered.

c. Prejudgment

What is understood is often conditioned by what we already know and by our background knowledge
and experience. Often we hear what we want to hear or what we think we have heard and instead
of what has actually been said.

d. Relationships

The effectiveness of any communication may depend on our relationship with the person giving the
message. If the relationship is not good communication may not be effective or may break down
completely.

e. Emotional Response

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Communication cannot succeed if a person is highly emotional about the topic concerned. Problems
may arise from insecurity, fear, anger, etc. If emotions were high on the part of the sender or recipient,
then it would be better to wait for a while before trying to put the message across.

f. Communication Systems

In any organization there should be prescribed procedures for getting messages to the people who
need them. Without such systems there can be no effective communication.

g. Listening

Anyone who has something to say deserves attention. Listening, however, is a skill. Careful
concentration is demanded if a communication is to be understood. Success at gaining attention may
depend on the words used the way the communication is expressed, our interest in the speaker, our
interest in the communication and various other factors.

h. Prejudice

This can be positive or negative prejudice. When you are prejudiced negatively, you look down upon
the speaker and close your ears to whatever she is saying, you do not want to listen, and even
though she might be communicating important and factual issues you do not believe she is capable.
On the other hand, when you are positively prejudiced you believe whatever the speaker may be
saying without thinking or attaching any reasoning, you do not question certain facts; you take up
everything said to be important and factual. This becomes a barrier to communication because it
affects your listening skills negatively.

i. Physical barriers
Some barriers to effective communication are not under our control. For example, a hearing disability,
noisy office equipment, or a loud conversation could prevent us from hearing an important message.
Visual destructions also pose barriers to effective communication. For example, during a
conversation with your boss you see someone make an obvious filing mistake. (Remember
communication starts form ears (hearing) or eyes (seeing), nose (smelling), whole body (feeling).
These are the stimuli- the foundations of communication.

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Top Ten Tips for successful Communication

1. Read. Extend your knowledge of language by reading.

2. Listen intelligently. Remember that communication is two-way process. Listening is as
important as speaking. Similarly, try reading your written message as if you were listening
and consider if it will be effective.
3. Think and plan. Think before you speak or write. Plan your communication carefully, whether
oral or written.
4. Use appropriate language. Use clear, simple language and appreciate others who use
similar language.
5. Be open-minded. Consider other people’s view points, be willing to adapt and change
methods or procedures if necessary.
6. Select appropriate media. Consider carefully the method to be used for communicating your
message. It should be appropriate to the desired objective.
7. Time your communication appropriately. Consider the best time for the communication and
how long it should be.
8. Use appropriate registers. Use words which are relevant to the topic and which will be
understood by the recipient.
9. Obtain feedback. Obtain feedback to ensure that the communication was effective. If the
message is not understood, rather than blame the recipient, ask yourself why the
communication failed and how it could have been improved in order for it to be effective.
Some questions you should ask yourself are:
 Did your expressions or language create confusion or misunderstanding?
 Was your timing poor?
 Was your message too long so that the main points were lost?
 Were your tone and manner appropriate?

10. Aim high. Set and maintain high standards in all your methods of communication, both
in terms of language and presentation.

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In addition to the top ten tips above, it is important to remember the 7C’s for effective
communication and their relevance in effective communication:

1. Credibility- it builds trust.

2. Courtesy- it improves relationships.
3. Clarity- it makes comprehension easier.
4. Correctness- it builds confidence.
5. Consistency- it introduces stability.
6. Concreteness- it reinforces confidence.
7. Conciseness- it saves time.

The Communication Process

The communication process is a simple model that demonstrates all the factors that can affect
communication. (This includes noise)Communication is effective if the message that is received is
the same one that is sent.

Communication Process and the Key Elements:

A. Sender – The communicator or sender is the person who is sending the message. There are two
factors that will determine how effective the communicator will be. The first factor is the
communicator’s attitude. It must be positive. The second factor is the communicator’s selection
of meaningful symbols (for example language, gestures), or selecting the right symbols
depending on your audience and the right environment.

The sender initiates the communication process. When the sender has decided on a meaning, he
or she encodes a message, and selects a channel /medium for transmitting the message to a
receiver. To encode is to put a message into words or images.

B. Message – A communication in writing, in speech, or by signals The message is the information

that the sender wants to transmit. The medium is the means of communication, such as print,
speech/conversations, electrical, and digital etc.

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C. Receiver – The receiver is simply the person receiving the message. The receiver decodes or
makes sense or meaning of the message, or understanding and translating it into meaning. The
receiver is also a communicator. How can that be? (When receiver responds, they are then the
communicator.) They communicate to the sender through response, verbal or non-verbal.
Communication is only successful when the reaction of the receiver is that which the communicator
intended. Effective communication takes place with shared meaning and understanding. Thus, in the
feedback loop, the receiver becomes the sender and the sender becomes the receiver.

D. Feedback – Feedback is that reaction I just mentioned. It can be a verbal or nonverbal reaction
or response. It can be external feedback (something we see) or internal feedback (something we
can’t see), like self-examination. It is the feedback that allows the communicator to adjust his
message and be more effective. Without feedback, there would be no way of knowing if meaning
had been shared or if understanding had taken place.

Communication is a Two-Way Process

The information goes out to a person on the other end. There is a sender and a receiver. Simply put,
effective communication is getting your message across to the receiver. It is the sender’s
responsibility to make sure that the receiver gets the message and that the message received is the
one sent. (Communication cannot occur in isolation both sender and receiver have to participate in
the communication process to achieve effective communication and understanding of the message).
Communicating is not an isolated series of one skill, it involves several skills. For example, speaking
involves not only getting your message across but also being able to listen and understand what
others are saying (active listening) and observing the verbal and nonverbal clues in order to monitor
the effectiveness of your message.

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The Communication Process Loop

Models of the communication process

A model in its most common usage, is an abstract representation of an item or a concept—a car, a
plane, or a building—or a part of something, such as a tire, a wing, or a room. Models are created in
order to view, manipulate, or test the thing they represent without having to build the real thing.
People use models and modeling every day to improve their work and their world. Communication
models serve to clarify the nature of communication.

We will look at the classic communication models. These models are taught as part of introduction
to interpersonal communication and mass communication. These include:

1. The Active Model /or sometimes it is referred to as Transmissive Model (Shannon's Information
Theory Model) a model which reduces communication to a process of transmitting information.

2. The Interactive Model, an Intermediary Model (Cybernetic Model) - sometimes referred to as

Gatekeeper Model or The Two-Step flow that includes feedback.

3. Transactive/Transactional Model- a model that acknowledges neither creators nor consumers

of messages, labeling them both as communicators who both create and consume messages.

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1. Shannon's model of the communication process (active model/transmissive
model)

Shannon's (1948) model of the communication process provided, for the first time, a general model
of the communication process that could be treated as the common ground of such diverse
disciplines as journalism, rhetoric, linguistics, and speech and hearing sciences. Part of its success
is due to its structuralist reduction of communication to a set of basic constituents that not only explain
how communication happens, but why communication sometimes fails.

Figure 1: Shannon's (1948) Model of the communication process

Shannon's model, as shown in Figure 1, breaks the process of communication down into eight
discrete components:

1. An information source. Presumably a person who creates a message.

2. The message, which is both sent by the information source and received by the destination.
3. A transmitter. For Shannon's immediate purpose a telephone instrument that captures an
audio signal, converts it into an electronic signal, and amplifies it for transmission through
the telephone network. Transmission is readily generalized within Shannon's information
theory to encompass a wide range of transmitters. The simplest transmission system
associated with face-to-face communication has at least two layers of transmission:

 The first, the mouth (sound) and body (gesture) create and modulate a signal.

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  The second layer, (which might also be described as a channel), is built of the air (sound)
and light (gesture)-(through which a gesture passes) that enable the transmission of
those signals from one person to another.

Another transmission system, for example, a television broadcast- would obviously include
many more layers of transmission, with the addition of cameras and microphones, editing
and filtering systems, a national signal distribution network (often satellite), and a local radio
wave broadcast antenna.

4. The signal, which flows through a channel. There may be multiple parallel signals, as is the
case in face-to-face interaction where sound and gesture involve different signal systems
that depend on different channels and modes of transmission. There may be multiple serial
signals, with sound and/or gesture turned into electronic signals, radio waves, or words and
pictures in a book.
5. A carrier or channel (which is represented by the small unlabeled box in the middle of the
model). The most commonly used channels include air, light, electricity, radio waves, paper,
and postal systems. Note that there may be multiple channels associated with the multiple
layers of transmission, as described above.
6. Noise, is in the form of secondary signals that obscure or confuse the signal carried. Given
Shannon's focus on telephone transmission, carriers, and reception, noise is restricted to
the noise that obscures some portion of the signal within the channel. This, however, is a
fairly restrictive notion of noise, by current standards, and a somewhat misleading one.
Today we use noise more as a symbol for problems associated with effective listening.
7. A receiver. In Shannon's conception, it is the receiving telephone instrument.
- In face to face communication, a set of ears (sound) and eyes (gesture).

- In television, several layers of receiver, including an antenna and a television set.

8. A destination. Presumably a person who consumes and processes the message.

Like all models, this is a simple idea of the reality it attempts to reproduce. The reality of most
communication systems is more complex. Most information sources (and destinations) act as both
sources and destinations.

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It remains, however, that Shannon's model is a useful idea/plan that identifies the most important
components of communication and their general relationship to one another. That value is evident in
its similarity to real world pictures of the designs of new communication systems, including Bell's
original sketches of the telephone, as seen in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Bell's drawing of the workings of a telephone, from his original sketches (source: Bell
Family Papers; Library of Congress; http://memory.loc.gov/mss/mcc/004/0001.jpg)

Bell's sketch visibly contains an information source and destination, transmitters and receivers, a
channel, a signal, and an implied message (the information source is talking).

Strengths of Shannon’s Model

Particular models are useful for some purposes and less useful for others. Like any process of
mediation/ negotiation, models foreground some features and backgrounds others. The strengths of
Shannon and Weaver's model are its

 Simplicity (straight forwardness).

 Generality (generalization/overview) - the way that a majority looks at the
communication process.

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Such advantages made this model attractive to several academic disciplines. It also drew serious
academic attention to human communication and 'information theory', leading to further theory and
research.

Weaknesses of the Transmission Model of Communication

a. Linearity

The transmission model fixes and separates the roles of 'sender' and 'receiver'. But communication
between two people involves simultaneous 'sending' and 'receiving' (not only talking, but also 'body
language' and so on). In Shannon and Weaver's model the source is seen as the active decision-
maker who determines the meaning of the message; the destination is the passive target.

It is a linear, one-way model, ascribing a secondary role to the 'receiver', who is seen as absorbing
information. However, communication is not a one-way street. Even when we are simply listening to
the radio, reading a book or watching TV we are far more interpretively active than we normally
realize.

There is no provision in the model for feedback (reaction from the receiver). Feedback enables
speakers to adjust their performance to the needs and responses of their audience.

b. Context

There is no mention in the transmission model of the importance of context: situational, social,
institutional, political, cultural and historical. Meaning cannot be independent of such contexts. Whilst
recorded texts (such as letters in relation to interpersonal communication and newspapers, films,
radio and television programs in relation to mass communication) allow texts to be physically
separated from their contexts of production, this is not to say that meaning can be 'context-free'.

Whilst it is true that meaning is not wholly 'determined' by contexts of 'production' or 'reception' (texts
do not mean simply what either their producers or their interpreters choose for them to mean),
meanings may nevertheless be radically inflected (modulated) by particular contexts of 'writing' and
'reading' in space and time. The 'same' text can be interpreted quite differently within different
contexts.

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Social contexts have a key influence on what are perceived as appropriate forms, styles and
contents. Regarding situational context, it makes a lot of difference, for example, if the sender is an
opinionated taxi-driver who drives aggressively and the receiver is a passenger in the back seat
whose primary concern is to arrive at the destination in one piece.

c. Relationships

In the transmission model the participants are treated as isolated individuals. Contemporary
communication theorists treat communication as a shared social system. We are all social beings,
and our communicative acts cannot be said to represent the expression of purely individual thoughts
and feelings. Such thoughts and feelings are socio-culturally patterned. Transmission models of
communication reduce human communication to the transmission of messages, whereas, as the
linguists tell us, there is more to communication than this.

d. Content and meaning

Insofar as content has any place (typically framed as 'the message'), transmission models tend to
equate content and meaning, whereas there may be varying degrees of divergence between the
'intended meaning' and the meanings generated by interpreters.

The important point here is that meaning-making is not central in transmission models. It is widely
assumed that meaning is contained in the 'message' rather than in its interpretation. But there is no
single, fixed meaning in any message. We bring varying attitudes, expectations and understandings
to communicative situations. Even if the receiver sees or hears exactly the same message which the
sender sent, the sense which the receiver makes of it may be quite different from the sender's
intention. The same 'message' may represent multiple meanings.

2. Interactive Model (Intermediary)

This model is frequently depicted in mass communication and it focuses on the important role that
intermediaries often play in the communication process. In mass communication they associate
editors, who decide what stories will fit in a newspaper or news broadcast, with this intermediary or
gatekeeper role. There are, however, many intermediary roles associated with communication. Many

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of these intermediaries have the ability to decide what messages others see, the context in which
they are seen, and when they see them. They often have the ability, moreover, to change messages
or to prevent them from reaching an audience (destination). In extreme variations we refer to such
gatekeepers as censors. These include editors, reviewers, moderators (internet discussion groups).

The interactive model, elaborates Shannon's model with the cybernetic concept of feedback without
changing any other element of Shannon's model. The key concept associated with this elaboration
is that destinations provide feedback on the messages they receive such that the information sources
can adapt their messages, in real time. This is an important elaboration, and as generally depicted,
a radically oversimplified one.

The reasons being that:

 Feedback is a message (or a set of messages).

 The source of feedback is an information source.
 The consumer of feedback is a destination.
 Feedback is transmitted, received, and potentially disruptable via noise sources.

However, none of these are visible in the typical depiction of the interactive model. This however,
does not diminish the importance of feedback or the usefulness of elaborating Shannon's model to
include it. People really do adapt their messages based on the feedback they receive. It is useful,
however, to notice that the interactive model depicts feedback at a much higher level of abstraction
(image, not in reality) than it does messages.

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Figure 4: An Interactive Model

3. Transactional Model

This difference in the level of abstraction is addressed in the transactional model of communication,
a variant (variation) of which is shown in Figure 5. This model acknowledges neither creators nor
consumers of messages, preferring to label the people associated with the model as communicators
who both create and consume messages. The model presumes additional symmetries (balances)
as well, with each participant creating messages that are received by the other communicator. This
is, in many ways, an excellent model of the face-to-face interactive process which extends readily to
any interactive medium that provides users with symmetrical interfaces (boundaries) for creation and
consumption of messages, including letters, electronic mail, telephone, etc.

It is, however, a distinctly interpersonal model that implies equality between communicators that
often doesn't exist, even in interpersonal contexts. The caller, for example, in most telephone
conversations has the initial upper hand in setting the direction and tone of a telephone call than the
receiver of the call (Hopper, 1992). In face-to-face head-complement interactions, the boss (head)
has considerably more freedom (in terms of message choice, media choice, ability to frame meaning,

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ability to set the rules of interaction) and power to allocate message bandwidth than does the
employee (complement). The model certainly does not apply in mass media contexts.

Figure 5: A Transactional Model:

Summary on central ideas of the Models

The Active model is Self-Action or One-Way Communication. It is focused on getting the

message to the receiver. Self-action treats communication as a manipulation (exploitation) of others.
It is very message centered. There is no way to know if the meaning is shared between the sender
and the receiver.

The Interactive is Interaction or Two-Way Communication. This approach recognizes the role of
the receiver as a communicator through feedback. It is message centered and is a very simplistic
view of the communication process. Feedback allows senders to see if their message got across.

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The Transactional Model
This approach focuses on meaning and sharing by accounting for all other factors in the
communication process. It is concerned with the barriers that might affect the communication.
Transaction is best described as effective communication. This is when the communication process
is applied and carried out completely. The sender gives a message that is passed on to the receiver.
In return, the receiver can give clear feedback that allows the sender to know whether or not the
message was perceived as intended. If the message wasn’t received as intended, then the sender
will continue the communication process again in order to ensure effective communication.

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ORAL SKILLS

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 I. Basic speaking skills
Impromptu speaking – Speaking without Preparation
There is a good chance that you will be unexpectedly called upon to give an impromptu speech at a
business, club, meeting, etc. Try and pre-empt (anticipate) possible topics that may arise, such as
those from current events or contentious issues. Have an emergency speech (in mind).

What are the benefits of impromptu speaking?

 Improve oral expression of thought
 Develop confidence in public speaking
 Think quickly on your feet
 Develop leadership and communication skills

Techniques to Delivering a Better Impromptu Speech

The following techniques can help to give you more confidence in giving impromptu speeches and
that will in turn reduce any fears you may have at that time.
 Give yourself time to prepare
Take deep breaths
-Rise slowly from your chair and walk slowly to the platform (or stand behind and away from your
chair)
-Use this time to collect your thoughts and decide on the purpose and plan of your speech
-Think about the opening sentence
Remember: You don’t have to start the speech immediately
 Feel confident
-Look around at the audience and smile. Stand tall.
-Don't bend, don't move around, don't grasp the stand, and don’t put hands in your pockets
-Speak and act in a confident manner
 Deliver slowly
-Gives you time to think ahead
-The audience has time to absorb and react to what you are saying
-Helps you reduce umms… and ahhs….

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  Focus
-Keep the focus on the subject while talking
-Don't think of any negatives (e.g. being unprepared)
-Talk directly to the audience and adapt to their feedback
-Maintain good eye contact with the audience
-Be brief and to the point
-Don't ramble or say too much on the subject
-Speak at the audience's level

Speech Structure - Opening, Body and Conclusion

An impromptu speech is simply a mini-speech and therefore it has an Opening, a Body and a
Conclusion.
Opening
 Open by addressing the Chairman or Master of Ceremonies e.g. Mister/Madam Chairman
 Brief introduction/opening sentence – aim at getting attention of the audience
Body
 Cover the main points (Try to find one or two central themes)
 Use clearly worded simple sentences and try to link the themes
Conclusion
 Be brief and look for an elegant closing that links back to the opening
 End by acknowledging the Chairman or Master of Ceremonies
Sources of Content
 Personalize
-This is the subject you know most about
-Audience can relate more easily to personal topics - they probably have similar experiences
 Your opinion
-what is your view about a phenomenon/incident- could also help in coming up with what to
say/share
 Humor
-Breaks the ice with the audience and relaxes you

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  Other
-Current events, something you have read or seen (newspaper, book, TV), knowledge of
pertinent facts

Argumentation (reasoned discussion)

In argumentation you either argue for or against a topic or idea. Stick to your position, don’t get mixed
up.

 The first thing you need to do is to know your position as opposer or proposer.

 Think and talk.

 Talk about facts not opinions-maintain your case.

 Give evidence-give reasons, support your position.

 Listen attentively to the person you are debating with; their arguments, points, etc. Check
on their weaknesses in the argument and also their strengths. These may remind you of
important facts about your position.

Effective questioning: asking the right question for the desired result

i) The Value of questions

“Asking good questions is productive, positive, creative, and can get us what we want”. Most people
believe this to be true and yet people do not ask enough good questions. Perhaps one of the reasons
for this is that effective questioning requires it to be combined with effective listening.

Effective questions help you to:

 Reduce mistakes
 Gather better information
 Connect with your speaker in a more meaningful way
 Understand your speakers presentation better and more fully

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ii) Effective Questions

Effective questions are questions that are powerful and thought provoking. Effective questions are
open-ended and not leading questions. They are not "why" questions, but rather "what" or "how"
questions. "Why" questions are good for soliciting information, but can make people defensive; so
be thoughtful in your use of them. When asking effective questions, it is important to wait for the
answer and not provide the answer.

When working with people to solve a problem, it is not enough to tell them what the problem is. They
need to find out or understand it for themselves. You help them do this by asking them thought
provoking questions. Rather than make assumptions, find out what the person you are talking to
knows about the problem.

For example: "What do you think the problem is?"

Behind effective questioning is also the ability to listen to the answer and suspend judgment. This
means being intent on understanding what the person who is talking is really saying. What is behind
their words? Let go of your opinions so that they do not block you from learning more information.
Pay attention to your desire for additional information.

Listening Skills as part of Effective Questioning

Listening as part of effective questioning requires completing particular tasks. They are important
aspects of listening. These include:

(i) Articulating
Sharing our observation and our understanding with the speaker clearly but without judgment. We
can repeat back to our speakers just what they said. We can expand on this by articulating back to
them what we believe they mean. This helps a person feel heard. For example: "What I hear you
saying is . . ."

(ii) Clarifying
Clarifying is a combination of clearly articulating what we have heard and asking a question. When

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a speaker is being vague or you are getting confused in yourself on a particular point, it is
important to clarify the information. You do this by quickly summarizing what you have heard or
understood and then pose a clear question.

(iii) Being Curious

Do not assume you know the answer or what your client (or anybody) is going to tell you. Wait and
be curious about what brings them to see you. What motivates them? What is really behind the
meeting? Use your curiosity so that your next question can go deeper.

(iv) Silence
Giving the person we are listening to time to answer questions is an important aspect of listening.
Waiting for the client to talk rather than talking for them is imperative for an effective listener.

II. Speech writing and presentation

A. Speaker Ethics

Mannerisms

 Any mannerisms are bad as your mind has the dual task of controlling physical movements
as well as concentrating on ideas and it is easy to become a slave to some irritating habits,
such as walking about platform, twiddling with a pencil or standing on one foot, etc
 Any mannerisms which prevent the free use of your hands for natural gestures may affect
your voice.

Dressing

 Dress for the occasion, usually smart if it is a formal occasion, smart casual for a social
gathering, but making sure you are decent.
 Dress not to embarrass the audience.
 Dress not to distract the audiences’ attention.
 Dress well enough.

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 Presentation of facts

 Avoid misrepresentation of facts.

 Present facts with evidence where possible depending on the subject of your topic.

B. Types of speeches
Although there might be different types of oral presentations, they can be divided into three
general categories:
1. Presentations to inform
2. Presentations to persuade
3. Presentations to entertain

 The basic purpose of an informative presentation is to promote understanding of an

idea.
 The basic purpose of persuasive presentations is to influence choices.
 The basic purpose of entertainment presentations is of course to entertain.

Often only a thin line divides informative and persuasive presentations. Persuasive presentations
must inform as well as persuade. How can a speaker persuade listeners, unless they are informed
of all facts? In the same way, many informative presentations are indirectly persuasive. For example,
it is very possible that an informative report on a particular problem will persuade those listening that
corrective measures must be taken.

If your purpose is to persuade your listeners to change their belief, then your presentation is a
persuasive one. However, if your intent is simply to make listeners aware of or understand the
problem then the presentation is an informative one.

Speaker intent then determines whether a presentation is labeled informative or persuasive. As a

speaker, you must make this determination before your preparation because the two types require
very different approaches

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The Informative Speech
If your purpose is to inform, your primary goal is to relay information to your audience in an
interesting, well organized and professional manner. Informative speakers may explain something,
demonstrate how something functions or describe how something is structured. When speaking
informatively, you hope to provide a learning experience for your listeners, sharing information they
did not posses before your talk. In other words if your main goal is to inform an audience, you must
be certain that the data you provide will enhance your listeners’ understanding, and you must find
ways to help the audience remember what you say.

To ensure that your purpose is clear- initially to yourself and ultimately to your listeners- you will find
it helpful to develop a purpose statement. What this means is that you commit to writing a summary
of what you want to accomplish, you describe what you hope to do with your speech. The purpose
statement of an informative speech often contains such words as show, explain, report, instruct,
describe and inform of course.

The following are some examples of purpose statements for various kinds of informative speeches:
 To explain how selected Chinese character evolved
 To describe how a tornado forms
 To inform class members about current Internal Revenue Service regulations
that affects them.
 To report on efforts to prevent human cloning

Notice that each example takes the form of an infinitive verb phrase; thus each begins with to.
Notice also that each statement contains one and only one idea and that it is written from the
speakers’ perspective.

The Persuasive Speech

The same principles used for an informative speech may be applied in formulating a purpose
statement for a persuasive speech. During a persuasive speech your main goal is to reinforce or
change an audience’s beliefs or to make the audience behave in a certain way. The words convince,
persuade, motivate and act commonly turn up in purpose statements for persuasive speeches.

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 Examples:
 To persuade audience members to ensure they get more sleep.
 To motivate listeners to contribute money to the Organizations dealing with
HIV infected people.

C. Stages of Speech Making/Speech Planning

Stage Activity
Topic Selection -Analyze yourself
-Analyze your audience
-Consider the occasion
-Select your subject area
-Narrow your topic
Topic Development -Gather support
-Organize material
-Conduct an oral tryout and revise
Presentation -Work to control anxiety
-Rehearse the presentation
-Deliver the presentation
Post presentation -Conduct a post presentation analysis:
Analysis You determine with the aid of others such as your instructor or fellow class members or your
own, the strengths and weaknesses of your presentation to be better prepared to meet the
challenge when the next occasion arises.

D. Analysis of Important Factors in Speech Writing and Delivery

i. The Speaker
Good speakers have characteristics that you may want to keep in mind as you prepare your
own presentations:
 Good speakers have insight -they know their own strengths and limitations.
 Good speakers know their audiences. They work to understand the nature
and concerns of the people they have been called on to address.

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  Good speakers believe that what they are doing is important, they know
why they are speaking and they know what they hope to accomplish by
speaking. They are clear about their purpose and about the main ideas they
want to communicate.
 Good speakers always practice – they conduct rehearsals of the
presentation.
 Good speakers think of the speech as if it were a performance. They know
that they will need to work hard to keep the audience interested in what they
have to say; they understand the essential fecklessness of audiences, so
they make it easy and pleasurable for listeners to stay tuned to their ideas.
Good speakers make a critique or post presentation analysis of the speech.
They know that there is much to learn from each experience, much that
they may be able to apply the next time they are in a spotlight.
ii. The Audience
Having conducted a search of yourself, it is now time to determine where your audience fits
in. A pitfall for many speakers is speaking to please themselves-approaching speech making
with only their own interests and their own points of view in mind and neglecting the needs and
interests of their audience.

You need to find out the makeup of your audience: Audience Analysis
Age-Would you give precisely the same presentation to a group of children that you would
give to your class? Almost certainly, not. How might your presentations differ? Could you even
deal with the same subject? The adult students would bring many more years of experience
to your presentation than the children would.
Gender- Gender can also influence an audience’s reaction to your speech. Although the same
topics may appeal to both men and women, gender may affect the ways male and female
audience member’s respond. For example, a discussion of rape may elicit a stronger emotional
reaction from the women in your class.
Family Orientation-Are most of the members of your audience single? Married? Divorced?
Widowed? Are they from one parent or two parents’ homes? These factors might influence

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your audience’s reactions to your presentation. The concerns of one group are not necessarily
the concerns of another.
Religion- If you are speaking to religious groups with whom you have little familiarity, make a
point to discuss your topic with some group members in advance. Some groups have
formulated very clear guidelines regarding issues such as divorce, birth control, abortion, gay
marriages, etc.
Cultural Background-As you plan your speech, keep in mind how potential
misunderstandings could result from racial, ethnic, religious or cultural differences.
Occupation-People are interested in issues that relate to their own work and the work of those
important to them. Consequently, if possible, relate your subject to the occupational concerns
of your audience. Also if you are speaking before an audience whose members belong to a
particular occupational group, you must attempt to find or create examples and illustrations
that reflect their concerns.
Socioeconomic Status- Consider whether the members come from upper-class, middle class
and lower-class. These issues may influence the response of members.
Educational level -You need to consider the members intellectual ability.

iii. The Occasion

If you are asked to speak before a group your first response might well be “why?” “What’s the
occasion?” It is easy to determine what you need to know about the occasion.
-Date and time of the presentation- when,
-Length of presentation- how long
-Location of the presentation-where
-Nature of Occasion-why they need to be addressed
-Size of the audience- how many people

iv. The Subject

Criteria for Selecting a Topic
The following criteria can be used in selecting a topic:
 Worthiness (Is the topic worthwhile)

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You need to determine if the topic is important to you and to the people who will listen to you.
Many people often fall in to the trap of choosing topics that are of little value to the audience.
 Appropriateness
-Is the topic appropriate to the audience?
-Is it appropriate to the occasion?
 Interest
Speech makers often make the mistake of selecting topics they think they should speak about
rather than topics they want to speak about.
 Is sufficient Research Material Available?
Before choosing a topic be certain that material on the subject is available and that you find it
readily on the internet, in a library, or from someone else.

Topic Narrowing
The following strategy can be used in narrowing a topic:
 Select a topic and put it at the top of a ladder
 Subdivide the topic into constituent parts that is, break the topic down into smaller
and smaller units
 The smallest unit should appear at the lowest step of the ladder.
This process is like carving a stick of wood. The more you shave off, the narrower the topic
becomes. Like the carver, you decide what shape to give your topic and when to stop shaving.
For example if you want to talk about the current technology revolution, you might focus on
how the use of multimedia has revolutionalized education, or specifically, on how computers
are used to teach writing skills. (Narrower: How computers aid spelling check, How computers
reduce punctuation mistakes, etc.

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Topic Narrowing Ladder

Parts of Speeches

Writing a speech is like any other essay in that it should have:

i) An introduction- introducing the main points and the purpose of the topic you are going
to discuss.
ii) Main body- here you expand the points already outlined in the introduction.
iii) Summary/conclusion-give a summary of your speech by repeating some main points
and giving your personal opinion based on what has been said.

Format of Speeches
People employ different formats in speech writing, as follows:
(i) The Pyramid Form

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This form will start with the least important points and end with the most important ones. The
advantage of this form is that it holds the audience to listen up to the end. The more they listen,
the more they get important points. The speaker enjoys the attention of the audience to the
very end.

(ii) The Upside-Down Pyramid Form

This form will start with the most important points and end with the least important points. This
form is mostly employed when the speech is very long. The speaker makes sure the audience
gets the most important part of the speech before they get tired.

(iii) Two- Pyramids

This form will start with the most important points and end with the most important points as
well. Less important points will be included in the middle. The advantage of this is that at the
beginning of the speech the audience’s mind is fresh and eager to listen and mostly what is
said last sticks in the mind of the audience.

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 (iv)The Rectangular Form

This form will mix the important and less important points. This form is generally good for short
speeches as there is a fusion of points.

Using visual aids effectively in speech presentation

Purpose

 Both quality and number of visual aids should enhance, and not distract the audience from
the message.
 Display or distribute an outline to help audience follow long or group presentations.
 Use variety to increase interest; remember the value of pictures, graphs, symbols and
objects

Appearance
 Never use a transparency of a typewritten page.
 Use a plain font (e.g. Trebuchet, Arial, Times New Roman, etc) of substantial size (18 point
or more).
 If you use color, do not use more than three colors - ask yourself; Can the audience quickly
and easily grasp what they see? - Are they spending time reading and not listening?

Format

a) Text

 Make one and only one key point per visual unless the audience is very familiar with the
subject.

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  Organize material into natural categories and contrasts. E.g. Before vs. after, problem
and solution, advantages vs. disadvantages, beginning to end, costs vs. benefits, etc.
 Include no more than three or four points under one heading.
 Do not use whole sentences or paragraphs; instead use bulleted words or short phrases
only, except for quotes.

b) Graphs

 Use not more than three curves on a line chart or graph.

 Do not use a page full of numbers; translate complex numbers into representative pie charts
or bar graphs
 Use diagrams or models to present complex concepts.
 Use multiple charts illustrating different stages or parts of the full model; starting with simple
framework and build components successively into the full model or process.

Tips for using Visual Aids:

 Do not block the audience's vision; limit the time your back is facing the audience.
 Make sure you know how to operate the equipment; practice it ahead of time; have backup
cords, bulbs, adapters, etc; prepare for the worst
 Make sure you know the lighting requirements for your equipment; know where the switches
are and what settings are needed; bring a small penlight in case the room has to be darkened
and you need to see notes or equipment.

Techniques for oral presentations

An oral presenter should make sure to take the following items into account:

1. The human attention span is short- only a few minutes in some cases.
2. Visual aids help a great deal. Use the blackboard or computer display to present key words
to the audience.
3. Chose language that your audience is certain to understand or, if you must use specialized
terms, explain them when you first introduce them.

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4. If you want to make sure that your audience retains specific information, distribute it to them
in the form of a handout.
5. Remember that as soon as you distribute a handout, your audience will stop listening to you
and start reading it. If you make the handout short and allow a moment for your audience to
look through it when you hand it out, then you can hold their attention for the duration of your
presentation and refer to the handout as necessary.
6. Your oral presentation should open with a statement of the topic that you investigated. Do
not begin with a joke or anecdote- that is appropriate for a speech at a social gathering, but
not for an academic presentation.
7. You should describe your approach to the topic, the sources you used, and the conclusions
you drew. If you did not reach a conclusion, then describe the direction in which you think
further research should go to reach a conclusion.
8. Practice your oral presentation before you give it in front of an audience. Read it aloud,
perhaps in front of a mirror, and time yourself as you read it. It takes about 2.5 minutes to
read a double spaced page of text, but some people read faster or slower than others.
Whatever you do, do not exceed your time limit, and if possible, leave time for questions
from the audience.

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Essays

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Developing paragraphs in to essays

In developing paragraphs into essays, you need to realize that there are similarities between the
basic organization of a paragraph and that of an essay.

Similarities between paragraphs and essays

The characteristics of a good paragraph as discussed in communication skill I are also applicable in
developing essays.

An Essay needs to have:

 One major idea (topic), which must be explained in each of the paragraphs within the essay.
 The introduction of the essay should give a clear picture of the main idea that you will discuss
in the essay.
 Just like a paragraph, an essay also needs to be complete, unified, orderly, coherent and
lengths of paragraphs and sentences varied.
 An essay should have a conclusion.

What is an Essay?

An essay is a short piece of writing that discusses, describes or analyses one topic. It can discuss a
subject directly or indirectly, seriously or humorously. It can describe personal opinions, or just report
information. An essay can be written in any perspective, but essays are commonly written in the first
person (I), or third person (subjects that can be substituted with the pronouns, him, her, it or them).

There are many different kinds/types of essays. The following are some of the most common ones:

Descriptive essay: Provides details about how something looks, feels, tastes, smells, make one
feel, or sounds.

Definition essay: Defines a word, term, or concept in depth by providing a personal commentary on
what the specific subject means.

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Expository or Process essay: Explains to the audience how to do something or how to complete
a task (explains actions that should be done in a series).

Cause/Effect essays: Are concerned with why things happen (causes) and what happens as a
result (effects).

Narrative essays: Are experiences written by you that you face during your life. It tells a story,
which is meaningful and important to you, it can be real, or imagination based.

Compare/Contrast essay: Compares and contrasts two subjects and show their similarities and
their differences.

Argumentative or Persuasive essay: Attempts to persuade the reader to the writer’s point of view.

Critical essay: Analyses the strengths, weaknesses and methods of someone’s work; stressing on
the work and not your opinion.

Few Details for Some Types of Essays

The descriptive essay provides details about how something looks, feels, tastes, smells, make one
feel, or sounds. It can also describe what something is, or how something happened. These essays
generally use many sensory details. The essay could be a list-like description that provides point-by-
point details. Alternatively, it could function as a story, keeping the reader interested in the plot and
theme of the event described. Examples of topics of a descriptive essay:

 A tree in my backyard
 A visit to the children’s ward (of a hospital)
 What an athlete did in order to make it to the Olympics

An argumentative/persuasive essay is one that attempts to persuade the reader to the writer’s
point of view. The writer must choose a side and defend their side of an argument, consider and
refute alternative arguments. However, the writer must be aware of the other sides and be fair to
them; dismissing them completely will weaken their own argument.

39
The writer is no longer merely showing, but convincing. The writer has to prove to the undecided
reader that the opinion it presents is the best one. Therefore, as a writer it is advisable to take a side
you believe in, preferably with the most supporting evidence.

In the presentation, the writer can be serious or fanny, but always tries to convince the reader the
validity of his or her opinion. The essay may argue openly, or it may attempt to, subtly persuade the
reader by using sarcasm. Examples of topics: An argumentative essay may persuade a reader that:

 He or she should use public transport instead of driving own car

 Cats are better than dogs

A critical essay analyses the strengths, weaknesses and methods of someone’s work. Generally,
these essays begin with a brief overview of the main points of the text, movie or a piece of art,
followed by an analysis of the work’s meaning. It should then discuss how well the author/creator
accomplishes his /her goals and makes his /her points. A critical essay can be written about another
essay, story, book, poem, movie, or work of art. Examples: A critical essay may analyze:

 How Shakespeare presents the character, Othello, in his play, Othello.

 The strengths and weaknesses of the movie, Children of the Lesser God

An expository essay is similar to a process essay since a process describes how something is
done. The process essay explains to the audience how to do something or how to complete a task.
It generally explains action that should be done in a series. It can explain in detail how to accomplish
a specific task, or it can show how an individual came to a certain personal awareness. The assay
could be in form of systematic (step-by-step) instructions, or in a story form, with the
instructions/explanations subtly given along the way. Even though other books treat expository and
process essays as different, their function is to explain a topic step-by- step.

A Compare/Contrast essay: compares and contrasts two subjects and show their similarities and
their differences. Compare and contrast are common in academic writing. All you need to do in writing
a compare and contrast essay is take two subjects and show their similarities and their differences.

40
  Before you begin writing, brainstorm to find similarities and differences between your
subjects.

For example, Comparing and Contrasting Apples and Oranges

Subject Similarities Differences

Both are tree fruits, grown Oranges tropical, apples temperate
commercially in large orchards
Apple juice and orange juice Apple juice has no pulp. Orange juice has pulp.
Apples & Oranges
Sauce Pulp and peeling from oranges is used in sauce.
Applesauce contains only the pulp of the peeled
apple.

 Use your essay introduction to introduce both subjects and present the points you intend to
make.

Example: However, although apples and oranges are both fruits, they are each ripe with
differences, some of which are shown in the way they are grown and processed.

 Format the body of your compare and contrast essay in one of several ways:

1. You can compare and contrast different elements of each subject in each paragraph of
your essay body. This is called the point by point organisation.

Example:

a) (Compare) Apples and oranges are both tree fruits often grown commercially in large
orchards. (Contrast) However, apples grow in every climate and oranges need tropical
temperatures to produce fruit.

b) (Compare) Although both fruits can be juiced, (contrast) apples are pressed and only
the juice is bottled while both pulp and juice is squeezed from oranges

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 c)(Compare) Again, while fruit sauce is made from both apples and oranges, usually
applesauce comes from the peeled and smashed (puréed) apple (contrast) while
orange sauce may contain both the rind and the pulp of the orange.

2. You can use one paragraph to discuss one subject, the second paragraph to discuss the
other and the final paragraph of the body to compare and contrast the two subjects. This
is called subject by subject organisation.

Example:

a) Apples are a tree fruit that is often grown commercially in large orchards. As
well as eaten from the tree, apples are also pressed in to apple juice or crushed
and processed in to applesauce.
b) Oranges are also a tree fruit, often grown commercially in large orchards. Like
apples, they can be eaten from the tree, squeezed in to juice or processed in to
orange sauce.

c) (Compare and contrast points discussed in paragraphs one and two). One big
difference between apples and oranges is the way they are processed. Notice
that while apples are pressed for juice, orange juice is squeezed from the
orange. Another difference is that while apple juice contains only the liquid
pressed from the apple, orange juice may also contain the pulp form the orange.
Although applesauce contains the pureed pulp of pared apple, orange sauce
may contain bits of orange rind as well as the pulp of the fruit.

Note: To avoid confusing your reader, it is best to follow the same order of presentation in each
paragraph. For instance, in example one notice that the order is subject one (apples) comparison
and then contrast and followed by subject two (oranges), comparison and then contrast.

You may want to try a couple of different formats for your topic in order to choose which best suits
your subject. In addition, using appropriate transitions between paragraphs is very important in
writing the compare and contrast essay. Transitions help your essay flow smoothly from point to point

42
yet keep your essay on topic. For example, furthermore, moreover, additionally, in fact, actually,
besides, importantly, notably, etc.

Another technique in writing the compare and contrast essay is to use cue words. Cue words are
clues to whether you are comparing your subject or contrasting them and make it easier for your
reader to understand your points.

Cue Words
Similarities Differences
s similar to

Like any essay, finish your essay by summarizing the points you made in the body.

Organization of an essay

I. Parts of an essay

A. The title: The title is one of the most important part of any piece of writing, including
an essay. However, it is one of the most taken for granted part. It is important to
understand that the title is the guide of your writing. It helps to gather the relevant
ideas and evidence for your writing. Therefore you need to understand the following:

 What titles to avoid

 What makes a good title
 How do you analyze a title
 How to compose a title

NB: In your Power point slides, you will find answers to the above points.

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 B. The Introduction: The introduction establishes the context and gives the reader
background information necessary for undertaking meaning, relevance and
importance of the topic.

Thesis statement: Usually the last sentence of the introduction is the thesis
statement. It is a contact between a writer and reader and tells the reader what the
subject of the text is. (It may be a general statement; that does not need to be
specific).

C. The Body: In this part, you have a number of paragraphs that discuss the thesis
statement. Each paragraph has its own main idea that must be related to the thesis
statement in the introduction. You expand the main idea.
D. The Conclusion: It is more of an image of the introduction. It does not need to be
a restatement of the introduction. It may summarize main points discussed in the
body.

II. Step by step Development of an Essay

A. Choosing a topic for your essay

i) Topic has been assigned

You may have no choice as to your topic. If this is the case, you still may not be ready to jump to the
next step.

Think about the type of paper you are expected to produce:

 Should it be a general overview or a specific analysis of the topic? If it should be an overview,

then you are probably ready to move to the next step. It is a specific analysis; make sure
your topic is fairly specific. It is too general. You must choose a narrower subtopic to discuss.

For example, the topic “Malawi” is a general one. If your objective is to write an overview,
this topic is suitable. If your objective is a specific analysis, this topic is too general. You
must narrow it to something like “Politics in Malawi” or “Malawi’s Culture.”

44
ii) Topic has not been assigned

If you have not been assigned a topic, then the whole world lies before you. Sometimes that makes
the task of starting even more intimidating. Actually this means that you are frees to choose a topic
of interest to you, which will make your essay a stronger one. The following steps can be a useful
guideline:

Define your purpose- The first thing you must do is think about the purpose of the essay
you must write: Is your purpose to persuade people to believe as you do, or to explain to
people how to complete a particular task, or to educate people about some person, place or
thing or idea, or something else entirely? Whatever topic you choose must fit that purpose.

Brainstorm subjects of interest-Once you have identified the purpose of your essay, write
down some subjects that interest you. No matter what the type of your essay is an endless
number of topics will be suitable.

If you have trouble thinking of subjects, start by looking around you. Is there anything in you
surrounding that interest you? Think about your life. What occupies most of your time? That
might make for a good topic. Do not evaluate the subject yet; just write down anything hat
springs to mind.

Evaluate each potential topic- If you can think of at least a few topics that would be
appropriate, you must simply consider each one individually. Think about how you feel about
that topic. If you must educate, be sure it is a subject about which you are particularly well
informed. If you must persuade, be sure it is a subject about which you are at least
moderately passionate. Of course, the most important factor in choosing a topic is the
number of ideas you have about the topic.

Even if none of the subjects you thought of seem particularly appealing, try just choosing
one to work with. It may turn out to be a better topic than you at first thought.

Before you are ready to move on in the essay writing process, look one more time at the
topic you have selected. Think about the type of paper you are expected to produce. Should

45
 it be a general overview, or a specific analysis of the topic? If it should be an overview, then
you are ready to move to the next step. If it should be a specific analysis, make sure your
topic is fairly specific. If it is too general, you must choose a narrower subtopic to discuss.

For example, the topic “Malawi” is a general one. If your objective is to write an overview,
this topic is suitable. If your objective is a specific analysis, this topic is too general. You
must narrow it to something like “Politics in Malawi” or “Malawi’s Culture.”

B. Organize your ideas

The purpose of an outline or diagram is to put your ideas about the topic on paper in a
moderately organized format. The structure you create here, may still change before the
essay is complete, so do not agonize over this.

Decide whether you prefer the cut-and-dried structure of an outline or a more flowing
structure. If you start one or the other and decide it is not working for you, you can always
switch later.

Cut and Dried Structure Outline

1. Begin your diagram with a circle or a horizontal line or whatever shape you prefer in the
middle page.
2. Inside the shape or on the line, write your topic.
3. From you center shape or line; draw three of four lines out in to the page. Be sure to
spread them out.
4. At the end of each of these lines, draw another circle or horizontal line or whatever
shapes you drew in the center of the page.
5. In each shape or on each line; write the main ideas that you have about your topic, or
the main points that you want to make.

46
  If you are trying to persuade, you want to write your best arguments.
 If you are trying to explain process, you want to write the steps that should be
followed. You will probably need to group these in to categories. If you have trouble
grouping the steps in to categories, try use Beginning, Middle and End.
 If you are trying to inform, you will want to write the major categories in to which
your information can be divided.

6. From each of your main ideas, draw three or four lines out in to the page.
7. At the end of each of these lines, draw another circle or horizontal line or whatever you
drew in the center of the page.
8. In each shape or on each line, write the facts or information that supports that main idea.

When you have finished, you have the basic structure of your essay and you are ready
to continue!!!

Cut and dried structure Diagrammatic representation

Above: An example of cut and dried structure. The Blue box is the middle, in which you
have your topic. Another way could involve drawing a tree structure.

C. Compose a thesis statement- Now that you have decided, at least tentatively what
information you plan to present in you essay, you are ready to write your thesis statement.

The thesis statement tells the reader what the essay will be about and what point, you the
author, will be making. You know what the essay will be about. That was your topic. Now

47
 you must look at your outline or diagram and decide what point you will be making. What do
the main ideas and supporting ideas that you listed say about your topic.

You’re thesis statement will have two parts:

The first part states the topic:

 Malawi’s Culture
 Building a Model Train Set
 Public Transportation
 Challenges facing the University of Malawi

The second part states the point of the essay:

 has a rich and varied history.

 takes time and patience.
 can solve some of our city’s most persistent and pressing problems.
 have increased.

Or in the second part you could simply list the main ideas you will discuss:

 has a long history, blends traditions from several other cultures, and provides a rich
heritage.
 requires an investment in time, patience and materials.
 helps with traffic congestion, resource management and the city’s budget.
 include lack of infrastructure, lack of teaching and learning materials and
inconsistent academic calendars.

Once you have formulated a thesis statement that fits this pattern and with which you are
comfortable, you are ready to continue.

D. Write the introduction of the essay- The following are some guidelines on how you
can make the beginning of your essay interesting to your readers:

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1. Begin with an attention grabber

The attention grabber you use is up to you. But here are some ideas:

Startling information- This information must be true and verifiable and it does
not need to be totally new to your readers. It could simply be a pertinent fact
that explicitly illustrates the point you wish to make.

If you use a piece of startling information, follow it with a sentence or two of

elaboration.

E.g. Patience obviously pays. After standing in the queue for almost four hours,
I contemplated about leaving the audition hall as many people left. Suddenly, a
man came and announced that they had hired a number of judges in order to
speed up the interviews.

An Anecdote- is a story that illustrates a point. Be sure your anecdote is short,

to the point and relevant to your topic. This can be a very effective opener for
your essay, but use it carefully.

E.g. John felt confused! Many times, he failed to understand why so many
beautiful girls felt jealousy to each other because of him. Fortunately, one day
he got the answer. Jane told him that he is handsome, intelligent and humble;
many girls see him as potential husband.

Dialogue- An appropriate dialogue does not have to identify the speakers but
the reader must understand the point you are trying to convey. Use only two or
three exchanges between speakers to make your point. Follow the dialogue
with a sentence or two of elaboration.

E.g. “You cannot afford two girl friends.” He said to his friend. “Why not? I have
money and a good car. I have also completed my studies.” He retorted to his
friend. “I think you are misled.” Many young men these days lead reckless lives

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 because of money. However, they forget that having more than one sexual
partner can expose them to HIV.

Summary information-A few sentences explaining your topic in general terms

can lead the reader gently to your thesis. Each sentence should become
gradually more specific, until you reach your thesis.

2. If the attention grabber was only a sentence or two, add one or two more sentences that
will lead the reader from your opening to your thesis statement.
3. Finish the paragraph with your thesis statement.

E. Write the body paragraphs- In the body of the essay, all the preparation up to this
point comes to fruition. The topic you have chosen must now be explained, described, or
argued.
F. Write the conclusion of your essay- The conclusion brings closure to the reader,
summing up your points or proving a final perspective on your topic. All the conclusion needs
is three or four strong sentences, which do not need to follow any set of formula. Simply
review the main points (being careful not to restate them exactly) or briefly describe your
feelings about the topic. Even an anecdote can end your essay in a useful way.

The introduction and the conclusion complete the paragraphs of your essay. Do not stop just
yet! One more step remains before your essay is truly finished!

G. Add the finishing touches- You have now completed all the paragraphs of your essay.
Before you can consider this a finished product, however, you must give some thought to
the formatting and language issues of your paper.

 Check the order of your paragraphs- Look at your paragraphs. Which one is the
strongest? You might want to start with the strongest paragraph, end with the
second strongest, and put the weakest in the middle. Whatever order you decide
on, be sure it makes sense. If your paper is describing a process, you will probably
need to stick to the order in which the steps must be completed.

50
 Check the instructions of the assignment- When you prepare a final draft, you
must be sure to follow all the instructions you have been given.

 Are your margins correct?

 Have you titled it as directed?
 What other information (name, date, etc.) must you include?
 Did you space your lines (double spacing or one and half)?

 Check your writing-Nothing can substitute for revision of your work. By

reviewing what you have done, you can improve weak points that otherwise
would be missed. Read and reread your paper:

 Does it make logical sense? Leave it for few hours and then read it
again. Does it still make logical sense?
 Do the sentences flow smoothly from one another? If not, try adding
some words and phrases to help connect them. Transition words, such
as, “therefore”, “however,” “consequently,” etc. sometimes help. Also,
you might refer in one sentence to a thought in the previous sentence.
This is especially useful when you move from paragraph to another.
 Have you run a spell checker or a grammar checker? These aids
cannot catch every error, but they might catch errors that you have
missed.

Once you have checked your work and perfected

your formatting, your essay is finished!!

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Report writing

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What is a report?

A report is a very formal document that is written for a variety of purposes. Generally, findings
pertaining to a given or specific task are written up in to a report. It should be noted that reports are
considered to be legal documents in the work place and, thus, they need to be precise, accurate and
difficult to misinterpret.

Why are reports written?

 To transmit information to teachers: Teachers may want to evaluate the accuracy and
completeness of your work. Therefore, you need to show that you are thoroughly
acquainted with the material, the information and /or the procedures. Hence, you need to
be thorough, complete and concise.
 To report on tests and experiments in the lab.
 To transmit information to decision makers i.e. experts and technicians, executives and
lay people; in order to help them make decisions and act on the results presented.
Therefore, you need to be concise, thorough and complete.
 To communicate the results of research, fieldwork and other activities; for example,
a research report. Often a research report is the only concrete evidence of your research
and the quality of the research may be judged directly by the quality of the writing and how
well you convey the importance of your findings.

Before you write, ask yourself the following questions:

 Who will read the report?

 In what context will they be reading?
 What do they want to know?
 How should the report be structured?
 What questions will your readers want your communication to answer?
 What additional information do your readers need?

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Where are reports written?

 In academic settings
 In industry and government

More recently, reports and proposal cross the lines between academia, industry and governments,
especially in the area of engagements and not-for –profit organizations relying on grants and other
types of support.

For whom are reports written? Who are your stakeholders?

For teachers

 Who know the field

 Who know more than the writer
 Who can give critical evaluation

For diverse audiences (decision makers: experts and technicians, executives and lay people)

 Some are known and some are unknown to the writer.

 Some know something about the field, but less than the writer.
 Some know very little about the field.
 Some know more than the writer.

Types of reports

 Informal reports
 Short lab reports
 Memo and letter reports
 Formal reports
 Research reports
 Research articles
 Technical reports

54
  Scientific reports
 Field study reports
 Progress reports
 Financial reports
 Case study reports
 Health and safety reports.

Report formats/ structures

Reports have a consistent format that will help you to organize your information clearly. Most reports
contain the same major sections, although the names of the sections vary widely, and sometimes it
is appropriate to omit sections and add others. If you are submitting a research report or lab report
for a class or to an organization, check for specific requirements and guidelines before beginning to
write your report.

How is a report organized?

Remember!

 There is no universally agreed upon format.

 You should follow the format for your course of your company.
 You may construct your own format. If you do, adapt the suggestions below to your needs,
your audience and your situation:

This format should be flexible enough to adjust to your purpose and audience:

WHAT was done (the problem being worked).

HOW it was done (the procedures used).

WHAT the results were

WHAT conclusions can be drawn?

WHAT recommendations can be made?

55
 In academic settings:

You may be asked to include some or all of these parts or others not included here:

Introduction: the purpose, problem and scope.

Apparatus: the equipment and/ or tools used.

Procedures: the methods.

Body: the data obtained, discussed and evaluated.

Conclusions and recommendations.

Laboratory reports: a language and communication perspective

Below is a summary of a short laboratory report, which comprises the section of the report, the
content, the presentation and the language to be taken in to account:

Section What a lab report writer should How the information Language/grammatical
consider should be presented structure
1. Title -What is your experiment called? -phrase or sentence -Noun phrase, e.g.
“Investigating magnetic fields
around electric currents using a
Hall Probe.”

2. Objective -What are the aims of your -Numbered or bulleted (if -Verb infinitive, e.g. “To
experiment? more than one objective) investigate the dependence
and variation of magnetic fields
-What are you trying to achieve by
due to a solenoid carrying a
doing the experiment?
direct current using a Hall
Probe.”

56
3. Theory/ -what is a useful starting point for -paragraph -Present tense (to demonstrate
your reader? the factual or habitual), e.g.
background -Brief
“Toughness is a concept which
-What theory (s) or background
presents the ability or capacity
information does your reader need
of material to absorb energy
to have?
through plastic deformation.”

-Nouns-singular/plural,
countable/uncountable

-articles
4. Experimental -What materials/equipment did you -Numbered -Past passive voice, e.g. “The
Procedures use? beaker was filled with 100mg of
-Factual statements are
water.” Or
-What did you do with them? sequenced logically
-The imperative or the
-What were your methods?
emphatic, e.g. “Fill the beaker
with 100mg of water.”
5. Results -What results did you get? -Numbered -Abbreviations can be used,
e.g. “Fig. 1”
-Brief statements (without
discussion) -Present tense, e.g. “The line
shows a steady rise in
-All visual information, e.g.
temperature.”
tables, figures, diagrams,
graphs, etc. should include: -Present passive voice, e.g.
“The average values are shown
(a) an appropriate and
in Table 5a.”
relevant caption/heading
and (b) a brief description
of what it shows

57
6.Discussion -What have you learnt from these -paragraph format -Present and /or past tense
results? (but should be consistent as
-Discursive
much as possible)
-What do they mean?
-Adjectives, e.g. “The
-How have you analyzed them/
difference between
interpreted them?
smoothness of the copper and
alloy was dramatic.”

-Adverbs’, e.g. “The cooling

process occurred rapidly.”

-Modal + present perfect

passive tense, e.g. “The cables
should have been fixed
Did you experience any carefully.” Or “if the
problems/errors whilst conducting observations had been made
the experiment? What were they by only one person, the
and did you provide suggestions measurements would have
for improvements? been more reliable.”

7.Conclusion -What main assumptions or -Numbered followed by a Comparatives, e.g. “The higher
conclusions are you able to draw short concluding sentence the tensile adhesion, the better
from your experiment? or the performance of the
corrosion protection system.”
-a summary of the results
in one- three sentences

END
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