In this lecture we shall consider mainly the DC motors spead control

using armature voltage control by AC-to-DC converters .These single-

phase and three-phase converters (drives) are shown in Figures
below
 Dual converters
The dual converter consists of two AC-to-DC converters connected in
anti-parallel as shown in Figure. If converter 1 operates, and it gives a
positive output dc voltage (+ Vdc) .However if converter2 operates it
gives negative dc voltage -Vdc. It is important to be noted that, the two
converters must not operate simultaneously to avoid short - circuiting of
the two converters.

The dual converter provides the facility of operation in four quadrants.

If the load is a dc motor, the motor can runs in four modes of operation
as indicated in Figures.
Vdc

Q2 Q1
Idc
Q3 Q4
2.4 Controlled Rectifier Fed DC Drives
Controlled rectifiers are used to get variable dc voltage from an ac source of fixed
voltage. There are several types of converters which can be used for feeding DC motors.
AS thyristors are capable of conducting current in one direction all theses rectifiers are
capable of conducting current only in one direction.
2.4.1 Types of Rectifiers
AC to DC converters
(Or) Rectifiers

Single Phase type Three phase type

Uncontrolled Controlled
(Contains only DIODES) (Contains both SCR and Diodes)

Half Wave Full Wave

(1 Pulse) (2 Pulse)

Half wave full Half wave semi Full wave full Full wave semi
Converters without Converter with Converters without Converter with
Freewheeling Diode Freewheeling Diode FWD FWD

2.4.2 Single Phase rectifier fed separately Excited DC motor drive

The thyristor D.C. drive remains an important speed-controlled industrial
drive, especially where the higher maintenance cost associated with the D.C. motor
brushes is tolerable. The controlled (thyristor) rectifier provides a low-impedance
adjustable ‘D.C.’ voltage for the motor armature, thereby providing speed control. For
motors up to a few kilowatts the armature converter can be supplied from either single-
phase or three-phase mains, but for larger motors three-phase is always used. A separate
thyristor or diode rectifier is used to supply the field of the motor: the power is much less
than the armature power, so the supply is often single-phase. Figure 2.9 shows the setup
for single phase controlled rectifier fed separately excited dc motor drive. Field circuit is
also excited by a dc source, which is not shown in the figure just for simplicity.
 Fig 2.9
The motor terminal voltage waveform and current waveform for the dominant
discontinuous and continuous conduction modes are shown in the figure 2.10(a) and 2.10
(b).Thyristors TA and TB are gated at ωt = α .The SCR’s will get turned on only
if Vm sin α > E . Thyristors TA and TB are given gate pulses from α to π and thyristors TA’

and TB’ are given gate pulses from (π + α ) to 2π . When armature current does not flow
continuously the motor is said to operate in discontinuous conduction mode. When
current flows continuously, the conduction is said to be continuous. In discontinuous
modes, the current starts flowing with the turn on thyristors TA and TB at ωt = α . Motor
gets connected to the source and its terminal voltage equals Vs.
At some angle β known as extinction angle, load current decays to zero.
Here β > π . As TA and TB are reversed biased after ωt = π , this pair is commutated at

ωt = β when Ia=0. From β to (π + α ) , no SCR’s conducts, the terminal voltage jumps

from Vm sin β to E .At ωt = β as pair TA’ and TB’ is triggered, load current starts to build
up again as before and load voltage Va follows Vs waveform as shown in the figure
2.10(a). At (π + β ) , Ia falls to zero, Va changes from Vm sin (π + β ) to E as no SCR
conducts.
 Fig 2.10 (a) Discontinuous Conduction Mode Waveforms

In continuous conduction mode, during the positive half cycle thyristiors TA and TB
are forward biased. At ωt = α , TA and TB are turned ON. As a result, supply voltage
Vm sin α immediately appears across thyristors TA’ and TB’ as a reverse bias, they are

turned off by natural commutation. At ωt = (π + α ) forward biased SCR’s TA’ and TB’
are triggered causing turn off of TA and TB.
 Fig 2.10 (b) Continuous Conduction Waveforms

2.4.2.1Discontinuous Conduction:
The drive operates in two intervals.
a) Conduction period (α ≤ ωt ≤ β ) , TA and TB conduct and V0=Vs.

Also (π + α ) ≤ ωt ≤ (π + β ) , TA’ and TB’ conduct and V0=Vs.

b) Idle period β ≤ ωt ≤ (π + α ) when Ia=0 and Va=E.
Drive operation is described by the following equations
 dia
Va = Ra ia + La + E = Vm sin ωt for α ≤ ωt ≤ β (2.23)
dt
Va = E and i a = 0 for β ≤ ωt ≤ (π + α ) (2.24)
From (2.23) we get
di a Ra V sin ωt − E
= ia = m (2.25)
dt La La
In order to get the speed torque characteristics for different values of α of the controlled
rectifier fed separately excited DC motor, it is necessary to solve the above equation
(2.25). So solving the above equation involves two mathematical steps, one is to evaluate
the complementary solution of the equation (2.25) and particular integral solution of the
equation (2.25).
Solution to Complementary Function:
The complementary function of equation (2.25) is
di a Ra
+ ia = 0
dt La
 d Ra 
 + i a = 0 (2.26)
 dt La 
d  d d
(i.e.)The above equation is of the form  + m1  = 0 where represents and m1
 dx  dx dt
Ra d 
represents . Roots of the equation  + m1  = 0 is D=-m1. Therefore the roots of the
La  dx 
Ra d 
equation 2.26 is m = - . If the roots of the equation  + m1  = 0 is real than the
La  dx 

complementary function is given by, C.F = C1e mx therefore complementary function of

the equation (2.26) is given by,
R
− at
L
C.F = C e a (2.27)
1
We know that for an RL circuit Z=R+jXL
ωLa
∴ tan φ =
Ra
Ra
⇒ cot φ =
ωLa
Ra
⇒ ω cot φ =
La
Substituting the above relation in equation (2.27) we get,
− ωt cot φ
C.F. = C e (2.28)
1
Therefore the complementary function solution of the equation (2.25) is as given in
equation (2.28). The next step is to find the particular integral solution of equation (2.25).
In the expression (2.25) there are two Particular Integrals they are
Vm sin ωt E
P.I1= and the other one is P.I2= −
La La
Let us fine the solution of particular integrals one by one.
Solution to Particular Integral 1:
If X is sin (aX) or cos (aX) then the solution of P.I can be found out by
1
PI= sin aX and replace D2 by –a2
f ( D)
Therefore P.I 1 can be written as,
 
 
PI1 =   Vm sin ωt Where D = d and a= ω
1
 Ra L dt
D+  a
 La 
Multiplying and dividing by the conjugate in the above expression we get,
 R 
 D − a 
 La   Vm 
PI1 =  sin ωt 
 R  R  L
 D + a  D − a   a 
 La  La 

 
  D − Ra  sin ωt 
V  La  
= m  2 
La   R  
 D −  L  
2 a

  a 
replace D 2 = −ω 2 in the above expression we get,
   
  D − Ra  sin ωt 
V  La  
∴ PI1 = m   2 
La  Ra 
 − ω 2
− 2 
 La 
 Ra 
 D sin ωt − sin ωt 
V La
= m 
La  ω La − Ra 2 
2 2

 − 2 
 La 
 Ra 
 cos ωt.ω − sin ωt 
V La  since D = d
= m
La  ω La − Ra
2 2 2
 dt
 − 2 
 La 
 
 
V cos ωt.ωLa − Ra sin ωt 
= m2 
La  ω 2 La − Ra 
2 2

 − 2 
 La 
 ωL cos ωt − R sin ωt 
= - Vm  a 2 2 a 2
 (ω La + Ra ) 

(2.29)

Now let us consider a triangle as shown in the figure 2.11

(ωLa )2 + Ra 2
ωLa

φ
Ra

Fig 2.11
Ra ωLa
From the above figure cos φ = and sin φ =
(ωLa )2 + Ra 2 (ωLa )2 + Ra 2
Substituting the above two relation in equation (2.29) we get
 Vm  ωLa Ra 
=−  cos ωt − sin ωt 
(ωLa )2 + Ra 2 
 (ωLa )2 + Ra 2 (ωLa )2 + Ra 2 

Vm
=− [sin φ. cos ωt − cos φ .sin ωt ]
Z
Vm
= [cos φ. sin ωt − sin φ . cos ωt ]
Z
V
= m [sin (ωt − φ )] (2.30)
Z
Solution to Particular Integral 2:
1  E 
PI 2 = − 
 Ra   La 
 D + 
 La 
1  E 0 ia 
= − e  Q D = 0
 Ra   La 
 D + 
 La 
1  E  E
=  −  = − (2.31)
Ra  La  Ra
La
So combining equations (2.28), (2.30) and (2.31) gives the solution of equation (2.25)
Vm E
ia (ωt ) = sin (ωt − φ ) − + C1e −ωt cot φ (2.32)
Z Ra
Where Z = R a + (ωLa )
2 2
(2.33)
 ωLa 
φ = tan −1   (2.34)
R
 a 
constant C1 can be evaluated by using the initial condition i a (α ) = 0 and ωt = 0

V E
C1 = −  m sin (α − φ ) −  e α cot φ (2.35)
Z Ra 

Substituting (2.35) in (2.32) we get,

 Vm E  Vm E
ia = sin (ωt − φ ) − −  sin (α − φ ) −  e −(ωt −α ) cot φ (2.36)
Z Ra  Z Ra 
since i a (β ) = 0 from (2.36)
Vm E  Vm E
i a (β ) = sin (β − φ ) − −  sin (α − φ ) −  e −( β −α ) cot φ (2.37)
Z Ra  Z Ra 
β can be evaluated by iterative solution of (2.37)
Va = E + I a Ra (2.38)
From discontinuous waveforms
1 
β π +α
Va = ∫ m
V sin ω t d (ωt ) + ∫β E d (ω t )
π α 

=
Vm
[cos α − cos β ] + (π + α − β )E [Q ∫ sin θdθ = cos θ ] (2.39)
π π
From equations (2.38) and (2.39)
Vm  β −α 
[cos α − cos β ] − I a Ra
= E  (2.40)
π  π 
Substituti ng (2.6) and (2.8) in (2.40)
Vm  β −α 
[cos α − cos β ] − T
Ra = K ω m   [Where K = K a φ ]
π K  π 
 β − α  Vm
ωm  = [cos α − cos β ] − T2 Ra
 π  Kπ K

ωm =
Vm
[cos α − cos β ] − T2 .Ra . π
K (β − α ) K (β − α )
Vm  cos α − cos β  Ra π
ωm =   − 2 T (2.41)
K  ( β − α )  K (β − α )
For a given α , there is a particular speed ω mc when β = π + α , indicating that at ω mc , the

mode of operation changes from discontinuous to continuous. ω mc is called as critical

speed. Substituting β = π + α in equation (2.37) we get,

Vm E V m E
sin (π + α − φ ) − −  sin (α − φ ) −  e −(π +α −α ) cot φ (2.42)
Z Ra  Z Ra 
V E Vm E −π cot φ
− m sin (α − φ ) − − sin (α − φ )e −π cot φ + e =0 (2.43)
Z Ra Z Ra
−
Vm
Z
[
sin (α − φ ) 1 + e −π cot φ +
Ra
e ]
E −π cot φ
[
−1 = 0 ]
[
E −π cot φ
Ra
e
V
]
− 1 = m sin (α − φ ) 1 + e −π cot φ
Z
[ ]
Ra 1 + e −π cot φ 
E= Vm sin (α − φ ) −π cot φ  (2.44)
Z e − 1
E = Kω mc
Ra 1 + e −π cot φ 
ω mc = Vm sin (α − φ ) −π cot φ  (2.45)
KZ e − 1
Continuous Conduction Mode
For continuous conduction, average output voltage is given by,
π +α
1
Va = ∫V sin ωtd (ωt ) (2.46)
π
m
α

2Vm
Va = cos α (2.47)
π
2Vm R
ωM = cos α − a2 T (2.48)
πK K

Fig 2.12
2.4.3 Three Phase Fully Controlled rectifier fed separately Excited DC motor drive

Three phase controlled rectifiers are used in large power DC motor drives. Three
phase controlled rectifier gives more number of voltage pulses per cycle of supply
frequency. This makes motor current continuous and filter requirement also less

The number of voltage pulses per cycle depends upon the number of thyristors
and their connections for three phase controlled rectifiers. In three phase drives,
the armature circuit is connected to the output of a three phase controlled rectifier.

Three phase drives are used for high power applications up to mega watts power
level. The ripple frequency of the armature voltage is higher than that of the
single phase drives and it requires less inductance in the armature circuit to reduce
the armature current ripple.

Three phase full converters are used in industrial applications up to 1500KW
drives. It is a two quadrant converter. i.e. the average output voltage is either
positive or negative but average output current is always positive.

2.4.3.1 Principle of Operation:

Three phase full converter bridge circuit connected across the armature terminals
is shown in the figure 2.13 and figure 2.14 shows the voltage and current waveforms
of the converter. The circuit works as a three phase AC to DC converter for firing
angle delay 0 0 < α < 90 0 and as a line commutated inverter for 90 0 < α < 180 0 . A
three phase full converter fed DC motor is performed where regeneration of power is
required i.e. it performs two quadrant operation.

Figure 2.13

Basically, the controlled rectifier consists of six thyristors arranged in the form of
three legs with two series thyristors in each leg. The center points of three legs are
connected to a three-phase power supply. The transformer is not mandatory, but it
provides the advantages of voltage level change, electrical isolation, and phase shift from
the primary. In a three-phase bridge, one device in the positive group (Q1 Q3 Q5) and
another device from the negative group (Q4 Q6 Q2) must conduct simultaneously to
contribute load current id. Each thyristor is normally provided with pulse train firing for
the desired conduction interval. The speed of the motor can be controlled by firing angle
control of the thyristors.

Fig 2.14 Three-phase thyristor bridge waveforms in rectification mode ( α = 40°)

 Fig 2.15 Three-phase thyristor bridge waveforms inverting mode ( α = 150°)
The average motor armature voltage is given by

π
+α
2
3
Va =
π π
∫V ab d (ωt ) (2.49)
+α
6

 π
In the above substitute Vab = 3Vm sin  ωt + d (ωt ) (2.50)
 6
3 3
We have Va = Vm cos α (2.51)
π
2.4.3.2 Speed Torque Relations:
The drive speed is given by
Va = E b + I a Ra Where E b = K aφω

Then Va = K aφω m + I a Ra

Va − I a R a
ωm = (2.52)
K aφ

In separately excited DC motor K aφI a = T therefore (2.52) becomes

Va Ra
ωm = - T (2.53)
K aφ (K a φ )2
 Fig 2.16
2.5 Chopper Fed DC drives
 A chopper is a static device that converts fixed DC input voltage to a variable dc
output voltage directly
 A chopper is a high speed on/off semiconductor switch which connects source to
load and disconnects the load from source at a fast speed.
 Choppers are used to get variable dc voltage from a dc source of fixed voltage.
Self commutated devices such as MOSFET’s, Power transistors, IGBT’s, GTO’s
and IGCT’s are used for building choppers because they can be commutated by a
low power control signal and do not need communication circuit and can be
operated at a higher frequency for the same rating.
 Chopper circuits are used to control both separately excited and Series circuits.
2.5.1 Advantages of Chopper Circuits
Chopper circuits have several advantages over phase controlled converters
1. Ripple content in the output is small. Peak/average and rms/average current ratios
are small. This improves the commutation and decreases the harmonic heating of
the motor.
 2. The chopper is supplied from a constant dc voltage using batteries. The problem
of power factor does not occur at all. The conventional phase control method
suffers from a poor power factor as the angle is delayed.
3. Current drawn by the chopper is smaller than in phase controlled converters.
4. Chopper circuit is simple and can be modified to provide regeneration and the
control is also simple.
2.5.2 Chopper Controlled Separately Excited DC motor
If the source of supply is D.C. (for example in a battery vehicle or a rapid transit
system) a chopper-type converter is usually employed. The chopper-fed motor is, if
anything, rather better than the phase-controlled, because the armature current ripple can
be less if a high chopping frequency is used.
2.5.2.1 Motoring Mode of Operation
A transistor is used to chop the DC input voltage in to pieces and chopped DC
voltage is given to the motor as shown in the figure 2.17. Current limit control is used in
chopper. In current limit control, the load current is allowed to vary between two given
limits (i.e. Upper and lower limits). The ON and OFF times of the transistor is adjusted
automatically, when the current increases beyond the upper limit the chopper is turned
off, the load current free wheels and starts to decrease. When the current falls below the
lower limit the chopper is turned ON. The current starts increasing if the load. The load
current and voltage waveforms are shown in the figure 2.18. By assuming proper limits
of current, the amplitude of ripple can be controlled.

Fig 2.17 Fig 2.18

The lower the current ripple, the higher the chopper frequency. By this switching
losses increase. Discontinuous conduction avoid in this case. The current limit control is
superior one.
Duty Interval
During the ON period of the chopper (i.e) duty interval 0 <t<tON, motor terminal voltage
Va is a source voltage V and armature current increases from ia1 to ia2. The operation is
describe by,
dia
R a I a + La + E = V 0 ≤ t ≤ t ON (2.54)
dt
In this interval the armature current increases from Ia1 to Ia2 since the motor is connected
to the source during this interval, it is called as duty cycle.
Free Wheeling Interval
Chopper Tr is turned off at t=tON. Motor current free wheels through the diode D
and the motor terminal voltage is zero. During interval t ON ≤ t ≤ T . Motor operation
during this interval is known as free wheeling interval and is described by
di a
R a I a + La + E = 0 t ON ≤ t ≤ T (2.55)
dt
During this interval current decreases from ia2 to ia1
Duty cycle (or) Duty Ratio:
Duty cycle is defined as the ratio of duty interval tON to chopper period T is called Duty
cycle (or) Duty Ratio.
Duty Interval t
δ= = ON (2.56)
Chopper Period T
From figure 2.18
t
1 ON
Va = ∫ Vdt (2.57)
T 0

Solving the above,

∫ dt = T [t ]
tON
V V t ON tON
Va = =V (2.58)
T 0
0 T
Va = δV (2.59)
Then the speed of the chopper drive can be obtained as
Va = E + I a R a
Substituting Va from equation (2.59) in the above equation we get,
δV = E + I a Ra (2.60)

Substituting E = Kω m we get
 δV − Kω m
Ia = (2.61)
Ra
From above equation we get

δV I a Ra
ωm = − (2.62)
K K
Substituting T = KφI a in above equation we get

δV Ra
ωm = − T (2.63)
K K 2φ
The torque speed characteristics of chopper fed separately excited DC motor is shown in
the figure 2.19

Fig 2.19
2.5.2.2 Regenerative Braking Mode
Regenerative braking operation by chopper is shown in the figure 2.20. Regenerative
braking of a separately excited motor is fairly simple and can be carried out down to very
low speeds.

Fig 2.20 Fig 2.21

In regenerative mode, the energy of the load is fed back to the supply system. The
DC motor works as a generator during this mode. As long as the chopper is ON the
mechanical energy is converted in to electrical energy by the motor, now working as a
generator, increases the stored magnetic energy in the armature circuit. When chopper is
switched off, a large voltage appears across the motor terminals this voltage is more than
that of the supply voltage V and the energy stored in the inductance and energy supplied
by the machine is fed back to the supply system. When the voltage of the motor fall to V,
the diodes in the line blocks the current flow preventing any short circuit of the load can
be supplied to the source. Very effective braking of motor is possible up to extreme small
speeds.
Energy Storage Interval
The stored energy and energy supplied by the machine is fed to the source. The
interval 0 <t<tON is now called energy storage interval and interval t ON ≤ t ≤ T is the duty
interval.
T − tON
Here duty ratio δ = (2.64)
T
From figure 2.21

∫ dt = T [t]
T T
1 V V V
(T - t ON )
T
Va = ∫
T tON
Vdt =
T t ON
t ON
=
T
(2.65)

 T − t ON   t 
Va = V   = V 1 − ON  (2.66)
 T   T 
Therefore the speed torque relations under braking operation is given as

ωm =
(1 − δ )V −
Ra
T (2.67)
K K 2φ
2.5.3 Chopper control of DC series motor

The speed of this drive ω m can be derived from the following equation

E = Va + I a Ra but Va = δV
∴ E = δV + I a Ra K aωm = δV + I a Ra
δV + I a Ra
ωm =
Ka