IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

Memory, schema theory and their reliability

Orientation to cognitive approach to behaviour

TASK: analysis of sensory input (PP)

TASK: what is possible for human information processing? (PP)

Cognitive approach

 Researches human information processing

o Basically, cognitive approach focuses on mental (cognitive) processes =>
what happens in our mind when we process information?
 Cognition:
o ”All the processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced,
elaborated, stored, recovered and used” (Ulric Neisser, 1967)
 Cognitive processes include i.a. perception, thinking, problem-solving, memory,
decision-making, language, imagination and attention
o IB psychology focuses on memory, thinking and decision making

TASK: five steps in the history of cognitive approach (PP)

All steps make a spiral pattern. Each next step identifies an issue with the previous one
and suggests an improvement. Stages have NOT replaced one another. They have
formed their own independent areas of research.

1
 IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

Principles of the cognitive approach to behaviour

 Mental processes can be studied scientifically

 Mental representations guide behaviour
 Cognitive processes do NOT function in isolation
o Cognitive processes are related to emotion, behaviour and the stimuli of
the situation or environment
 Biases in cognitive processing can be systematic and predictable

Computer metaphor in cognitive psychology

 Hardware: brains
 Software: mental representations
 Input => processing => output
o In every case, humans are seen as active information processors

Research methods in cognitive psychology:

 Research methods include i.a. lab experiments, field experiments, observations

and neuroimaging technologies
 Based on the acquired data, models of cognitive functions are created, elaborated
or rejected

Models of memory: study TWO models of memory

What is a model?

 Physical representation what a psychological phenomenon could look like

o Is mostly based on a theory
 Hypothetical construct => should not be mistaken with the real thing
 Memory models provide a framework for an understanding of conceptualization
of human memory processes over time

2
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

3
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

The multi-store model of memory (Atkinson and Shiffrin, 1968)

 This model was one of the first to give an overview of the basic structure or
architecture of memory and was inspired by computer science
o The model seems to be quite simplistic, but it did spark off the idea of
humans as information processors => cognitive psychology
o It has been one of the most influential models in describing the human
memory systems
 Overall, the multi-store model of memory presents the structure of memory as
consisting of three separate stores and the process of how information flows
from one store to another
o Information flows from SM to STM via attention and from STM to LTM
via rehearsal
o Not all information can be retrieved back from LTM to STM
 Human memory consists of three components, systems or stores:
o (1) Sensory memory (SM)
o (2) Short-term memory (STM)
o (3) Long-term memory (LTM)
 Systems differ in:
o (1) duration
o (2) capacity
o (3) conditions required to move to the next store
 Moreover, the components differ in neurophysiological functioning and
localization
o Sensory memory, iconic memory: occipital lobe
o Sensory memory, echoic memory: temporal lobes
o Short-term memory: pre-frontal lobe
o Long-term memory: association areas in the parietal lobe (?)
o Consolidating memories from the STM to LTM: rehearsal in the pre-
frontal lobe and hippocampus
o Emotional memories: amygdala in the limbic system
o Skills: basal ganglia and cerebellum

4
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

TASK: duration, capacity and conditions (IBPsyMSMMTask.pdf)

TASK: Sperling’s test (1960) (PP)

 In the original study the grid was flashed up to 50 milliseconds (0.05 seconds,
blink of an eye, a snap of the fingers)
 In the whole-report condition an empty grid and participants were required to
fill out the entire grid with all the characters in their right place
o Participants were able to recall 35% of characters
 In the partial-report condition participants were only required to recall only
one of the rows in the grid, just like in the teacher’s example
o Participants were able to recall 75–100% of the characters
 After we have been presented with a visual stimulus, its trace stays in memory
for a brief period of time as a complete set => if attended to, some parts can be
consolidated and transferred into the STM

TASK: Glanzer and Cunitz (1966)

 AIM: How does interfering filler activity influence the serial position effect?
o Serial position effect = the tendency to recall the first and the last items
on a list better than items in the middle
 PROCEDURE: Repeated measures design experiment with 46 army men
o A series of 15-word lists was read out to participants
o After hearing the words participants were required to do a free-recall task
o There were three conditions: (1) immediately after hearing the words on
the list, (2) filler activity (counting out loud backwards from a random
number for 10 seconds), then free recall (3) same filler activity, but for
30 seconds
o Each participant was given 15 lists, 5 for each 3 conditions
o The order of the conditions was random
o DV was the proportion of words correctly recalled, separately for each of
the 15 positions of the word on the list

5
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

 RESULTS: In the condition without the filler task, both aspects of the serial
position could be observed => primacy effect (remembering the start of list
better) and recency effect (remembering the end of the list better)
o With the filler task conditions the primacy effect stayed, but the recency
effect disappeared, more so with the 30 second filler task condition than
in the 10 second filler task condition
 CONCLUSION: The results fit well with the multi-store model of memory
o STM and LTM are separate stores within the memory
o Information moves from STM to LTM if it is rehearsed, but gradually
decays if it is not
o The duration of STM is around 30 seconds

Main criticism (5) of multi-store model of memory

 (1) Too much emphasis on structure, not enough on processes

o Understanding the flow of information should be more important than
how many components there might be in the memory
 (2) Rote rehearsal as the only way to transfer information from the STM to LTM
seems to be oversimplifying => ignores various strategies that may enhance
memorization
o Craik and Lockhart (1972) proposed levels of processing (LOP) model
of memory: information undergoes a series of levels of processing => the
deeper the information is processed, the better it is remembered => see
Craig and Tulving (1975) below
 (3) It only explains the flow of information in one direction, from STM to LTM
o Chunking (Miller, 1956) requires memories from the LTM
o Semantic processing (Craik and Lockhart, 1972; Craig and Tulving,
1975) requires memories from the LTM as well (categorization)
o There seems to be stronger bidirectional flow of information than the
multi-store model of memory suggests

6
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

 (4) LTM might not be a unitary store of memories and studies on amnesia seem
to support these different kind of memory systems within LTM
o Episodic memory: memory of (life) events
o Procedural memory: how-to or know-how memory
o Semantic memory: general knowledge
 (5) Like LTM, the unitary view of STM might be too simplistic as well
o Working memory model and Baddeley and Hitch (1974)

Craig and Tulving (1975)

 AIM: How does the level of information processing affect retrieval?

 PROCEDURE: In a repeated measures design experiment, participants were
shown words for 200ms
o After each word, they were asked one of three types of yes-or-no
questions, each related to different level of processing: (1) structural (“is
the word in capital letters?”) , (2) phonetic (“does the word rhyme with
weight?” or (3) semantic (“is the word a type of fish?”) processing
o After asking the question, participants were required to press either “yes”
or “no” button to indicate their response
o After all the questions the participants were given a recall task in one
way or another where they had to remember as many words as possible
 RESULTS: recall was much better with semantic processing
o 16% for structural processing
o 57% for phonetic processing
o 83% for semantic processing
 CONCLUSION: consolidation of memories is NOT only due to rote rehearsal
o LTM is also influenced HOW the information was processed at the stage
of encoding => limitation of the multi-store model of memory

7
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

Evaluation of the multi-store model of memory

 Strengths
o Pioneered a new approach to memory where humans are seen as
information processors => highly influential
o The conceptualisation is supported by research for the most part
o It has been possible to make predictions based on the model and to
design experiments => it can explain a lot with only few parts
o It has been possible to update the model keeping the original model
almost intact => working memory model and Baddeley and Hitch (1974)
 Limitations
o Too simplistic => cannot take into account the interaction between the
different components well enough
o LTM and STM are not as unitary as the multi-store memory model
suggests
o (See the five points of criticism above)

Working memory model (Baddeley and Hitch, 1974)

 The working memory model was developed based on the phenomena that did
not fit well with the view of STM as a unitary system as the multi-store model of
memory model implied
o In dual-task techniques participants are required to perform two
memory operations simultaneously => listen to a list of words and
memorize a series of geometrical stimuli
o Sometimes simultaneous task does NOT interfere with memory
performance => different modalities, like auditory stimuli and visual
stimuli might have different structures within the STM
 The working memory model is essentially a zoom-in on the different structures
the STM might have

8
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

TASK: Structures in the working memory model

 (1) The visuospatial sketchpad, “the inner eye”

o Holds visual and spatial information, e.g., rolls 3D images in the mind
 (2) The phonological loop
o Holds auditory information, e.g., music, sounds and voices in the mind
o “The inner ear” holds sounds in passive manner
o Articulatory rehearsal component, “the inner voice” rewords,
reiterates, or recycles the sounds and information in an active manner,
e.g., turns visual language into speech => can change the modality of
perceived speech (from visual to auditory)
 (3) The central executive
o Responsible for allocation of resources between visuospatial sketchpad
and the phonological loop
 (4) The episodic buffer (added later to the model)
o Integrates information from visuospatial sketchpad and the phonological
loop and encodes information to LTM

TASK: Evidence for the working memory model as checkpoints DO THIS SOME DAY
YOU CAN ALSO ELABORATE THE PRESENT TASK IN THE PP
 The evidence is, for the most part, derived from research where dual-tasks
techniques or experiments have been implemented
o The underlying assumption is that if two tasks are performed
simultaneously, it is possible to perform well if two separate systems are
used => if concurrent tasks use the same system, it will hinder the
performance remarkably
 Conrad and Hull (1964) – Phonological similarity effect
o Participants were required to recall lists of letters
o Lists that were phonologically similar (B, D, C, G, P) were more
difficult to remember than lists that were not (F, H, P, R, X)
o Similar sounding letters are encoded acoustically in the similar way and
that is why they can be confused with one another

9
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

 Baddeley and Hitch (1974) – Articulatory suppression

o Participants were required to answer increasingly difficult questions
about simple letter combinations that were shown at the same time
o Reaction time increased as the questions become more difficult
o Next the participants did an articulatory suppression task (repeating
“the” all the time, repeating numbers 1-6 or repeating random numbers)
while answering the questions
o There was no difference in reaction times between the “the” group and
number repeat group
o The random number group got the worst scores => This was interpreted
as an overload problem for the central executive

 Baddeley, Thompson and Buchanan (1975) – The word length effect

o The capacity of STM is greater for short words than for long words
o Articulation patterns of longer words are also longer => in given time
one can pronounce fewer long words than short ones in STM

 Baddeley, Lewis and Vallar (1984) – Articulatory suppression on the

phonological similarity effect
o Participants were presented with lists of rhyming words and non-
rhyming words with spoken mode of presentation or with written mode
of presentation under articulatory suppression => overall there were four
conditions:

o There was a phonological similarity effect between conditions 1 and 2

but not between conditions 3 and 4

10
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

o When articulatory rehearsal is inhibited, spoken information can still

enter the phonological store (“the inner ear”) directly => Since rhyming
words sound similar and create similar traces, these traces are easier to
confuse => phonological similarity effect
o Written information can also enter working memory, but it does not
record it into sounds => written information enters the visuospatial
sketchpad => since information is coded visually, the traced are not
confused that easily => NO phonological similarity effect

 Baddeley (1996) – Attentional switches and the central executive

o Underlying assumption: since the function of the central executive is to
distribute and switch attention, it should be inhibited by tasks that require
attentional switches, and, at the same time it should not be inhibited by
tasks that don NOT require attentional switches
o Participants were required to produce random sequences of digits by
pressing a keyboard keys at the rate of on per second, determined by a
metronome => participants were required to produce sequences of 100
digits overall
o To produce random sequence of digits, one has to use one’s attention in
order to take into account the previous digits that have been selected
o DV: randomness of digit sequence => the more random the sequence, the
better the central executive performed at controlling this cognitive task
o Simultaneously, participants were required to engage in one of the
following tasks (the IVs): (1) recite the alphabet, (2) count and (3)
alternate between letter and numbers (A, 1, B, 2, C, 3 etc.)
o Reciting the alphabet and counting the numbers had NO detectable effect
on the randomness of the digits, the concurrent alternation task between
the alphabet and counting markedly reduced randomness
o Constant switching of retrieval plans is performed by a separate memory
system, the central executive

11
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

 Quinn and McConnel (1996) – Imagery vs. rehearsal in learning words

o The participants were required to learn a list of words by using either
imagery or rehearsal
o The task was performed on its own in the presence of concurrent visual
noise (changing patterns of dots) or concurrent verbal noise (speech in
foreign language)
o Learning words by imagery was NOT affected by concurrent visual task,
but was affected by concurrent visual task
o The opposite was found out to be true in the rehearsal condition
o Imagery processing uses the visuospatial sketchpad whereas verbal
processing uses the phonological loop => if two tasks uses the same
component in the working memory, performance deteriorates
o The supports the idea that there are two different modality-specific
systems with limited capacity in our working memory

TASK: Evaluation of the working memory model

 Strengths
o Explanatory power => helps us to explain a range of observed memory
phenomena that cannot be explained by the multi-store memory model,
e.g. the phonological similarity effect and the disappearance of both
under articulatory suppression
o Have shown to be useful in understanding which parts of the memory
system may be linked to underlying problems in reading and
mathematical skills
o Focuses on the processes of integrating information rather than on the
isolation of the sub-systems => helps us to understand the complexity of
the working memory
 Limitations
o Complexity => the role of the parts is not always clear
o Parts of the model are hard to test empirically in its entirety
o Focuses only on STM and not to its relationships with other memory
systems such as LTM

12
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen
o Puts too much emphasis on structure rather than processing

Biological base of memory

REVIEW: what was meant by synapse and neuroplasticity?

Long-term potentiation

 Strengthening of synapses based on frequent activation

 Produces a long-lasting increase in information transmission between neurons

VIDEO: Khan Academy on LTP

 If neural connections are not used, they become weaker => Long-term
depression (LTD) => ”Use it or lose it”

TASK: Maguire et al (2000) study (PP)

 AIM: Is the brain of the London taxi drivers different from the average brain?
 PROCEDURE: Quasi-experiment (comparison of two pre-existing groups) and
correlational study (brain mass vs. taxi driving experience in London)
o MRI scans of London taxi drivers and controls were compared and
analysed (experimental group: 16 right-handed male taxi drivers with an
average of 14.3 years of taxi driving experience in London; control
group: 50 healthy right-handed males who did not drive a taxi)
 RESULTS: The taxi drivers had different hippocampus structure than the
controls; Differences in hippocampus structure were found between the taxi
drivers and controls
o The “balance” of parts of the HC were different: posterior parts were
bigger and anterior parts were smaller than in controls
o The differences were larger the longer a participant had worked as a taxi
driver; These differences were more pronounced for cabbies who had
worked longer

13
 IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

Evaluation

 Not a purely experimental study, only a quasi-experimental study: simple

comparison between pre-existing groups, BUT structural differences likely to be
caused by working as a taxi driver because the extent of differences increased
with time working as a cabbie
 Later studies measured hippocampus volume before, during and after acquiring
“the Knowledge”
 Sample: quite a small number of taxi drivers (16), only male participants
 Findings are in line with the assumption that hippocampus is involved in spatial
navigation and memory processing

Maguire et al. (2006): London taxi drivers and bus drivers

 AIM: Grey matter differences could result from using and updating spatial
representations, they might instead be influenced by factors such as self-motion,
driving experience, and stress => what influences grey matter differences?
 PROCEDURE: Maguire et al examined the contribution of these factors by
comparing London taxi drivers with London bus drivers, who were matched for
driving experience and levels of stress, but differed in that they follow a
constrained set of routes
 RESULTS: Taxi drivers had greater grey matter volume in mid-posterior
hippocampi and less volume in anterior hippocampi => years of navigation
experience correlated with hippocampal grey matter volume only in taxi drivers,
with right posterior grey matter volume increasing and anterior volume
decreasing with more navigation experience
 CONCLUSIONS: Spatial knowledge, and not stress, driving, or self-motion, is
associated with the pattern of hippocampal grey matter volume in taxi drivers
 Functional differences between the groups was tested: ability to acquire new
visuo-spatial information was worse in taxi drivers than in bus drivers
 Complex spatial representation, which facilitates expert navigation and is
associated with greater posterior hippocampal grey matter volume, might come
at a cost to new spatial memories and grey matter volume in the anterior
hippocampus
14
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

Forms of amnesia

 Amnesia
o General term for memory dysfunctions caused by brain damage
 Anterograde amnesia
o Failure to store memories after the trauma
 Retrograde amnesia
o Failure to recall memories before the trauma

VIDEO: Clive Wearing

VIDEO: HM

 Dementia
o General term for illnesses where mental capacities are deteriorated
 Alzheimer’s disease
o Most common form of dementia where semantic and episodic memories
are decreased

15
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

Schema theory

 Cognitive schemas (or schemata): mental representations (of knowledge) that

organize our knowledge, beliefs, and expectations
o Patterns of knowledge concerning self, and/or environment => stable
deeply rooted and organized
o Networks of knowledge, beliefs and expectations about particular aspects
of the world => guide our behaviour
o Reality is perceived and information is processed through schemas
 Cycle of perception
o Schemas are in constant change => Ulric Neisser’s cycle of perception
explains how => Constant interaction with the environment through
perception => New information is combined with the old (assimilation)
or new information modifies existing schemas (accommodation).

Study ONE example of schema theory: schemas and memory

 Schema processing can influence memory processing in all three levels of

memory
o Encoding: put into memory; transforming sensory information into
meaningful memory
o Storage: maintain in memory; creating a biological trace in of encoded
information which can either be consolidated or lost
o Retrieval: recover from memory; using the stored information

16
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

Bransford and Johnson (1972) – Schemas and encoding

 AIM: How does the context influence encoding of memories?

 PROCEDURE: Independent measures design experiment
o 50 male and female volunteer high school participants
o Participants heard a tape-recorded passage and were required to recall it
as accurately as they could, writing down as many details as possible
o There were five conditions: (1) no context, the participants heard the
passage once, (2) no context, the participants heard the passage twice, (3)
context before: participants were given a context picture before hearing
the passage, (4) context after: the context picture was given after they
had heard the passage and (5) partial context: participants were given a
partial context picture before they heard the passage
 RESULTS: The passage contained 14 units in total
o The results were (1) no context, once: 3.6, (2) no context, twice: 3.8, (3)
context before: 8.0, (4) context after: 3.6 and (5) partial context: 4.0
 CONCLUSIONS: Context before clearly made a difference on participants’
ability to comprehend and recall the passage
o Full context picture creates a schema that influences the way information
is encoded from the passage => new ideas are linked to the schema =>
schemas enhance encoding

Anderson and Pichert (1978) – Schemas and retrieval (SG35)

 AIM: How do schemas influence the retrieval of information from the long-term
memory?
 PROCEDURE: Mixed design experiment with introductory psychology students
o Participants were assigned either a homebuyer or a burglar perspective
o They were asked to read a passage about a house where two boys were
staying to skip school lessons => the passage contained 73 ideas
o Participants were given a filler activity and then asked to reproduce the
story in writing as accurately as possible

17
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

o Participants were given another filler activity and then half of the
participants were asked to the change the initial perspective and the other
half to keep the initial perspective
o Participants were required to reproduce the story one more time, without
reading it again
 RESULTS: For the first recall, participants who had the burglar perspective
recalled more burglar-relevant information and participants who had the
homebuyer perspective recalled more homebuyer-relevant information
o Participants who changed the perspective recalled 7.1% more
information important to the second perspective but unimportant to the
first one => change of perspective influenced retrieval, not encoding
 CONCLUSION: Perspective in this situation is a type of schema => schemas
influence the process of retrieval of already stored information from memory

Brewer and Treyens (1981) – Office schema study

 AIM: to see whether a stereotypical schema of an office would affect memory

(recall) of an office.
 PROCEDURE: participants, 30 university students, were asked to wait 35
seconds in a typical office room
o After the waiting period, participants were taken into another room and
were asked to write down everything they could remember from the
office room
 RESULTS: Participants recalled things from a typical office
o Typical office things e.g. desk, typewriter and bulletin board were
recalled well
o However, some participants remembered things that were not present in
the experiment office e.g. books and telephones.
o They did not recall the wine bottle and the picnic basket, because they
were not part of their “typical office” schema
o Unusual items like the skull resulted in better memory functions than the
schema theory predicted.
o Overall, participants schema of an office influenced their memory of it

18
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

19
 IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

Social schemas

 Schemas about groups of people

o E.g. stereotypes
 Darley and Gross (1983) – Effect of social schemas (SG35)
o Participants were shown a video of a child
o One group was led to believe that the child came from high socio-
economic status, and the other group was led to believe the opposite
o Participants were asked to rate the girl’s academic performance
o Participants who thought the girl came from high socio-economic status
rated the girl’s academic performance a lot higher
o Schemas about socio-economic status (stereotypes) influence the way see
interpret social situations

Scripts

 Schemas about sequences or events

 E.g. grocery shopping
 Bower, Black and Turner (1979) – Effects of scripts (SG36)
o Participants were shown texts describing sequences of actions => some
of the steps were missing
o When recalling the texts participants filled in the gaps and remembered
things that were not actually within the original texts
o Participants encoded the text based on an underlying script

Self-schemas

 Schemas about ourselves

o ”I wish I was different” (self)
o ”People don’t notice me” (world)
o ”No matter how hard I try I will fail for sure” (future)

20
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen
 According to Aaron Beck, cognitive factors such as negative self-schemas can
be considered as a major cause of depressive behaviour (the three examples
above form the cognitive triad of Beck’s cognitive theory of depression)

Bottom-up and top-down processing

TASK: Rat Man of Bugelski and Alampay (1961) in practise (PP+Kahoot)

 Bottom-up processing: information proceeds from sensory organs to higher

levels in the brain
o Cognitive process is data-driven => perception is not biased by prior
knowledge or expectations
 Top-down processing: higher levels of the brain primes lower parts of the brain
to process selected features of sensory input
o Prior knowledge or expectations (schemas) act as lens or a filter for the
information that we receive and process => schemas guide perception
o Attention is based on top-down processing
 Pattern recognition: matching the current sensory input to schemas in memory
o See patterns in unstructured stimuli
o E.g. the tendency to see faces almost everywhere
o Pattern recognition is closely linked to the cycle of perception =>
schemas guide cycle of perception

VIDEO: Chaplin illusion

TASK: evaluation of schemas

 Pros of schemas
o Facilitates our cognitive processes a great deal => imagine how our life
would be without any kinds of patterns of knowledge?
 Cons of schemas
o Tendency to ignore information that is NOT in line with their schemas
(aschematic information) => stereotyping

21
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen
o Tendency to focus only on information that is in line with their schemas
(schematic information) => confirmation bias
o Schemas can distort information by filling in the blanks in incoming
information => reconstructive memory

22
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

TASK: evaluation of the schema theory

 Strengths of schema theory

o Lots of empirical evidence to support the theory (the studies above)
o Helps us to understand human information processing => has been
extremely useful in explaining many cognitive processes (e.g.
perception, memory and reasoning)
o Schema theory can be used to explain the reconstructive nature of
memory (e.g. in eyewitness testimony, stereotyping, gender identity or
gender schema and cultural differences or cultural schemata)
 Limitations of schema theory
o The concept of schema is too vague to be useful and it is not clear how
schemas are acquired in the first place (Cohen, 1993)
 Schemas cannot be observed directly
 The way how schemas are formed cannot be tested
o Schema theory may focus too much on the inaccuracies of memory but
most of the time people remember relatively accurately

23
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

Reliability of memory: reconstructive memory

Theory of reconstructive memory

 Memory is an active process

o We reconstruct information (based on our schemas) => we fill the gaps
 Memory is NOT exact
o It is distorted by existing schemas
o Each of us reconstructs our memories to conform to our personal beliefs
about the world (confirmation bias)
o Schemas influence the way we encode, storage and retrieve information
o Every time we remember something, the memory is different each time.

Bartlett (1932) – The War of The Ghosts

 AIM: Is people’s memory affected by previous knowledge (schemas) and to

what extent is memory reconstructive? Is the memory reliable?
 PROCEDURE: Studying the reliability of memory via serial reproduction
o Bartlett used an old Native American legend The War of The Ghosts on
British participants who were not familiar with the story
o None of the participants knew the aim of the study (to study the
reliability of memory)
o Participants were asked to read through the legend twice
o After 15 minutes participants were asked to reproduce the legend from
memory
o Furthermore, Bartlett asked to reproduce the story repeatedly when the
participants had the opportunity to come to his laboratory over a period
of months and years

24
 IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

 RESULTS: Bartlett found out that each participants’ memory of the legend
changed with each reproduction
o The legend became significantly shorter after each reproduction, but the
gist of the story remained
o Legend remained coherent no matter how distorted the details became
=> people tend to interpret stories as a whole
o The legend became more conventional => it retained only those details
that could be assimilated to the participants’ background culture => e.g.
canoes became boats etc.
 CONCLUSION: Bartlett concluded that The War of The Ghosts was difficult
reproduce for western participants because the style and content were so
different from the stories the participants had been used to
o According to Bartlett we reconstruct the past by trying to fit it into our
existing schemas => memory is an active process => memories are not
copies of experience, but rather reconstructions => effort after meaning
o Effort after meaning = Attempt to match unfamiliar ideas into a
familiar framework => find meaning in unstructured stimuli => tendency
to fit what we remember with what we already know and understand
about the world => schemas influence on memory processes
o We change unfamiliar things to familiar things in order fit them better to
existing schemas
o We do not simply remember information because our prestored schemas
determine what to remember

Loftus and Palmer (1974) – The eyewitness study (twin experiment)

VIDEO: Super Psychology on Loftus and Palmer (1974)

CLARIFY THIS WITH SG40!!!

Experiment 1:
45 students formed an opportunity sample. After watching the film participants were
asked to describe what had happened as if they were eyewitnesses. The question was
that how fast the cars were going when they hit each other.
25
 IB Psychology Markus Lajunen
Participants memory processes were influenced by leading questions
How did the change of one word influence participants recollection of a traffic accident
film?

Experiment 2:
150 students were participants. They were divided into three groups. All saw a film of a
car accidents. First group had the word ”smashed” describing the accident. Second
group had ”hit”. Third group was control with no specific questions. Week after seeing
the film, the participants just needed to answer yes or no to the question.

Participants were shown a film of a car accident

Week after the film the participants were asked a question ”Did you see any broken
glass?” Smashed 32%, hit 14% and control 12%.

Loftus, Miller and Burns (1978) – Reconstructive memory in a visual recognition task

 AIM: Can verbal post-event information be integrated with an original visual

information in the memory?
 PROCEDURE: Independent measures design (2x2) with 195 university students
o Participants were shown a series of slides depicting a car (a red Datsun)
that was approaching an intersection with a sign, then turned right and
knocked down a pedestrian
o The critical slide was the one showing the sign at the intersection => (a)
for half of the participants the sign was stop sign and (b) for the other
half it was a yield sign
o After seeing the slides, participants were asked a series of questions, with
the critical on as follows: (a) “Did another car pass the Datsun while it
was stopped at the stop sign?” and (b) “Did another car pass the Datsun
while it was stopped the yield sign?”
o Finally, participants had a forced-choice recognition test where they had
to pick the slide, they had seen from a pair of slides
 RESULTS: Participants who received misleading post-event information
recognized the slide they had seen correctly in 41% of the cases, while the
participants who received consistent post-event information were able to do so
in 75% of the cases

26
 IB Psychology Markus Lajunen
 CONCLUSION: Visual post-event information can get integrated with visual
memory and have an impact on visual-recognition tasks => important
implications for police investigations with visual recognition tasks

McCloskey and Zaragoza (1985): explanation with response bias (TB 164-165) DO
SOME DAY!

Payne, Toglia and Anastasi (1994): meta-analysis of 44 studies => misinformation

effect exists but is not represented in all studies (TB 165) EXTEND SOME DAY!

Yuille and Cutshall (1986): counter-study in naturalistic setting (SG41)

The next green text is from a webpage

Aims:

To record and evaluate witness accounts.

To examine the issues raised by laboratory research.
To look at how accurate witness accounts and and the type of errors made within them.
To compare interviews performed at the time that were carried out by a police officer
with those carried out by research staff (which also incorporated misleading questions).

Procedure:

Yuille and Cutshall interviewed real witnesses of a real crime.

The witnesses had observed a gun shooting incident on a spring afternoon in
Vancouver, Canada.
A thief entered a gun shop, tied up the owner, and stole money and guns.
The owner freed himself and picked up a revolver.
He went outside to get the car’s registration number, but the thief wasn’t yet inside and
he fired 2 shots at the store owner.
After a short pause, the owner fired 6 shots from his revolver - killing the thief. The
store owner recovered from serious injury.
The witnesses saw the scene from various locations - passing cars, buildings and from
the street.

27
 IB Psychology Markus Lajunen
This incident was chosen by the researchers because there were enough witnesses to
compare their accounts. Plus, the money and weapons were recovered from the thief's
dead body so there was a lot of forensic evidence to verify witness testimonies.
Research wouldn’t interfere with a case because the death of the thief closed the file.
The previous police questioning wouldn’t interfere with the study as there were many
visible elements to the scene that the police hadn’t focused on.
21 witnesses were interviewed by the police after the incident. 13 of these agreed to the
research interview.
The store owner (the victim) didn’t want to relive the trauma. Contact was attempted
with the other 7 witnesses but 2 had moved away, and the other 5 didn’t want to take
part.
The researchers had verbatim (word for word) reports of the police interviews.
Participants in these interviews had been asked to describe the events in their own terms
and then the officer asked a series of questions to amplify what had been said. They
were recorded by hand.
The 13 participants were interviewed 4 or 4 months later. Their responses were recorded
and transcribed. They gave an account and answered questions (following the same
procedure as the police interviews).
2 misleading questions were asked: One about a/the busted headlight, the other about
a/the yellow quarter panel (which was actually blue).
They were asked about the degree of stress they experienced at the time on a 7 point
scale.
They were asked about their emotional state before the incident, and problems like
sleeplessness afterwards.
The researchers used a careful scoring procedure to compare the details from the police
and research interviews and what actually happened.
The details were divided into ‘action details’ and ‘description details’.
‘Description details’ were further divided into ‘object details’ and ‘people details’.
Some difficulty with the scoring occurred.

Results:

The researchers gained more details overall (especially object details) than the police
did. This was because the researchers asked things which were of no interest to the
police.

28
 IB Psychology Markus Lajunen
The police gained more action details and person details.
There was variation in what the witnesses reported as they’d seen different amounts of
the incident.
7 were central witnesses and 6 were peripheral witnesses. Both groups were equally
accurate. In the police interviews, the central witnesses accuracy was 84.56% while the
peripheral accuracy was 79.31%.
Errors were still relatively rare and the accuracy remained high 5 or 5 months later.
The misleading information had little effect on the witnesses. 10 out of 13 of them said
there was no broken headlight or yellow quarter panel, or that they hadn’t noticed those
particular details.

Conclusion:

Yuille and Cutshall was the first investigation in witness testimony to use real witnesses
of a real incident.
Eyewitnesses aren’t as inaccurate as laboratory studies suggest.
The long-term accuracy was possibly due to the incident being memorable and unusual.
The researchers suggested they may be investigating flashbulb memory - where a
specific and relevant event is recorded in memory in great detail.
They remembered more as they were directly involved. Laboratory studies wouldn’t
capture this involvement.
The field nature of this study undermined the findings of laboratory ones about the
effect of leading questions. Attempts to mislead didn’t succeed.
Also, the witnesses felt more adrenaline than stress during the event and whatever stress
they felt didn’t negatively affect memory.
They showed that one detail being wrong shouldn’t mean the entire account should be
rejected.

Evaluation:

Generalisability:

There was only 13 research witnesses and only one unique event was studied.
Generalising findings to criticise laboratory experiments may be unfair. Flashbulb
memory is different to what was tested in laboratory experiments.

29
 IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

Reliability:

The findings seem reliable as care was taken to make sure the testimonies never altered
what actually happened.
Limited reliability due to the small sample. There's a possibility of participant variables
and sample bias.
The researchers replicated the police interviews to a great extent and did achieve similar
results. So it appears the study is replicable and as a result reliable.

Applicability:

The study and its findings have applications within the reliability of eyewitness
testimony.
The findings can be applied to the reliability of cognitive interviews debate. The study
supports the use of cognitive interviews as they include open questioning which allows
more details to be drawn from witnesses. The narrative styled research study gathered
more information than the previous police interrogations.
The findings can also be applied to flashbulb memory theory. The participants in this
study recalled the details of the incident better than in other studies because they had
actually witnessed it.

Validity:

High validity as it’s a field study (real environment and real situation) - it's true to life.
The scoring turned qualitative data into quantitative data.This incurs a chance of bias
with subjective interpretation which decreases the validity of the results.
The comparison between the police and researcher interviews was controlled by the
rigorous scoring system.
High ecological validity as it investigated real eyewitness testimony.

Ethics:

Consent - The 13 research witnesses all consented to being a part of the research.

30
 IB Psychology Markus Lajunen
Deception - There was attempted deception with the misleading questions, however the
deception was minor and was mostly unsuccessful.
Right to withdraw - 5 of the potential 20 research participants exercised their right to
not be involved in the study.
Confidentiality - It can be assumed the identities of the participants were kept
confidential.
Protection of participants - The participants weren’t harmed in the study. The store
owner was not forced to participate in case of reliving traumatic memories.
Brief/Debrief - They were not given a full brief becuase there was deception during the
procedure. It is unclear whether the witnesses were later debriefed.
Competency - Yuille and Cutshall were competent researchers and the interviews used
to compare the accuracy against were carried out by competent police officers.

INTEGRATE THE THINGS BELOW TO THE PP SOME DAY!!!

False memories

 Recalling an event that never happened and believing it to be true

 Suggestion, encouragement and imagination can create false memories
 Loftus & Pickrell, 1995. Hyman & Portland, 1996. Maxoni & Memon, 2003.
Ceci et al, 1994. Principe et al., 2010.

Source confusion

 Information is acquired from several sources

 We reconstruct our memories as meaningful experiences, but confuse the
sources
 Can partially explain false memories => memory from a film transforms into a
memory from real-life.
 Lindsay, 2008.

Social pressure

 A pressured person may come up with a false memory

 Real memory can turn into imagination under pressure
31
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen
 Loftus, 1997. McNally, 2003. Pendergrast, 1995. Brainerd & Reyna, 2005.

VIDEO: Elisabeth Loftus TED-talk

TASK: TOK-link

32
 IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

Thinking and decision-making and their reliability

The nature of research in thinking and decision-making

 Thinking modifies information

o E.g. analysis, synthesis, categorization, conclusions, inferences etc.
o Generates new knowledge => combining and restructure existing
knowledge => going beyond the information given
 Decision-making is about making a choice between alternatives
o Before we can choose, we must think about different alternatives
 Thinking and decision making are complex higher-order cognitive processes
o This is why field of research is interdisciplinary => psychology,
philosophy, economy, neurosciences and computer scientist among
others are interested in thinking
 Models are needed in understanding thinking and decision-making
o Like memory, thinking and decision-making are implicit processes that
cannot be directly observed
 Normative models
o Describe the way thinking should be
o They assume that unlimited time and resources are available
o E.g. formal logic (correct thinking patterns), theory of probability
(likelihood of outcomes; formulation of predictions) and utility theory
(trade-offs between alternatives; uses monetary value to define utility)
o Normative models may not exist in the real world => they are unrealistic
and too demanding for every-day life
 Descriptive models => main focus of IB Psychology
o Show what people actually do when they think
o Accurate description of real-life thinking patterns
o Can be compared to normative models => why actual patterns of
thinking and decision making are different from normative models?

33
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

TASK: the theory of reasoned action (TRA) and the theory of planned behaviour (TPB)

Theory of reasoned action (TRA), Martin Fishbein (1967)

 Aims to explain relationships between attitudes and behaviours when making

choices
o Individual’s choice of a particular behaviour is based on the expected
outcomes of that behaviour
 Behavioural intention: particular behaviour will lead to a particular and desired
outcome
o The stronger the behavioural intention, the stronger the effort we put into
implementing the plan + higher the probability of the behaviour
 Attitudes and subjective norms determine behavioural intention
o Attitude: describes the individual perception of the behaviour => is the
behaviour positive or negative?
o Subjective norm: describes the perceived social pressure regarding the
behaviour => is the behaviour socially acceptable or not?
 Depending on the situation, attitudes and social norms can have varying degrees
of importance in determining the behavioural intention

Theory of planned behaviour (TPB)

 Extension of TRA by Ajzen (1985)

 In addition to attitudes and subjective norms, perceived behavioural control
has also an impact on behavioural intention
o Perceived behavioural control was added to account for situations where
the attitude is positive, and the subjective norm do not inhibit you from
executing the behaviour, BUT one doesn’t think the he/she is able to
carry out the desired behaviour

34
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

Theory of planned behaviour (TPB) in a nutshell

 Behavioural intention determines effort: the stronger the intention, the harder
we try to implement the behaviour
 Three factors determine behavioural intention:
o Attitude: is the behaviour positive or negative?
o Subjective norm: is the behaviour socially acceptable or not?
o Perceived behavioural control: am I able to perform the action? (Based
on the Bandura’s concept of self-efficacy: beliefs in our ability to carry
out actions towards a goal)
 If the intention is strong enough, the action will be performed

Research concerning TPB

 Self-report data of the four predictor variables (bolded above)

 There should be a correlation between:
o (1) attitudes and intention
o (2) subjective norms and intention
o (3) behavioural control and intention
o (4) intention and behaviour
 However, there should NOT be significant correlation with attitudes, subjective
norms or perceived control
 The four predictor variables together should be able to predict the target variable
(future behaviour) with high probability => high predictive validity
 Ajzen and Fishbein (1973): meta-analysis of TPB => 0.61 correlation between
intentions and behaviour => supports the predictive validity of TPB

35
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

Albarracin et al (2001): meta-analysis of TPB as a model of condom use

 AIM: What is the predictive validity of TPB for people’s decisions to use or not
to use condoms?
 PROCEDURE: A meta-analysis of 42 published and unpublished research
papers with total of 96 data sets
o All data were combined in a single large data matrix, which was used to
analyse the fit of the model of planned behaviour
 RESULTS: TPB turned out to be a successful predictor for condom use
o Correlation between intention and behaviour was 0.51
o In addition, there were significant correlations between behavioural
intentions and norms (+), attitudes and perceived control (-)
 CONCLUSIONS: People are more likely to use condoms when they have
formed and intention to do so
o Intentions are based on attitudes, subjective norms and perceived
behavioural control
o The study gave support to the TPB in condom use
 EVALUATION: The study relies on the assumption that self-reported condom
use is an accurate reflection of the participants’ actual everyday behaviour
o Data results are correlational => direction of causality is just inferred
o Longitudinal studies can provide valuable insights into the direction of
causality in decision-making models
o Study had lot of potential for HIV prevention efforts

36
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

Godin and Kok (1996): The predictive power of the TPB for health-related behaviours

 AIM: Does the TPB predict health-related behaviours effectively?

 PROCEDURE: Systematic review of existing evidence for the efficacy of TPB
in explaining and predicting health-related behaviour => a meta-analysis of 56
research studies
 RESULTS: Overall correlations were as follows:
o Between attitudes and intention: 0.46
o Between norms and intention: 0.34
o Between behavioural control and intention: 0.46
o Between intention and behaviour: 0.46
o The first three variables explained 32% to 46.8% in behaviour intention
=> the lowest estimate was obtained in eating behaviours, the highest in
oral hygiene behaviours
 CONCLUSION: TPB could explain about one third of the variations in health-
related behaviours => despite the considerable dispersion of results related to the
domain of health, correlations are consistent with what is predicted by the model

Further support for the TPB

 Armitage and Connor (2001) => PDF

o AIM: What is the overall efficacy of TPB in explaining health cognitions
and health-related behaviour?
o PROCEDURE: Meta-analysis of 185 studies
o RESULTS: TPB is an effective predictor of health cognitions => 0.48
correlation between intention and behaviour
 Hill, Abraham and Wright (2007) => PDF
o Interventions based on TPB seem to be effective, especially promoting
physical exercise in school-aged children

37
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

 Dunn et al. (2011) => PDF

o AIM: what are the determinants of fast-food consumption using the
theory of planned behaviour? (The determinants were derived from TPB)
o PROCEDURE: 404 Australians were measured both retrospectively
(self-report) and prospectively (diary) regarding the determinants of their
consumption of fast food
o RESULTS: Participants food choices depended upon what others
thought (norms), and their preference for tasty, satisfying and convenient
foods (attitude = short-term satisfaction vs. long-term health)
o Results from these two analyses indicated that the TPB appears to have
superior ability to explain variance in self-reported estimates
(retrospective) of behaviour rather than prospective behaviour => despite
the problems, TPB successfully predicted fast food consumption => 0.62
correlation between intention and behaviour in retrospective behaviour
o CONCLUSION: TPB has strong explanatory value for fast food
consumption and is consistent with other pieces of research

TASK: application to real-life => mini-CAS project

TASK: TEACUP analysis of TPB

 Strengths
o There is evidence that TPB can predict health-related decision-making
effectively => can explain the relationship between behavioural
intention and actual behaviour
o Explains why social norms is an important variable in decision-making
 Limitations
o Ignores needs and emotions in engaging actions => leaves essential
variables out in predicting human behaviour => in addition to attitudes,
norms and behavioural control, needs and emotions can influence our
intentions and behaviour

38
 IB Psychology Markus Lajunen
o Evidence is correlational for the most part => more experimental
support => relationships between the elements of the theory can be bi-
directional + Evidence is based on self-report measures

Heuristics

 Shortcuts in thinking and decision-making that people take when there is no

time or resources to analyse the situation thoroughly
o Heuristics are useful because they save time and energy
o Are based on experience => vague and inaccurate generalisations
o Usually lead to cognitive biases

Anchoring

TASK: making and offer on a house => two groups get a different anchor => does it
influence the amount of the offers?

 We anchor our thinking and decision-making to the information we initially get

=> we have the tendency to rely too heavily on the first piece of information
offered (the "anchor") when making decisions => during decision making,
anchoring occurs when individuals use an initial piece of information to make
subsequent judgements
o In sales the original high price has been cut down to a lower price => the
original price functions as anchor to our decision-making => we want to
do a good purchase and buy something cheap, but we are usually fooled
 Englich and Mussweiler (2001)
o Anchoring bias could play a significant role in determining sentencing in
courtrooms => 44 senior German law students were used
o The participants were given a scenario of a rape case, including the
demand from the prosecutor for either a 34-month sentence (condition 1)
or a 2-month sentence (condition 2)

39
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen
o When told that the prosecutor recommended a sentence of 34 months,
participants recommended on average eight months longer in prison than
when told that the sentence should be 2 months – for the same crime

40
 IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

Representativeness

TASK: the Linda problem

 We tend to choose things that feel probable through representativeness, but if

something is more representative, that doesn’t make the thing more probably
o If you are picking yourself a lot, you do not pick lots that are next to each
other, you try to pick lots that are fairly distant from one another,
although the real probability is the same with every choice you make
 Tversky and Kahneman (1982)
o Participants were given a description of a woman named Linda
o Based on the description, it was likely that Linda was a feminist
o Eighty to ninety percent of participants, choosing from two options,
chose that it was more likely for Linda to be a feminist and a bank teller
than only a bank teller
o In reality, the likelihood of two events cannot be greater than that of
either of the two events individually
 Conjunction fallacy
o People tend to judge a conjunction of two events more probably than one
of the events in direct comparison

Availability

TASK: list of names that are easily available

TASK: list of properties that are easily available => Alan and Ben

 Things that are easily available guide our thinking and decision-making => we
tend to rely too strongly on information that is readily available to us and ignore
information that is less available
o News that are easily available, e.g. if two plane crashes happen at the
same time, we tend to think that plane crashes have been increased
dramatically, although long-term statistics tell a different story

41
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

42
 IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

 Tversky and Kahneman (1973)

o Participants were made to recall English words that started with the letter
K and words that had the K as the third letter
o The majority of participants reported that there were more words in the
English language that start with the letter K than for which K was the
third letter => there are actually twice as many words in the English
Language that have K as the third letter as those that start with K, but
words that start with K are much easier to recall and bring to mind

Cognitive ease, jumping into conclusions

TASK: bat and ball

A bat and ball cost $1.10

The bat costs one dollar more than the ball
How much does the ball cost?

The correct answer is NOT 10 cents. If the ball costs 10 cents, the total cost will be
$1.20 (10 cents for the ball and $1.10 for the bat). The correct answer is 5 cents.

Seeing causes and intentions

TASK: Jane’s story in New York

After spending a day exploring beautiful sights in the crowded streets of New
York, Jane discovered that her wallet was missing

It is probable that the students answer relates somehow to pick-pockets or stealing rather
than other plausible explanations like the wallet slipped out of pocket, it was left in
restaurant etc. => Tendency to find causal connections and intentions in places where
there aren’t any.

43
 IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

Daniel Kahneman: Thinking, Fast And Slow (2011)

Humans have two independent cognitive systems that operate sequentially

System 1 System 2
- Operates automatically and quickly, with - Allocates resources to the effortful
little or no effort and no sense of mental activities that demand
voluntary control concentration
- Thinking is fast, intuitive and - Thinking is slow, analytical and
unconscious conscious
- Cognitive ease - Cognitive strain
- Detect that one object is more distant - Brace for a starter gun in a race
than another - Focus on the voice of a particular person
- Orient to the source of a sudden sound in crowded and noisy room
- Detect hostility in a voice - Compare two washing machines for
- Drive a car on an empty road overall value
- Understanding simple language - Check the validity of an argument
- Struggling with a mathematical problem

 When things are going well, SYSTEM 1 is in action and we feel cognitive ease
 When problems arise, SYSTEM 2 is mobilized and we feel cognitive strain
o We have a strong tendency towards cognitive ease; We favour
SYSTEM 1 in expense of SYSTEM 2 => SYSTEM 2 is lazy
 SYSTEM 2 can also be easily distracted and bypassed
o When we struggle with e.g. mathematical problem, non-mathematical
problem is processed by SYSTEM 1
o When tired and depleted, we use solely SYSTEM 1
o When SYSTEM 2 is otherwise engaged or lazy, as it usually is, we will
believe almost anything
o This gives rise to various cognitive biases

44
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

Common causes of intuitive system 1 thinking

 The tendency to focus on limited amount of information

 The tendency to seek out information that confirms pre-existing beliefs
 The tendency to avoid mental stress of holding inconsistent cognitions

TASK: group work on cognitive biases (PP)

 Cognitive biases
o Systematic deviations from normative models of thinking and decision-
making => can result from heuristics and System 1 thinking
 Asymmetric dominance (171–172)
o Selective attention:
o DO THIS SOMETIME!!!
 Confirmation bias (with congruence bias) (173–175)
o A cognitive bias where people tend to focus on information that supports
a pre-existing belief and ignore information that can potentially
contradict it
 Illusory correlations and implicit personality theories (176–177)
o A cognitive bias where people tend to see a relationship between things
that are actually not related
 Cognitive dissonance (177–178)
o DO THIS SOMETIME!!!
 Optimism bias CHANGE THIS??? => SUNK COST BIAS???
o DO THIS SOMETIME!!!
 Mere exposure effect CHANGE THIS???
o DO THIS SOMETIME!!!

Framing effect (study ONE bias in thinking and decision making)

 Drawing different conclusions from the same information, depending on how

that information is presented; a heuristic of making a choice under risk =>

45
 IB Psychology Markus Lajunen
framing effect describes how the choice depends on whether the problem is
formulated or framed in terms of potential gains of potential losses
o Yoghurt 80% fat free => potential gain => loss aversion
o Yoghurt containing 20% of fat => potential loss => risk taking
o “Avoid risks, but take risks to avoid losses” (Baron, 2008) => people
tend to choose the 80% fat free option

Expected utility theory

 A normative theory of choice

 Choices should be made based on a calculation of expected outcome for each
option and then selecting the option with maximum expected outcome => one
should multiply the utility of an outcome by the probability of that outcome, and
choose the outcome that yields the highest number
o The relationship between expected utility and the subjective value is a
linear function
o The more utility we expect, the more we are willing to take a risk to
pursue that option
 E.g. you are making a choice between two gambles => choice A: you’ll get 10€
for certain => if you choose option B, you’ll get 200€ with 6% probability => it
is more rational to take risk: in option A 10 x 1 is 10€ and in option B 200 x 0.06
is 12€
 In real-life, however, people are not making choices in the way the expected
utility theory predicts => humans are NOT rational
o Humans tend to avoid risks when the same information is presented in
terms of gains and are eager to take risks when the information is
presented in terms of losses

Prospect theory (Kahneman and Tversky, 1979)

 Descriptive model of decision-making under risk

 Explains the deviations from the expected utility theory => people think about
utilities as changes from a reference point => the reference point can be
manipulated by different framings of the problem

46
 IB Psychology Markus Lajunen
o Problems formulated in terms of potential losses cause people to take
more risks
o Problems formulated in terms of potential gains cause people to be more
risk-avoidant
 Prospect theory suggests that people assign less subjective value to gains and
more subjective value to losses

Tversky and Kahneman (1981) – Framing effect

 AIM: Does the way a problem is framed influence decisions in scenarios

involving risk?
 PROCEDURE: Independent measures design experiment with 307 university
students who answered brief questionnaires in a classroom setting to the
following problem:
o Imagine that the USA is preparing for an outbreak of an unusual Asian
disease, which is expected to kill 600 people. Two alternative programs
to combat the disease have been proposed. Assume that the exact
scientific estimate of the consequences of the programs are as follows:
o Group 1: (A) 200 people will be saved (B) There is 1/3 probability that
600 people will be saved and 2/3 probability that no people will be saved
o Group 2: (C) 400 people will die (D) There is 1/3 probability that
nobody will die and 2/3 probability that 600 will die
 RESULTS: Option A was chosen by 72% of the participants (and option B 28%)
=> Option C was chosen by 22% of participants (and option D by 78%)
o Logically the problems for the two groups were identical => if humans
were rational, humans would choose the same options in both groups,
however, the results were reversed
 CONCLUSION: The only difference between the two groups is how the
situation is presented or framed and that influenced decision-making
o “Will be saved” => gains => more risk avoidance
o “Will die” => losses => more risk taking
o “Avoid risks, but take risks to avoid losses” (Baron, 2008)

Keysar et al. (2012) – Framing effect and foreign language

47
 IB Psychology Markus Lajunen
DO THIS SOME DAY!
 AIM:
 PROCEDURE:
 RESULTS:

Strough et al. (2011) – Framing effect across the lifespan

 AIM: Does the susceptibility to framing effect change during lifespan?

 PROCEDURE: Meta-analysis of framing effect studies across human lifespan
 RESULTS: Framing effect stays relatively stable across lifespan => individual
differences in strategies (rather than age per se) are important for understanding
the framing effect => what strategy one adopts in a problem-solving situation
seems to be more important than age

48
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

Emotion and cognition

TASK: emotional introspection (PP)

TASK: analysing own emotions (PP)

Theories of emotion THIS CAN BE SKIPPED!

TASK: how do emotional experiences originate? (PP)

TASK: comics out of theories of emotion (PP)

 Charles Darwin (1872)

o Emotions have an evolutionary meaning: they help us to survive and
reproduce => emotions are adaptive actions
o Empirical evidence: basic emotions are the same all over the world
 James-Lange theory of emotion (1884)
o Stimulus causes physiological change and interpretation of this change is
emotional experience: I’m afraid because my heart is pounding
 Cannon-Bard theory of emotion (1927)
o Stimulus produces changes in the brain’s emotional centre => causes
emotional experience AND physiological changes at the same time:
angry dog makes my heart beat faster AND my mind to fear
 Schachter and Singer (1962)
o Emotions are results of two-stage processing: (1) physiological response
and then (2) cognitive interpretation => I interpret my increased heart
beat rate as fear because the situation I’m in seems to be dangerous
o Can explain why same physiological circumstances might be associated
with different emotions e.g. tears of sadness and tears of joy

49
 IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

 Richard Lazarus (1982)

o (1) Initial cognitive appraisal produces physiological changes => (2)
Secondary cognitive appraisal focuses on action: how to cope?
o A stranger is following => (1) initial appraisal: is the stranger a threat?
=> physiological changes => (2) secondary appraisal: how can I survive
the situation? => changes in thinking, emotional control and behaviour
=> creates new situation => the cycle of (1) and (2) starts again
 Joseph LeDoux (1996) and biological underpinnings
o The fast pathway: stimulus => thalamus => amygdala => robust emotion
o The slow pathway: stimulus => thalamus => hippocampus and neocortex
=> amygdala => sophisticated emotion

TASK: appraising the six theories (PP)

Schacter & Singer adrenaline experiment (1962) (example of cognitive appraisal)

 AIM: To test the two-stage processing of emotions using adrenaline

 PROCEDURE: 184 male college students were divided into four groups. All
were participants were told that they were going to be given a vitamin injection
Suproxin. In reality, they were given an adrenaline injection.
o Informed group were told that Suproxin might cause adrenaline like
effects
o Ignorant group were given no information on the effects of Suproxin
o Misinformed group were told that Suproxin might cause effect other
than adrenaline
o Placebo group were given an injection with no effect and no
information
o In euphoria condition the confederates tried to amuse the participants
o In anger condition confederates tried to annoy the participants
 RESULTS: Based on observation and questionnaires
o Informed group showed minimal changes in emotion
o Ignorant and misinformed groups showed significant changes in emotion
o Placebo group showed no changes in emotion

50
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen
 CONCLUSION: We label our physiological arousal with cognitive appraisal

TASK: appraising the adrenaline experiment (PP)

 Strengths of the adrenaline experiment:

o Highly controlled and standardized procedure
 Limitations of the adrenaline experiment:
o Low ecological validity
o Sample comprised of only male college students => not representative
o The results were not as impressive as they might appear at a first glance
=> experimenters were only able to feel less happy but not angry
o Adrenalin does not affect every person in the same way
o Participants moods were not measured before the injection
o Marshal and Zimbardo (1979) failed to get the same result
 Evaluation
o Schachter and Singer’s two-stage processing model has been influential
theory and supported by the adrenaline experiment
o However, subsequent studies have shown that the relationship between
emotion and cognition is more complex than Schachter and Singer’s
two-stage processing model

The influence of emotion on cognition

 Interaction between emotion and cognition is bidirectional

o Cognition influences emotion through cognitive appraisal
o Emotion influences cognition via flashbulb memory mechanism

51
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

Flashbulb memories

 Refer to dramatic and emotionally charged events that etch themselves onto our
minds with unusual vividness, accuracy and durability
o can be associated with shared events or personal traumas

TASK: flashbulb memories and personal knowledge (TOKish task)

TASK: problem-based learning and flashbulb memories

Theory of flashbulb memories (Brown and Kulik, 1977)

 There is a special memory mechanism that enables us to remember vividly

special occasions
 (1) Model of formation
o If an event is (a) surprising and (b) personally consequential, the event
causes a strong emotional arousal => photographic representation of the
experienced event
o (a) unexpected event + (b) strong emotional reaction = flashbulb memory
 (2) Model of maintenance
o After the event is imprinted in memory, the memory needs to be
sustained in the memory
o Overt rehearsal: conversations with others => the original event is
reconstructed overtly
o Covert rehearsal: replaying the original event in one’s memory covertly
o Overt and covert rehearsal lead to consolidation of memory traces

52
 IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

TASK: studies related to the theory of flashbulb memories

 Brown and Kulik (1977): Psychological mechanisms of flashbulb memories

o AIM: what are the determinants of flashbulb memories about
assassinations, highly newsworthy events and personally significant
events?
o PROCEDURE: correlational data was collected based on questionnaires
focused on 10 very unexpected events from 40 white Americans and 40
black Americans (N=80)
 Element of quasi-experiment: difference was investigated
between white Americans and black Americans => assassinations
might have different consequences for these populations
 Participants filled out the questionnaire in which 9 events
involved political figures and 1 personal and shocking event
 Participants were asked to write a free recall of circumstances in
which they first received news of the event => they also rated
each event five-point personal consequentiality scale and the
frequency of rehearsal
o RESULTS: Black participants were more likely to have flashbulb
memories of persons related to the US civil rights movements => more
personal consequentiality to black participants
 Occurrence of flashbulb memories correlated in both white and
black participants with ratings of personal consequentiality
 Occurrence of flashbulb memories also correlated with frequency
of overt rehearsal
o CONCLUSION: Results match with the predictions of the theory
 Personal consequentiality plays a role in forming flashbulb
memories => model of formation
 Overt rehearsal plays a role in sustaining flashbulb memories =>
model of maintenance
 Principal determinants: high level of surprise + high level of
personal consequentiality + rehearsal => flashbulb memories
 The study did not directly test the role of surprise or covert
rehearsal (critical remark)

53
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

 Sharot et al. (2007): Neural basis of flashbulb memories

o AIM: what is the neural mechanism of flashbulb memories?
o PROCEDURE: 24 participants who had witnessed the 9/11 terrorist
attack in New York in 2001
 Comparing brain response in recollecting the 9/11 attack in
comparison to neutral control events
 Mixed design experiment: (1) independent measures because two
groups were compared, (2) repeated measures because two types
of memories were measured in each of the groups
 Three years after the attack participants were asked to retrieve
memories of 9/11 and personally selected control events from
2001
 Participants were split in two groups: (1) Downtown group and
(2) Midtown group
 While placed in and fMRI scanner, participants saw a series of 60
cue words => on seeing the word “September” they had to
provide a memory related to 9/11 => on seeing the word
“Summer” they had to provide and autobiographical memory
from the summer of 2001
o RESULTS: Selective activation of the left amygdala occurred when
participant recalled events from the 9/11, but not control events
 83% percent of the Downtown group showed activation of left
amygdala, but only 40% of the Midtown group
 Selective activation of the left amygdala correlated with the
proximity of the participant to the WTC (r = 0.45, p < 0.05)
 During the 9/11 part in the experiment the Downtown group
showed higher amygdala activation, but there was no difference
across groups in the summer part of the experiment
o CONCLUSION: selective activation of left amygdala may be the neural
mechanism of shocking and surprising flashbulb memories

54
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

 Neisser et al. (1996): Encoding vs. rehearsal in forming flashbulb memories

o AIM: Encoding vs. rehearsal in forming flashbulb memories related to
the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake
o PROCEDURE: Some participants were (1) close to the earthquake
(California) and some (2) far away (Atlanta)
 Further participants were divided into two groups: (1) those who
had relatives in the affected area and (2) those who did not
 Participants were asked to report (1) the level of their emotional
arousal during the event and (2) estimate of the number of times
they discussed the event with other people
o RESULTS: Ratings of emotional arousal did not correlate with recall
significantly => some Californian participants reported low levels of
arousal
 Participants who had relatives in the area had more vivid
memories of the event => same applies for participants who
reported discussing the event more often with other people
o CONCLUSION: Rehearsal influences flashbulb memories to a greater
extent than the emotional arousal experienced at the time of the event

 Neisser and Harsch (1992): Accuracy and reliability of flashbulb memories

o AIM: How accurate are flashbulb memories?
o PROCEDURE: Study investigated the participants’ memories of the
Challenger Space Shuttle explosion
 Questionnaire was given to 160 participants asking them to
describe the circumstances surrounding receiving the news
 Participants answered the same questions twice: the day after the
incident and three years later

55
 IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

o RESULTS: Participants were really confident that their memories were

correct => self-reported confidence was 83%
 Consistency between the two points were low, only 42%
 Participants were surprised to find out that there were
discrepancies between their own answers
o CONCLUSION: Flashbulb memories can be extremely vivid, but they
are not more accurate nor reliable than other or normal memories

TASK: critical thinking hub related to the theory of flashbulb memories

56
 IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

Cognitive Processing in The Digital World

For all three topics in the cognitive approach, and with reference to research studies, HL
students should study the following.

 The influence of digital technology on cognitive processes.

 The positive and negative effects of modern technology on cognitive processes.
 Methods used to study the interaction between digital technology and cognitive
processes.

What is media?

TASK: what is media and what kind of forms can it take?

 Etymology
o Medium (latin) = intervening, conveyor, mediator
 Modern definition
o Communicators (communication) and communication technology
 Media can be divided into categories based on the technology they use:
o Graphic media = books and magazines
o Audio-visual media = movies and television
o Multimedia = combination of pictures, sounds and language e.g. different
kind of webpages
o New Media = computerized media that is digital, networking and often
interactive in real-time
o New media and traditional media often overlap, e.g. print media uses
webpages and computerized media uses magazines, books and videos

TASK: take a stand on the following statements (PP)

57
 IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

Media diary (large individual task)

TASK: Follow your use of media for one week (seven days)

 Keep track of how many hours and minutes you use per media
 Differentiate your use of media
o E.g. Wednesday 10th of January: 2h WhatsApp, 30 min YouTube,
reading 50 min, television 45 minutes.
 By the end of the week, calculate the total hours and minutes of media time in
total and per media.

Analysis of the media diary

 What forms of media did you used the most/least? Why? Give reasons.
 Why did you use the forms of media you used? Give reasons.
 Was the digital media more pronounced in your diary? If so, why? Give reasons.
 Did you behave differently with digital media than with traditional media? If so,
why? Give reasons.
 Read the box ATL skills: self-management on page 194 and consider the way
you regulate your reactions to media stimuli
 Read the Discussion box on page 196 and try to answer the questions in the box
related to your use of social networks
 Does your one-week media diary describe your usual behaviour with media?
 What kind of other notions did you do on your own use of media while doing
this media diary?
 What kind of thoughts did the media diary elicit in you?
 Should you change the way you use media?

58
 IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

Electronic games and human cognition (189-192)

TASK: what kind of media do electronic games represent? (PP)

TASK: what kind of electronic games do you play? (PP)

TASK: is playing electronic games good or bad for you? (PP)

TASK: three studies related to the effects of electronic gaming (PP)

 Rosser et al (2007) – videogames and surgeons (correlational study)

o AIM: Do playing videogames result in surgery performance in
laparoscopic surgeons? (Laparoscopy: operation performed in the
abdomen or pelvis using small incisions with the aid of a camera)
o PROCEDURE: 33 laparoscopic surgeons were asked to play 3 games for
25 minutes => total score obtained in these games was used as an
indicator of game mastery => game mastery scores were compared with
surgery drill errors and completion time
o RESULTS: Videogame mastery was highly correlated with less time and
fever errors in performing the surgery drills
 Surgeons who played videogames for more than three hours a
week made 37% fewer errors in surgery drills and performed
drills 27% faster than their non-playing colleagues
o CONCLUSION: Playing videogames that involve rapid visuospatial
coordination may enhance related skills in performing real-life tasks
 Tasks in this study are highly specific => the study can’t
determine whether digital technology has any effects on
cognition in a wider domain

59
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

 Small and Vorgan (2008) – meta-study

o Excessive exposure to digital technology results in negative long-term
effects such as: (1) addiction to the digital technology, (2) reduced
judgement and decision-making abilities and (3) diminished capacity for
delay of gratification

 Gentile et al (2004) – correlational study

o Correlations between video game play and lower grades at school, as
well as aggressiveness and decreased prosocial behaviour

 Sanchez (2012) – effects of videogames on science learning (independent

measures design experiment)
o AIM: Are the effects of playing videogames transferable to wider
domains such as science learning?
o PROCEDURE: 60 university students were randomly divided into two
groups:
 (1) The spatial training group played a first-person shooter game
(Halo: Combat Evolved)
 (2) The non-spatial training group played a verbal game
involving combining letters to form words (Word Whomp)
 After playing their allocated game, participants read a complex
text about plate tectonics without any pictures => after reading
the participants were required to write an essay => independent
scorers rated the essays to the extent which they demonstrated
understanding of the important concepts in plate tectonics
o RESULTS: Participants who played the first-person shooter gained
higher scores => Effects of gaming are transferable to wider contexts not
immediately related to the tasks performed in the game

60
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

 Fery and Ponserre (2001) – independent measures design experiment

o AIM: Can virtual reality simulation increase actual real-life performance
in golf-playing?
o PROCEDURE: 62 right handed men without any prior golf experience
were divided into three groups: (1) learning group: intent to improve golf
putting, (2) entertainment group: intent to enjoy the game and (3) control
o RESULTS: Golf putting improved in both the entertainment and the
learning group, but learning was most significant in the learning group
o CONCLUSION: The usefulness of videogame simulations on actual
golf-putting skills depend on two conditions: (1) credibility: the video
game simulation must provide reliable demonstration of actual puts and
(2) motivation: the user must want to use the game to make progress in
the actual putting

Gaming enhances

 Hand-eye coordination (BOOK)

 Reaction times (BOOK)
 Spatial visualization (BOOK)
 Mental rotation (BOOK)
 The scope of visuo-spatial vigilance (Green and Bavelier, 2003; Dye and
Bavelier, 2010)
 Visuo-spatial capacity and related brain areas (West et al, 2017) => especially
3D games influence these attributes
 Flexible swifts from task to task (Boot et al, 2008; Colzato et al, 2010)
 Observing multiple targets at the same time (Trick et al, 2005)
 Short-term memory functions (Colzato et al, 2010; Boot et al, 2008; Moisala et
al 2017)
o Moisala’s Mind the Gap research: gaming is connected with enhanced
short-term memory functions with 13 to 24 years old Finnish participants

TASK: where can these skills be implemented?

61
 IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

Game addiction

 Only 1-2% of gamers are game addicts (Wittek et al., 2016)

o Wittek uses Lemmens et al. (2009) definition of game addiction:
“excessive and compulsive use of computer or video games that results in
social and/or emotional problems; despite these problems, the gamer is
unable to control this excessive use”
o Problematic or pathological use of video games, where gaming leads to a
functional impairment in daily life
 10% of gamers are suffering from symptoms related to excessive gaming such
as melancholy, fatigue and anxiety (Männikkö, 2017)
 Excessive gaming is connected with impaired cognition and psychic welfare
(Ferguson et al., 2011)
 Signs of excessive gaming:
o Lowered grades in school
o Diminished social relationships
o Withdrawal from other activities e.g. hobbies
o Decreased sleep quality
o Covering up the excessive playing or underrating it
o Strong irritation when gaming is restricted
 PLEASE NOTE! Game addiction and excessive gaming ARE detrimental to the
brain and behaviour!

TASK: How to avoid excessive gaming and game addiction?

Games and aggression

TASK: do aggressive and violent electronic games cause aggression and violence in
real-life?

62
 IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

 Ferguson (2015) meta-analysis of 101 studies:

o Video game influences on increased aggression, reduced prosocial
behaviour, reduced academic performance, depressive symptoms and
attention deficit symptoms are minimal
o This meta-study was not a study of excessive gaming and it was
concentrated solely on adult participants
o A weak, but significant connection has been found between games and
aggression, but other factors such as domestic circumstances and sex
influence a lot more! SEARCH FOR PERCENTAGES!!!
o Research on gaming is poorly standardized, politicians and game
industry play a role in the research => research is not purely objective,
issues related to researchers’ degrees of freedom and citation bias also
continue to be common problems => publication bias remains a problem
for studies of aggression

 People who frequently play violent video games are more immune to disturbing
images than non-players (Jin, 2018)

REVIEW: is playing electronic games good or bad for you? (PP)

Games and rehabilitation

 EEG controlled wheelchair

 A game you control with your mind
 YLE-news: games revolutionize the rehabilitation of brain patients
 RehabWall improves functional mobility + video

VIDEO: Eli Pariser’s TED-talk “Bevare online ‘filter bubbles’”

TASK: comparing the results of identical queries (PP)

TOK Link (PP)

63
 IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

Internet addiction (189)

TASK: internet addiction (PP)

TASK: The Guardian article

UPDATE!!!
 Can you identify any traces of internet addiction in yourself?
 What strategies can we put in place to reduce the likelihood of a child
developing and internet addiction?

TASK: Internet addiction test (in Finnish: Päihdelinkki, in English: Net Addiction)

 What does the result tell about your use of the internet?

64
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

Digital technology and learning (not in the textbook, except 189)

TASK: digital amnesia (PP)

TASK: learning experiences with technology (PP)

By hand or with a computer?

 Learning the alphabets is faster when written by hand (Longchamp et al., 2005;
2008)
o 2005 study concentrated on the effects of different early word spelling
practices on reading and spelling => 145 five-year-old children were
studied => spelling improved in a group who actually wrote spelling with
right answers
o 2008 study concentrated on brain structures related to writing process =>
writing by hand activated brain activity a lot more compared to e.g.
typing and writing by hand had more lasting effect on the reading and
writing skills => handwriting is essential for reading and writing skills
 Memos written by hand are remembered better (Mueller & Oppenheimer, 2014)
o Students who took notes on laptops performed worse on conceptual
questions than students who took notes longhand => taking more notes
can be beneficial, laptop note takers’ tendency to transcribe lectures
verbatim rather than processing information and reframing it in their own
words is detrimental to learning (Be cautious with this study)
 Text read from a paper is understood and remembered better (Mangen et al.,
2013; Noyes & Garland, 2003)
o Mangen et al. (2013): 72 tenth graders from two different primary
schools in Norway were studied to explore effects of the technological
interface on reading comprehension => students who read texts in print
scored significantly better on the reading comprehension test than
students who read the texts digitally

65
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

o Noyes & Garland (2003): No significant differences between matched

computer and paper-based text in terms of the time taken to study and to
read material, and the level of learning achieved, were found => In
contrast, significant differences were found for the memory awareness
patterns of responses between the two condition

 Reading a paper book is less stressful (Wästlund et al., 2005)

o Two groups were compared: (1) paper presentation group and (2) video
display terminal presentation group (VDT) => VDT presentation
condition were inferior to that of the Paper presentation in terms of
learning => in addition, VDT presentation condition of the consumption
of information study reported higher levels of experienced stress and
tiredness

 Texts written by hand are of higher quality (Berninger et al., 2009)

o Berninger has done a series of studies from the 80s till today from
kindergarten school children to adults => The most surprising finding
was that, when writing by pen and by keyboard were compared on
alphabet writing, sentence constructing, and text composing, children
wrote more words and wrote words faster and expressed more ideas
when composing text by pen than by keyboard from second to sixth
grade => but for letter writing and sentence constructing, the keyboard
often showed advantages
o Computer keyboards might be a bypass for handwriting but not for the
language difficulties that underlie writing problems

66
 IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

Digital technology in the classroom

 On the other hand, students suffering from learning deficiencies might benefit
from technology, because it can add motivation (Wollscheid et al., 2016)
 Research results related to the use of technology in the classrooms is
contradictory
o Sometimes electronic devices seem to be a distraction, but on the other
hand there seem to be evidence that electronic learning games can help
e.g. learning mathematical concepts (Courage et al., 2015)
 Girard et al. (2013) meta-analysis
o There is no clear evidence that learning games enhance learning, but they
seem to to motivate students more than traditional tuition
 Wouters et al. (2013) meta-analysis
o Learning games enhance learning when they used (a) as a part of other
tuition (b) regularly and (c) in groups
 In addition, technology can create new learning possibilities
o E.g. Dr. Ruben R. Puentedura’s SAMR model

VIDEO: introduction to SAMR model + TASK on efficient use of technology (PP)

Multitasking (192-194)

TASK: volunteer with severe multitasking (PP)

A volunteer is selected and asked to do the following multitasking challenges:

 (1) walking
 (2) walking and using cell phone
 (3) walking, using cell phone and having a conversation with a friend
 (4) walking, using cell phone, having a conversation with a friend and
listening to music
 (5) jumping with one leg, using cell phone, having a conversation with a
friend and listening to music

67
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

68
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

TASK: questions concerning multitasking (PP)

 Multitaskers do worse on tasks that require focus (Moisala et al., 2016)

o Simultaneous use of multiple media impairs attention skills
 Multitasking burdens the brain (Moisala et al., 2015)
 Multitasking is inefficient and burdensome for the brain
o Actually, genuine multitasking is impossible for humans => when
multitasking, attention just jumps from one task to another
 Multitasking in adult life is connected to:
o Pronounced tendency to disruptions (Ophir et al., 2009)
o Decreased amount of nerve cells in brain regions related to concentration
(Loh & Kanai, 2014)

TASK: completing the teacher’s handout (IBPsyMultitaskingTask.pdf)

 Moreno et al (2012)
o Six text messages at random times during a day were send to 189
university students => more than half of the time when the students were
using internet, they were multitasking => most popular task was social
networking
 Rosen, Carrier and Cheever (2013) correlational study
o AIM: is there a relationship between the use of digital technology,
multitasking and school achievement?
o PROCEDURE: correlational study with 263 students => on-task
behaviour and off-task technology use was assessed using a checklist of
activities => activities were noted every minute during the observation
period => after the observation period participants filled out a
questionnaire containing their self-reported GPA (Grade Point Average)

69
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

o RESULTS: on average participants maintained on-task behaviour only

for 6 minutes before switching to off-task behaviour and averaged only
around 10 minutes on-task in total
 Four variables had the strongest correlations with reduced on-task
behaviour were: (1) technology available at the start of studying,
(2) stretching/walking, (3) texting and (4) using Facebook
 Off-task behaviour was associated with reduced school
achievement => those who accessed Facebook at least once
during the 15-minute study period had lower GPAs
o CONCLUSION: Multitasking induced by the digital technology is
highly prevalent among students and negatively correlated with school
achievement => induced media multitasking is detrimental to attention
and focus while studying
 Rosen et al. (2011) independent measures design experiment
o AIM: what are the effects of amount of multitasking and response delay
on attention and academic performance?
o PROCEDURE: 185 college students viewed a videotape lecture and
were then given a test to assess their understanding
 during the lecture, all students received text messages that
required a response
 there were three groups of participants depending on the number
of text messages received: (1) small, (2) medium and (3) large
o RESULTS: the more text messages the students received during the
lecture, the worse they performed on the test
 Response delay was also a factor: students who chose to read
and response to the text messages immediately, did significantly
worse on the test than students who chose to read respond some
time (up to 5 minutes) later
o CONCLUSION: metacognitive strategy could be a solution for our
tendency to get distracted by digital technology => we can consciously
counterbalance our natural tendency to get distracted by regulating the
time of the response => metacognitive strategies can be used to
compensate for the negative effects of induced multitasking, but requires
a lot of cognitive effort

70
 IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

 Loh and Kanai (2014) correlational study

o AIM: are there physiological correlates of media multitasking?
o PROCEDURE: 75 healthy adults were asked questions by a self-report
questionnaire and they went through fMRI scans of their brain
o RESULTS: There was a correlation between reported multi-tasking and
grey matter density in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) => low gray
matter density in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) may be the
physiological basis of being prone to induced media multitasking
o EXPLANATION: Anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) is involved in (1)
cognitive control e.g. selective attention and (2) emotional and
motivational regulation => people who are prone to media multi-tasking
also demonstrate (a) reduced cognitive control over their attention and
(b) reduced ability to regulate their emotions
o EVALUATION: correlational research => results can be explained in
both directions: (1) individual with lesser grey matter volume in ACC are
more susceptible to media multitasking OR (2) engaging in multitasking
affects grey matter density in the ACC through neuroplasticity

TASK: reducing multitasking in everyday life (PP)

Digital technology and ADHD 196

TASK: does digital technology affect attention?

 Christakis et al. (2004): number of screen time in front of a television in one-

year old children predicted attention problems in 7 years of age (n>1000)
 Landhuis et al. (2007): childhood screen time in front of a television predicted
attention problems in teen-age (n>1000)

71
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

 Swing et al. (2010)

o Longitudinal research: 4 measurements of over 13-month period with 6
to 12-year-old student
o Observational data was collected from teachers
o Playing games and watching television for more than 2 hours a day
predicted an increase in attention problems during the research
o Amount of screen entertainment time predicted attention problems in
class => over 2 hours starts to be dangerous
 On the other hand: in well controlled research (1) sex, (2) antisocial features,
(3) domestic environment and (4) anxiety predicted attention problems a lot
better than screen time (Ferguson, 2011) => The direction of causality is still not
clear enough
 Polanzyk et al. (2014) meta-analysis of 135 studies
o Prevalence of ADHD has NOT grown since 1985 till 2012
o The number of ADHD diagnosis has grown, but this seems to be due to
the changes in diagnostic criteria and parental awareness
 The growth has been exceptionally large in the USA, from 2003
to 2007 the number of ADHD diagnosis increased over 20%

Attention deficit trait (ADT)

 A phenomenon where attention starts to diminish in the same way as in attention

deficit disorder (ADD) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), but
without official diagnosis and neurological correlates => people suffering from
ADT exhibit similar behaviour patterns as ADD and ADHD patients, but
without the neurophysiological counterparts
 American doctor E. M. Hallowell proposed in the 1990s that busy lifestyle can
result in ADT => doing various tasks at the same time (multitasking)
o As our minds are filled with noise, the brain gradually loses its capacity
to attend fully and thoroughly to anything
o ADT can be seen as less severe form of ADD that is triggered by
environmental and/or lifestyle factors

72
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

 People suffering from ADT have short and weak attention span
o A central feature in ADT is interrupting oneself => even in quiet
circumstances ADT people interrupt themselves => ADT people’s mind
are filled with other ideas while doing a single task => causes errors and
accidents in various fields of life
o Distractibility, inner frenzy and impatience
o Difficulties in staying organized, setting priority and managing time
 It takes years to develop ADT => it takes years to get rid of ADT => the ability
to focus and concentrate can be practised

TASK: How can you foster and develop your ability to focus and concentrate? (PP)

 Acquire a new productive daily habit

o Alleviate the sense of stress and rush from your days
o Do slow tasks
o Externalize extra things that you have to remember
 Sleep well
o Regular circadian rhythm
o Exercise and outdoor activity
o Eating cycle that improves sleep => everyone must try
o No hard activities two hours before bed
 Intelligent life
o Get a new hobby where you learn something new
o Mindfulness skills to calm you down
o Make long-term plans
o Learn how to be grateful => increases happiness
 Use digital technology wisely
o Don’t use devices in bathroom
o Silence your devices whenever you can
o Use black and white screens whenever possible
o Hide your devices whenever you can
o Don’t eat with your device

73
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen
o Don’t use your devices for one hour before going to bed

74
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

Digital technology and human interaction 194-196

TASK: reflect your use of social media + FOMO (PP)

 McDool et al. (2016) longitudinal study

o AIM: Does the use of social media effect children’s life?
o PROCEDURE: large representative sample of 10-15-year olds over the
period 2010 to 2014 from the UK Household Longitudinal Study
 Estimate the effect of time spent chatting on social websites on a
number of outcomes which reflect how these children feel about
different aspects of their life, specifically: (1) school work; (2)
appearance; (3) family; (4) friends; (5) school attended; and (6)
life as a whole.
o RESULTS: spending more time on social networks reduces the
satisfaction that children feel with all aspects of their lives, except for
their friendships; and that girls suffer more adverse effects than boys
 The use of social media enables self-actualization and peer-
support, BUT it’s also connected to dissatisfaction, bad self-
esteem and FOMO

 Kowalski and Limber (2013): social life in real-life resembles the social life in
the internet => if one bullies in real-life, one bullies also in the social media
o Social media can possibly enable more “destructive” devices

 Bickart et al. (2011) correlational study

o Amygdala volume correlates with the size and complexity of social
networks in adult humans => the more Facebook friends one has, the
bigger the amygdala (=> can the use of social media grow amygdala?)
o These findings indicate that the amygdala is important in social
behaviour.

75
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

 Montag et al. (2017) correlational study

o AIM: Is there a connection between social media usage and brain’s
reward system?
o PROCEDURE: The usage of Facebook of 62 participants was recorded
over the course of five weeks => the results were correlated with the grey
matter volume of the nucleus accumbens
o RESULS: Higher activity of the nucleus accumbens was associated with
gaining reputation on social media => gives additional support for the
rewarding aspects of Facebook usage
 Higher daily frequency of checking Facebook on the smartphone
was robustly linked with smaller grey matter volumes of the
nucleus accumbens => the more one uses social media, the
smaller the brain’s reward system (nucleus accumbens) => using
social media resembles addiction?

TASK: find out the gist of Konrath, O’Brien and Hsing (2011)

 Konrath, O’Brien and Hsing (2011) – decline in empathy scores over time
o AIM: do empathy scores change over time with US college students?
o PROCEDURE: a cross-temporal meta-analysis and a correlational study
 72 samples of US college students who had completed a self-
report measure of empathy between 1979 and 2009 (N ≈ 14 000)
 Scores related to empathetic concern (emotion) and perspective
taking (cognitive) were correlated with the year of data collection
o RESULTS: More recent generations of US college students
progressively reported lower scores both in empathetic concern and
perspective taking
 Most drastic drop happened between 2000 and 2009 when social
media and personal cell phones emerged
o CONCLUSION: Decline of the empathy scores coincides with the onset
of the digital era

76
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

TASK: Does digital technology effect empathy? (PP)

 Carrier et al (2015) correlational study

o AIM: Is there a relationship between digital activities, virtual empathy
and real-world empathy?
o PROCEDURE 1726 participant who were born in the digital era (after
1980) responded to anonymous online questionnaire that collected
information on daily media usage and empathy scores => both emotional
and cognitive components of empathy were measured
o RESULTS: online activities that led to face-to-face communication was
shown to be associated with higher real-life empathy scores
 (1) Social network sites, (2) browsing websites, (3) using email
and (4) using the computer for something else than being online
predicted increased amount of face-to-face communication
 Videogaming did not predict more face-to-face communication
and reduced real-life empathy scores
o CONCLUSION: We need to consider the exact digital activity when
examining the relationship between the use of digital media and empathy
=> some activities may increase empathy, some others may not

 Howard-Jones (2011)
o When digital technology became dominant in the 1990s, teenagers using
the internet experienced more problems with social connectedness and
well-being (Nie, 2001)
o When internet emerged, it was difficult to maintain existing social
networks online
o Now, everyone is online => situation has been reversed => Online
communication for supporting existing friendships may produce positive
effects
o Using the internet to make new friends is still associated with lower
empathy

77
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

Sleep in general (not in the textbook)

TASK: Awakeness curve (PP)

TASK: hours of sleep (PP)

 Deep sleep stages are important in consolidating memories

o Hippocampus tells the cortex what has happened => memories are
moved from the temporary storage from the hippocampus to the long-
term memory in the cortex
 REM-sleep is vital for strengthening learning
o The cortex receives the story from the hippocampus and tries to connect
the story to existing memories (possible reason for dreaming: the brain
goes “online” during this association process)
o Unnecessary things are forgotten during REM-sleep => active forgetting
o During REM-sleep typical associations get weaker and surprising ones
stronger => REM-sleep can boost creativity
 Brain’s lymphatic system cleans up the brain from metabolic waste during sleep
o Spinal fluids flow through the brain in pulses during sleep
 Sleep is vital to our overall well-being
o Physical malfunctions: (1) prefrontal cortex is impaired under sleep
deprivation => bad cognitions; (2) malfunctions in autonomous nervous
system => unnecessary activation; (3) hormonal imbalance => makes
falling asleep even harder; (4) weakened immune system => probability
to fall ill increases
o Psychic problems: (1) mental health problems; (2) cognitive problems;
(3) swinging moods
o Social problems follow from psychic problems

78
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

Digital technology and sleep (not in the textbook)

 One of the greatest threats of the use of digital devices is their negative impact
on sleep (George & Odgers, 2015)
 The use of digital devices among children and the young is repeatedly linked
with diminished hours of sleep and later bedtime hour (Carter et al., 2016;
Cheung et al., 2017; Cain & Gradisar, 2010)
 Carter et al. (2015) meta-analysis
o The use of digital devices among the children and the young is linked
with a double risk of insufficient hours of sleep and triple risk of daytime
tiredness (Carter et al., 2015)
 The young require 8 to 10 hours of sleep every night, but 58% of the young
sleeps less than 7 hours a night (Emsellem et al., 2014)
o Overdue sleeping rhythm is associated with puberty (Gradisar et al.,
2011) => might partially explain the phenomenon
 Not sleeping enough is associated with worsened physical and mental well-being
and impaired cognitions (Dahl & Lewin, 2002)
 The young who sleep later during weekends perform worse in school and
staying up late is associated with decreased brain mass in prefrontal cortex
(Urrila et al., 2016)
 Dewald et al. (2010) meta-analyysi
o Insufficient sleep, tiredness and especially daytime tiredness among the
children and the young are associated with impaired learning and
underachievement in school

TASK: how can digital devices impair our sleep and what can we do about it? (PP)

TASK: Survey (PP)

TASK: Media diary analysis (PP+PDF)

TASK: Compile a set of rules for yourself regarding media usage (PP)

TASK: Review (PP)

79
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

YLIJÄÄMÄMATSKUJA

EXTRA!!! Adaptive decision-maker framework (Payne, Bettman and Johnson, 1993)

 Recognizes that emotions may influence thinking and decision-making

o Humans don’t always try to make rational choices
 People possess a toolbox of strategies they can use to make decisions
 All strategies are divided into alternative-based and attribute-based strategies
o Alternative-based strategies: alternative is selected and compared to
attributes within it
 Weighted additive strategy (WADD): calculate the weighted sum
of attributes for each alternative => choose the alternative with
the highest weighted sum
 Satisfying strategy (SAT): determine a cut-off point for every
attribute (no less than…) => find the option that exceeds the cut-
off points on all attributes
o Attribute based strategies: an attribute is selected, and alternatives are
compared against the attribute
 Lexicographic strategy (LEX): choose the most important
attribute and then the option that has the best value on this
attribute
 Elimination by aspects (EBA): choose the most important
attribute and eliminate all the options that do not satisfy your
requirements for this attribute => choose the second most
important attribute and eliminate more options => continue until
one option is left
 Alternative-based strategies are emotionally tougher, because they involve more
trade-offs => an alternative often combines some attractive attributes with
unattractive ones
o E.g. a restaurant might have great food but lacks playroom for children

80
IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

 The choice of strategy is dictated by four meta-goals:

o (1) maximizing decision accuracy: weighted additive strategy (WADD)
o (2) minimizing cognitive effort: lexicographic strategy (LEX)
o (3) minimizing the experience of negative emotion: satisfying strategy
(SAT) and elimination by aspects (EBA)
o (4) maximising the ease of justification: satisfying strategy (SAT) and
elimination by aspects (EBA)
 Factors other than rational accuracy must be integrated directly into a model of
decision-making
 Luce, Bettman and Payne (1997) provided support for the model
o Situation that is emotionally pressing, people tend to process information
more extensively, but at the same time avoid emotionally difficult trade-
offs

TASK: figuring out the essence of adaptive decision-maker framework

TASK: making schematic representation of Luce, Bettman and Payne (1997) study

Comparison of models/theories

 Theory of planned behaviour (TPB) is a macro-level model

o Looks actions as visible results of decision-making processes => looks
behaviour at a large scale => can we see is the action performed or not?
=> focuses on choice outcomes and characteristics that predict these
outcomes
 Adaptive decision-maker framework is a micro-level model
o Zooms in on the transient internal processes of making a decision =>
What is going on in the persons mind when he/she is doing a decision?
=> focuses on the process of making a decision and strategies being used
when processing information

81
 IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

TÄSTÄ ETEENPÄIN OUTIN MATERIAALEJA!!!

Teorioita mediavaikutuksista

I Kultivaatiomalli

 Kultivaatiolla tarkoitetaan median valtaa muovata yleisön todellisuuskäsityksiä

median maailmankuvan mukaisiksi.
 Yleisön sosiaalista todellisuutta koskevat käsitykset samanlaistuvat
mediasisältöjen hahmottelemaan suuntaan.
 Tietyt asiat korostuvat mediassa ja alkavat vaikuttamaan ajattelumaailmaan.
 Esim. maailmankuva voi muuttua paljon väkivaltaa sisältäväksi ja synnyttää
siten ahdistusta ja pelkoa.

II Konsonassimalli

 Konsonanssimalli korostaa sitä, että median vaikutukset voimistuvat sitä

enemmän, mitä enemmän mediasisältöä toistetaan samantapaisina eri kanavissa.
Vaikutukset perustuvat siihen, että sama viesti toistuu eri viestimissä.
 Tätä toteutuu eri tasoilla: 1) päätöksissä, mitkä asiat ja tilanteet valitaan
kerrottaviksi ja mitkä suljetaan ulkopuolelle, 2) mistä näkökulmasta käsin asiaa
esitetään, 3) miten media arvottaa ja tulkitsee tapahtumia.
 Agenda setting – media valikoi aiheet, jotka ovat tärkeitä ja joihin yleisön
huomio halutaan suunnata. Media osoittaa siten miten orientoitua maailmaan ja
mitä asioita kannattaa pitää olennaisina.
 Esim. miten uutiskuva valitaan tai mitä korostetaan vaalien alla.

III Desensitisaatio eli turtuminen

 Totumme esim. väkivaltaan niin, että vaikka emme itse tulisikaan aiempaa
väkivaltaisemmiksi, alamme pitää väkivaltaa luonnollisempana emmekä
suhtaudu sen seurauksiin empaattisesti.
 Seurauksena voi olla väkivallan seurausten vähättely, empatian puute ja
välinpitämättömyys.
82
 IB Psychology Markus Lajunen

IV Aktivaatiomalli

 Media sytyttää vireystilan. Fysiologinen vireystila suuntaa median valikoivaa

käyttöä, sillä haemme itselle sopivaa vireystilaa.
 Olennaista seurausten kannalta on, miten tulkitsemme aktivaation.
 Malli selittää median toimintaa mielialalääkkeenä, rentoutusohjelmana tai
elämysmyllynä.

V Sosiaalinen oppiminen

 Jäljittelemme toista henkilöä erityisesti jos pidämme henkilöä tärkeänä ja

arvostettuna tai jos hänen toimintansa osoittautuu houkuttelevaksi ja
palkitsevaksi.
 Mediaväkivallan oppiminen tapahtuu usein käyttäytymistä säätelevien estojen
vähenemisen (disinhibition) kautta. Itsehillintä ei toimi aggressiivisten
impulssien ilmetessä. Median antama esimerkki saattaa yllyttää aggressioon
niitä katsojia, joilla on patoutunutta aggressiota sisällään.
 Mediaväkivalta voi antaa myös sytykkeen aggressiivisille tunteille ja ajatuksille.
Jossakin myöhemmässä, mediassa nähtyä tilannetta muistuttavassa tilanteessa
sytytysilmiö saattaa toimia: väkivaltaiseen ratkaisumalliin perustuvat ideat ja
tunteet tulevat pintaan ja vähentävät itsehillintää

VI Sosiaalisen informaationkäsittelyn mallit

 Informaation käsittely on konstruktiivista: emme varastoi ja palauta mieleen

median välittämää informaatiota sellaisenaan ja kirjaimellisesti. Muotoilemme
informaatiota kunkin hetkisen tilanteen ja aikaisempien tietorakenteiden eli
skeemojen pohjalta.
 Teoria painottaa, että käyttäytymisen oppiminen sosiaalisten mallien
suuntaiseksi vaatii muutoksia tiedollisissa rakenteissa eli
informaationprosessoinnissa. Median malleja ei näin ollen matkita suoraan
sellaisinaan.

83
 IB Psychology Markus Lajunen
 Erityisesti pitkäkestoiset mediavaikutukset edellyttävät skeema-, skripti- tai
asennetason muutoksia: väkivaltaa hyväksyviä normeja, normatiivisia
uskomuksia ja väkivaltaisia mielikuvia.
 Tutkimuksissa on todettu, että media tarjoaa aggressiivisen
ongelmanratkaisutavan, aggressiivisia mielikuvia ja tulkintakehyksiä, jotka
yleistyvät yksilön omaan toimintaan ja tulkintoihin myöhemmissä ristiriita- ja
turhaumatilanteissa.
 Väkivallan hyväksyvien asenteiden lisäksi median väkivaltaa lisäävä vaikutus
syntyy vahvistamalla mustavalkoista ajattelua.
 Aggressiiviset tulkinnat sosiaalisista tilanteista voidaan selittää vihamielisen
ajatteluvirheen seurauksiksi, esim. muut ovat riidanhaluisia, vahinko nähdään
tahallisena.

VII Tulkintakehysmalli

 Mediasisällöt kehystävät eli vaikuttavat yksilöiden ajatteluun kohdistamalla

huomion joihinkin todellisuuden osiin ja jättämällä muut asiat pimentoon.
 Yhdessä agenda settingin kanssa malli vaikuttaa asenteiden muotoutumiseen.
Ensin ilmiö tehdään näkyväksi esim. uutisissa, tämän jälkeen asiaa käsitellään
eri tavoin keskusteluissa, palstoilla, jolloin asiaan liittyy syyselityksiä,
laatumääreitä ja tulkintoja ja suosituksia ongelman hoitamiseksi. Usein
näkökulmat yhdenmukaistuvat.
 Väkivallan esittämistavoissa korostuu tietynlaiset tulkintakehykset. Esim. jos
media esittää väkivaltaa ihannoivasti ja jos katsoja on itsekin taipuvainen
näkemään väkivaltaviihteen hyväksyvien tulkintakehysten läpi, hän alkaa
todennäköisesti pitää väkivaltaa entistä mahdollisempana tapana ratkaista
ongelmatilanteita.

VIII Katharsismalli

 Tunteen muuttuminen - väheneminen tai jalostuminen sijaiskokemusten kautta.

 Jo Aristoteles ajatteli antiikin draamalla olevan tunteita puhdistava vaikutus eli
katharsis. Näytelmähenkilöiden tunteiden sijaiskokeminen voi puhdistaa
katsojan mielestä vastaavia tunteita.
84
 IB Psychology Markus Lajunen
 Sigmund Freud oletti, että ihmisen tuhoavat vietit voidaan jalostaa ohjaamalla
tuhoisat impulssit rakentavasti, esim. aggression sublimaatio.
 Väheneekö psykologinen aktivaatio havainnoimalla aggressiivista toimintaa? Ei
tieteellistä näyttöä puhdistavasta vaikutuksesta.
 Tuloksia on siitä, että draamojen kohdalla katharsis voi toteutua, ne voivat
kohentaa katsojien alakuloa ja masentuneisuutta.

Group project

Tee 2-4 hengen ryhmässä n. 15-30 min. esitys yhdestä aiheesta. Käytä lähteenä väh. 3
eri lähdettä, laita lähteet loppuun ylös. Tee google scholar -haku, jolloin saat myös
tieteellisempää tietoa! Tee esityksestä PowerPoint esitys Microsoft Officella, jolloin
esitys on yhteensopiva koulun koneiden kanssa. Esityksen rakentamiseen käytetään 2
kaksoistuntia, joten esitykseen tulee etsiä monenlaista materiaalia: tietoa, tutkimuksia,
kuvia, videoklippejä, keskustelukysymyksiä, kyselyjä yms.

AIHEET:

1) Netti- ja peliriippuvuus (Ida, Milla ja Henri) ma 12.12.

2) Tietokone-/nettipelien vaikutuksista (Patrik, Vilja ja Jenna N.) ma 12.12.
3) Sosiaalinen media (Lotta ja Emma) pe 9.12.
4) TV-, netti- ja lehtimainonta (Roope, Laura ja Juho) ke 7.12.
5) Median kauneusihanteet (netti, mainokset, lehdet) (Jenna S. ja Sonja) ke 7.12.
6) Nettikiusaaminen (Sami ja Tomi) ma 12.12.
7) Nettiturvallisuus (Miten netissä kannattaa käyttäytyä, medialukutaito, nettietiketti,
tietoturva, yksityisyydensuoja, lapset netissä ym.) ke 14.12.
8) Julkkikset ja media (julkisuuskuva) (Julia, Nora ja Pinja) pe 9.12.
9) Tositv -ohjelmat (katsojan ja osallistujan näkökulma) (Ronja, Sanni ja Jenni) ke 7.12.
10) Media eri kulttuureissa (esim. aivopesu, sensuuri) (Emilia ja Sofia) pe 9.12.
11) Vihapuhe eri medioissa (Karoliina ja Ville) ke 14.12.
12) Joku muu mediaan liittyvä aihe, jonka keksitte itse, kysy opelta, sopiiko?
13) Nettirikollisuus (Jaakko, Emmi ja Taavi) ke 14.12.

Palauta esityksesi palautuskansioon, josta se on helposti poimittavissa tunneilla ja siellä

ne tulevat myös kaikkien nähtäväksi. Jos teet esityksen Drivessä, muista ladata/kopioida

85
 IB Psychology Markus Lajunen
se PPT-muotoon ja tallentaa se vaikka tietokoneen työpöydälle, josta sen löytää helposti
Pedanetin palautuskansioon.

Media and identity

1. Kirjoita ylös lyhyesti vastaukset seuraaviin kysymyksiin

a) Kuka mediahahmo olisit ja miksi?

b) Ketkä ovat olleet idoleitasi ja miksi?
c) Miten media on muokannut käsitystä itsestäsi?

2. Hahmottele vastausrunko (ranskalaiset viivat/miellekartta) vanhasta yo-

kysymyksestä: Internetin ja virtuaalimaailmojen vaikutus identiteetin kehitykseen
nuoruusiässä.

86