1

Chapter
The Basic Concepts

1.1 Introduction
In electrical engineering, we are often interested in communicating or transferring energy from one point to
another. To do this requires an interconnection of electrical devices. Such interconnection is referred to as an electric
circuit, and each component of the circuit is known as an element.

Note : An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical elements.

As electrical engineers, we deal with measurable quantities. Our measurement, however, must be communicated
in a standard language that virtually all professionals can understand, irrespective of the country where the
measurement is conducted. Such an international measurement language is the International System of Units (SI).
Table - 1.1 : Six basic SI units and one derived unit relevant to this text

Quantity Basic unit Symbol

Length Meter m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Electric current Ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature Kelvin K
Luminous intensity Candela cd
Charge Coulomb C

1.2 The Concept of Charge and Current

The concept of electric charge is the underlying principle for explaining all electrical phenomena. Also, the
most basic quantity in an electric circuit is the electric charge.
Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which matter consists, measured in Coulombs (C).

Note : The charge ‘e’ on an electron is negative and equal in magnitude to 1.602 × 10–19 C, while a proton
carries a positive charge of the same magnitude as the electron.
The following points should be noted about electric charge:
1. The Coulomb is a large unit for charges. In 1 C of charge, there are 1/(1.602 × 10–19) = 6.24 × 1018 electrons.
Thus realistic or laboratory values of charges are on the order of pC, nC or µC.
2. According to experimental observations, the only charges that occur in nature are integral multiples of
the electronic charge e = –1.602 × 10–19 C.
3. The law of conservation of charge states that charge can neither be created nor destroyed, only transferred.
Thus the algebraic sum of the electric charges in a system does not change.
When a conducting wire (consisting of several atoms) is connected to a battery (a source of electromotive
force), the charges are compelled to move, positive charges move in one direction while negative charges move in the
opposite direction. This motion of charges creates electric current. It is conventional to take the current flow as the
movement of positive charges.
2 Network Theory

– –
– –

+ –
Battery

Fig. 1.1 : Electric current due to flow of electronic charge in a conductor

Note : Electric current is the time rate of change of charge, measured in amperes (A).

Table-1.2 : The SI prefix

Multiplier Prefix Symbol

18
10 exa E
15 peta
10 P
12
10 tera T
9 giga
10 G
6
10 mega M
3
10 kilo k
2 hecto
10 h
10 deka da
–1 deci
10 d
–2 centi
10 c
–3
10 milli m
–6 micro
10 µ
–9
10 nano n
–12 pico
10 p
–15 femto
10 f
–18
10 atto a

We can relate current and charge as follows:

Current = Rate of flow of charges
Mathematically, the relationship between current i, charge q, and time t is
dq
i = ...(1.1)
dt
where, current is measured in amperes (A), and
1 ampere = 1 Coulomb/second
The charge transferred between time to and t is obtained by integrating both sides of equation (1.1).
t
We obtain, Q= i dt ...(1.2)
to

If the current does not change with time, but remains constant, we call it direct current (dc).

Note : A direct current (dc) is a current that remains constant with time.
 EC : THEORY BOOK 3

By convention the symbol ‘I’ is used to represent such a constant current.

A time-varying current is represented by the symbol ‘i’. A common form of time-varying current is the sinusoidal
current or alternating current (ac).

Note : An alternating current (ac) is a current that varies sinusoidally with time.

I I

t
0
t
0 (a)
(b)

Fig. 1.2 : Two common types of current (a) direct current (dc), (b) alternating current (ac)

The concept of positive and negative current.

If any branch has current 5 A then the same current can be shown as –5 A in opposite direction.
5A
A B

this is equal to

A B
–5 A

Fig. 1.3 : Showing positive and negative current

Note : We can say that 5 A current from point A to B is same as –5 A current from B to A.

Example 1.1 : The total charge entering a terminal is given by q = 5t sin4pt mC. Calculate the current at
t = 0.5s.

Solution :
dq d
i= = (5t sin 4 t ) mC/s
dt dt
= (5 sin4 t + 20 t cos4 t) mA
At t = 0.5, i = 5 sin2 + 10 cos2 = 0
= 0 + 10 = 31.42 mA

Example 1.2 : Determine the total charge entering a terminal between t = 1 s and t = 2 s if the current
passing the terminal is i = (3t2 – t) A.

Solution :
2 2
Q= i dt = (3t 2 t ) dt
t=1 1

2
3 t2 1
= t = (8 2) 1 = 5.5 C
2 2
1
 4 Network Theory

1.3 The Concept of Voltage

To move electrons in a conductor in a particular direction requires some work or energy transfer. This work is
performed by an external electromotive force (emf), typically represented by the battery. This emf is also known as
voltage or potential difference. The voltage vab between two points a and b in an electric circuit is the energy (or work)
needed to move a unit charge from a to b ; mathematically,
dw
vab =
dq
where ‘w’ is energy in Joules (J) and ‘q’ is charge in Coulombs (C).

Note : 1 volt = 1 Joule/Coulomb = 1 Newton-meter/Coulomb

Voltage (or potential difference) is the energy required to move a unit charge through an element, measured
in volts (V).
If we have any circuit element as shown in Fig. 1.4.
a
+

vab

–
b

The plus (+) and minus (–) signs are used to define reference direction or voltage polarity.
The vab can be interpreted in two ways: (1) point a is at a potential of vab volts higher than point b, or (2) the
potential at point ‘a’ with respect to point ‘b’ is vab. It follows logically that in general,
vab = –vba ...(1.4)
For example in Fig. 1.5, we have two representations of the same voltage. In Fig. 1.5 (a), point ‘a’ is +9 V above
point ‘b’; in Fig. 1.5 (b), point ‘b’ is 9 V above point ‘a’. We may say that in Fig. 1.5 (a), there is a 9 V voltage drop from
a to b or equivalent a 9 V voltage rise from b to a. In other words, a voltage drop from a to b is equivalent to a voltage
rise from b to a.
a a
+ –

9V –9 V

– +
b b
(a) (b)

Fig. 1.5 : Two equivalent representation of the same voltage vab :

(a) Point a is 9 V above point b; (b) point b is –9 V above point a.

Note : • The constant voltage is called a dc voltage and is represented by V.

• A sinusoidally time-varying voltage is called an ac voltage and is represented by v.

1.4 Power and Energy

Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy, measured in watt (W).
We write this relationship as,
dw
p = ...(1.5)
dt
 EC : THEORY BOOK 5

where ‘p’ is power in watts (W), ‘w’ is energy in Joules (J), and ‘t’ is time in seconds (s). From equation (1.1),
(1.3) and (1.5), it follows that,
dw dw dq
p = = = vi ...(1.6)
dt dq dt
or, p = vi ...(1.7)

Note : If one joule of energy is expended in transferring one coulomb of charge through the device in one
second, then the rate of energy transfer is one watt. The absorbed power must be proportional both to the
number of coulombs transferred per second (current) and to the energy needed to transfer one coulomb
through the element (voltage).
The power can be +ve or –ve, +ve power means power is being absorbed by the element or power is being
delivered to the element. –ve power means power is being supplied by the element or power is being delivered by the
element. Rule to decide that power has +ve sign or –ve sign. When the current enter through the positive terminal of
an element and p = +vi. If the current enters through the negative terminal, p = –vi.
3A 3A
+ –

4V 4V

– +
(a) (b)

Fig. 1.9 : Two cases of an element with an absorbing power of 12 W;

(a) p = 4 × 3 = 12 W, (b) p = 4 × 3 = 12 W

3A 3A
+ –

4V 4V

– +
(a) (b)

Fig. 1.10 : Two cases of an element with a supplying power of 12 W;

(a) p = –4 × 3 = –12 W, (b) p = –4 × 3 = –12 W

Remember : • If any element in the circuit is delivering power of 12 W then it means that it is absorbing
–12 W power.
• Similarly if any element in the circuit is absorbing power of 12 W then it means it is
supplying –12 W power.

Example 1.3 : Compute the power absorbed by each part in figure.

3A –5 A
+ –
+
2V –2 V 4V
– + –
–3 A
 6 Network Theory

Solution :
In Fig. (a), we see that the reference current is defined consistent with the passive sign convention, which
assumes that the element is absorbing power. With +3 A flowing into the positive reference terminal, we
compute of power absorbed by the element,
P = (2 V) (3 A) = 6 W
Fig. (b) shows a slightly different picture. Now, we have a current of –3 A flowing into the positive reference
terminal. This gives us an absorbed power,
P = (–2 V) (–3 A) = 6 W
Thus, we see that the two cases are actually equivalent: A current of +3 A flowing into the top terminal is the
same as a current of +3 A flowing out of the bottom terminal, or, equivalently, a current of –3 A flowing into
the bottom terminal.
Referring of Fig. (c), we again apply the passive sign convention rules and compute absorbed power,
P = (4 V) (–5 A) = –20 W
Since we computed a negative absorbed power, this tells us that the element in Fig. (c) is actually supplying
+20 W (i.e., it’s a source of energy).

The law of conservation of energy must be obeyed in any electric circuit. For this reason, the algebraic sum of
power in a circuit, if any instant of time, must be zero,
P =0 ...(1.8)

Note : The total power supplied to the circuit must balance the total power absorbed,
P supplied = Pabsorbed ...(1.9)

From equation (1.6), the energy absorbed or supplied by an element from time to to time ‘t’ is,
t t
w= p dt = vi dt ...(1.10)
to to

Note : Energy is the capacity to do work and it is measured in Joules.

The electric power utility companies measure energy in watt-hours (Wh), where,
1 Wh = 3600 J

Example 1.4 : A energy source forces a constant current of 2 A for 10s to flow through a light bulb.
If 2.3 kJ is given off in the form of light and heat energy, calculate the voltage drop across the bulb.

Solution :
The total charge is, q = i t = 2 × 10 = 20 C
w 2.3 × 10 3
The voltage drop is, v = = = 115 V
q 20

Example 1.5 : How much energy does a 100 W electric bulb consume in two hours?

Solution :
w = pt = 100 (W) × 2 (h) × 60 (min/h) × 60 (s/min)
= 720,000 J = 720 kJ
This is the same as, w = pt = 100 W × 2 h = 200 Wh
 EC : THEORY BOOK 7

1.4 Voltage and Current Sources

There are two types of elements found in electric circuit: passive elements and active elements. An active
element is capable of generating energy while a passive element is not. Examples of passive elements are resistors,
capacitors and inductors. Typical active elements include generators, batteries, and operational amplifiers. Our aim
in this section is to gain familiarity with some important active elements.
The most important active elements are voltage or current sources that generally deliver power to the circuit
connected to them. There are two kinds of sources: independent and dependent sources.
An ideal independent source is an active element that provides a specified voltage or current that is completely
independent of other circuit elements.
In other words, an ideal independent voltage source delivers to the circuit whatever current is necessary to
maintain its terminal voltage. Figure shows the symbols for independent voltage sources.

+
v V
–

(a) (b)
Fig. 1.11 : Symbols for independent voltage sources
(a) used for constant or time-varying voltage, (b) used for constant voltage (dc).

An ideal independent current source is an active element that provides a specified current completely
independent of the voltage across the source. That is, the current source delivers to the circuit whatever voltage is
necessary to maintain the designated current. The symbol for an independent current source is displayed in Fig. 1.12,
where the arrow indicates the direction of current i.

Fig. 1.12 : Symbols for independent current source

An ideal dependent (or controlled) source is an active element in which the source quantity is controlled by
another voltage or current.
Dependent sources are usually designated by diamond-shaped symbols, as shown in Fig. 1.13.
There are four possible types of dependent sources, namely:
1. A Voltage Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS).
2. A Current Controlled Voltage Source (CCVS).
3. A Voltage Controlled Current Source (VCCS).
4. A Current Controlled Current Source (CCCS).

v + i
–

(a) (b)
Fig. 1.13 : Symbols for (a) dependent voltage source, (b) dependent current source
 8 Network Theory

Remember : It should be noted that an ideal voltage source (dependent or independent) will produce any
current required to ensure that the terminal voltage is as stated, whereas an ideal current source will
produce the necessary voltage to ensure the stated current flow. Thus, an ideal source could in theory
supply an infinite amount of energy. It should also be noted that not only do sources supply power to a
circuit, they can absorb power from a circuit too. For a voltage source, we know the voltage but not the
current supplied or drawn by it. By the same token, we know the current supplied by a current source but
not the voltage across it.

All these sources are shown in below figure and in Fig. 1.14 (a) and Fig. (c), K is a dimensionless scaling
constant. In Fig. 1.14 (b), g is a scaling factor with units of A/V; in Fig. 1.14 (d), r is a scaling factor with units of V/A.
The controlling current ix and the controlling voltage vx, must be defined in the circuit.

Kix gvx Kvx +

– rix +
–

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 1.14 : The four different types of dependent sources:

(a) current controlled current source (b) voltage controlled current source
(c) voltage controlled voltage source (d) current controlled voltage source

Example 1.6 : Calculate the power supplied or absorbed by each element in figure.
I=5A p2

+ 12 V –
6A
+
20 V p1 p3 8V p4 0.2 I
–

Solution:
We apply the sign convention for power shown in Fig. 1.8 and Fig. 1.9.
For p1, the 5 A current is out of the positive terminal (or into the negative terminal).
Hence, p 1 = 20 (–5) = –100 W (Supplied power)
For p2 and p3, the current flows into the positive terminal of the element in each case,
p 2 = 12 (5) = 60 W (Absorbed power)
p 3 = 8 (6) = 48 W (Absorbed power)
For p4, we should note that the voltage is 8 V (positive at the top), the same as the voltage for p3, since both the
passive element and the dependent source are connected to the same terminals. (Remember that voltage is
always measured across an element in a circuit). Since the current flows out of the positive terminal,
p 4 = 8 (–0.2I) = 8(–0.2 × 5) = –8 W (Supplied power)
We should observe that the 20 V independent voltage source and 0.2I dependent current source are supplying
power to the rest of the network, while the two passive elements are absorbing power.
Also, p1 + p2 + p3 + p4 = –100 + 60 + 48 – 8 = 0
In agreement with equation (1.8), the total power supplied equals the total power absorbed.
 EC : THEORY BOOK 9

1.5 Summary
1. An electric circuit consists of electrical elements connected together.
2. The International System of Units (SI) is the International measurement language, which enables engineers
to communicate their results. From the seven principal units, the units of other physical quantities can be
derived.
3. Current is the rate of charge flow past a given point in a given direction,
dq
i=
dt
4. Voltage is the energy required to move 1 C of charge through an element,
dw
v =
dq
5. Power is the energy supplied or absorbed per unit time. It is also the product of voltage and current,
dw
p = = vi
dt
6. According to the passive sign convention, power assumes a positive sign when the current enters the
positive polarity of the voltage across an element.
7. An ideal voltage source produces a specific potential difference across its terminals regardless of what is
connected to it. An ideal current source produces a specific current through its terminals regardless of
what is connected to it.
8. Voltage and current sources can be dependent or independent. A dependent source is one whose value
depends on some other circuit variable.
9. Two areas of application of the concepts covered in this chapter are the TV picture tube and electricity
billing procedure.
 10 Network Theory

Practice Questions Q.11 Computer the power absorbed or supplied by each

component of the circuit in figure.
Q.1 In the wire of figure, electrons are moving left to 2V
9A I=5A
right to create a current of 1 mA. Determine I1 and I2.
I1 p2 4A
I2 + +
5V p1 p3 + 0.6 I p4 3V
–
– –
Q.2 The current flowing through an element is,
4A, 0<t<1
i=
4t 2 A, t>1 Q.12 Find the power absorbed by each element in the
Calculate the charge entering the element from circuit in figure.
t = 0 to t = 2s. 5 A – –vx +
– 12 V +
Q.3 If q = (10 – 10e–2t) mC, find the current at t = 1.0s.
+ + + +
7A 8V 8V 20 V 0.25vx 20 V
Q.4 For the element in figure, v1 = 17 V. Determine v2. – – – –
2A 8A
+ –
v1 v2 Q.13 Find the charge q(t) flowing through a device if
– + the current is
(a) i(t) = 3 A, q(0) = 1 C
Q.5 To move charge q from point a to point b requires (b) i(t) = (2t + 5) mA, q(0) = 0
–30 J. Find the voltage drop vab if, (a) q = 6 C
(b) = q = –3 C. (c) i(t ) = 20 cos 10t + µA, q(0) = 2 µC
6
Q.6 How much energy does a 100 W electric bulb (d) i(t) = 10e–30t sin40t A, q(0) = 0
consume in two hours?
Q.14 The charge flowing in a wire is plotted in figure.
Q.7 A solve element draws 15 A when connected to a Sketch the corresponding current.
240 V line. How long does it take to consume q(C)
180 kJ?
50
Q.8 Determine the power being absorbed by the circuit
element in Fig. (a). t(s)
0 2 4 6 8
+
+
–50
220 mV –3.8 V
Q.15 The current through an element is shown in figure.
4A
–1.75 A Determine the total charge that passed through
– –
(a) (b) the element at:
–100t (a) t = 1s (b) t = 3s (c) t = 5s
8e V
– +
i(A)
3.2 A
10
Q.9 Determine the power being generated by the
circuit element in Fig. (b).
5
Q.10 Determine the power being delivered to the circuit
element in Fig. (c) at t = 5 ms. t(s)
0 1 2 3 4 5
 EC : THEORY BOOK 11

Q.16 A rechargeable flashlight battery is capable of Q.20 Find I and the power absorbed by each element in
delivering 90 mA for about 12 h. How much the network of figure.
charge can it release at that rate? If its terminal
voltage is 1.5 V, how much energy can the battery 2A I
deliver?
+ +
+
8A 9V 3V
Q.17 The charge entering the positive terminal of an 9V –
– –
element is
q = 5 sin4 t mC 6V

while the voltage across the element

(plus to minus) is
Q.21 A 60 W incandescent bulb operates at 120 V. How
v = 3 cos4 t V
many electrons and coulombs flow through the
(a) Find the power delivered to the element at
bulb in one day?
t = 0.3s.
(b) Calculate the energy delivered to the element Q.22 A constant current of 3 A for 4 hours is required
between 0 and 0.6s. to charge an automotive battery. If the terminal
voltage is 10 + t/2 V, where ‘t’ is in hours.
Q.18 The current entering the positive terminal of a
(a) How much charge is transported as a result
device is i(t) = 6e–2t mA and the voltage across the
of the charging?
device is v(t) = 10di/dt V.
(b) How much energy is expended?
(a) Find the charge delivered to the device
between t = 0 and t = 2s. Q.23 A lightning bolt carried a current of 2 kA and
(b) Calculate the power absorbed. lasted for 3 ms. How many coulombs of charge
where contained in the lightning bolt?
(c) Determine the energy absorbed in 3s.
Q.24 A 12 V battery requires a total charge of
Q.19 Figure shows a circuit with five elements. If
40 ampere-hours during recharging. How many
p1 = –205 W, p2 = 60 W, p4 = 45 W, p5 = 30 W,
joules are supplied to the battery?
calculate the power p3 received or delivered by
element 3.
2 4

1 3 5
 12 Network Theory

Answers
1. (I1 = –1 mA, I2 = +1 mA) See the sketch in figure.

2. (13.333 C) i(t) A

3. (2.707 mA) 25

4. (v2 = –17 V)
t(s)
0 2 4 6 8
5. (a) –5 V (b) 10 V

6. w = pt = 100 (W) × 2(h) × 60(min/h) × 60(s/min) –25

= 720,000 J = 720 kJ
This is the same as, 15. (a) 10 C (b) 22.5 C (c) 30 C
w = pt = 100 W × 2 h = 200 Wh
16. (3.888 kC, 5.832 kJ)
7. (50 s)
17. (123.37 mW, 58.76 mJ)
8. (880 mW)
18. (a) 2.945 mC (b) –720 e–4t µW (c) –180 µJ
9. (6.65 W)
19. (70 W)
10. (–15.53 W)
20. (6 A, –72 W, 18 W, 18 W, 36 W)
11. (p1 = –45 W, p2 = 18 W, p3 = 12 W, p4 = 15 W,)
21. (2.696 × 1023 electrons, 43,200 C)
12. (left to right) –56 W, 16 W, –60 W, 160 W, –60 W
22. (a) 43.2 kC (b) 475.2 kJ (c) 1.188 cents
13. (a) 3t + 1 C, (b) t2 + 5t mC
23. (6 C)
(c) 2 sin 10t + + 1 µC
6 24. (1.728 mJ)
(d) –e–30t [0.16 cos40t + 0.12 sin40t] C

25 A, 0<t<2
14. i= 25 A, 2 < t < 6
25 A, 6<t<8
 EC : THEORY BOOK 13

Review Questions Q.8 The voltage across a 1-1 kW toaster that produces
a current of 10 A is
Q.1 One millivolt is one millionth of a volt.
(a) 11 kV (b) 1100 V
(a) True (b) False
(c) 110 V (d) 11 V
Q.2 The prefix micro stands for
Q.9 Which of these is not an electrical quantity?
(a) 106 (b) 10 3
(a) Charge (b) Time
(c) 10 –3 (d) 10 –6
(c) Voltage (d) Current
Q.3 The voltage 2,000,000 V can be expressed in (e) Power
powers of 10 as:
Q.10 The dependent source in figure is
(a) 2 mV (b) 2 kV
(c) 2 MV (d) 2 GV io

Q.4 A charge of 2 C flowing past a given point each vs 6io

second is a current of 2 A.
(a) True (b) False
(a) voltage-controlled current source
Q.5 The unit of current is
(b) voltage-controlled voltage source
(a) Coulomb (b) Ampere
(c) current-controlled voltage source
(c) Volt (d) Joule
(d) current-controlled current source
Q.6 Voltage is measured in
(a) Watts (b) Amperes
(c) Volts (d) Joules per second
Answers :
Q.7 A 4 A current charging a dielectric material will
accumulate a charge of 24 C after 6 second. 1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (b)

(a) True (b) False 6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (d)
 2
Chapter
Basic Laws

To actually determine the values of these variables in a given circuit requires that we understand some
fundamental laws that govern electric circuits. These laws, known as Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws, form the
foundation upon which electric circuit analysis is built. In this chapter, in addition to these laws, we shall discuss
some techniques commonly applied in circuit design and analysis. These techniques include combining resistors in
series or parallel, voltage division, current division, and delta-to-wye and wye-to-delta transformations.

2.1 Ohm’s Law

Materials in general have a characteristic behaviour of resisting the flow of electric charge. This physical
property, or ability to resist current, is known as resistance and is represented by the symbol ‘R’. The resistance of
any material with a uniform cross-sectional area ‘A’ depends on A and its length ‘l’, as shown in Fig. 2.1(a). We can
represent resistance (as measured in the laboratory), in mathematical form,

l
R= ...(2.1)
A
where, is known as the resistivity of the material in ohm-meters. Good conductors, such as copper and
aluminium, have low resistivities , while insulators, such as mica and paper, have high resistivities.

l
i
+
v R
–
Material with
resistivity
Cross-sectional
area A (b)
(a)

Fig. 2.1 : (a) Resistor (b) Circuit symbol for resistance

Note : The circuit element used to model the current resisting behaviour of a material is the resistor.
The relationship between current and voltage for a resistor is known as Ohm’s law.
Ohm’s law states that the voltage ‘V’ across a resistor is directly proportional to the current ‘i’ flowing
through the resistor.
i.e., v i ...(2.2)
Ohm defined the constant of proportionality for a resistor to be the resistance, R.
Thus, equation (2.2) becomes,
v = iR ...(2.3)
which is the mathematical form of Ohm’s law. R in equation (2.3) is measured in the unit of Ohms, designated .

Note : The resistance R of an element denotes its ability to resist the flow of electric current, it is measured in
Ohms ( ).
 2 Network Theory

Remember : To apply Ohm’s law as stated in equation (2.3), we must pay careful attention to the current
direction and voltage polarity. The direction of current i and the polarity of voltage v must confirm with the
passive sign convention, as shown in Fig. 2.1(b). This implies that current flows from a higher potential to
a lower potential in order for v = iR. If current flows from a lower potential to a higher potential, v = –iR.
Since the value of R can range from zero to infinity, it is important that we consider the two extreme possible
values of R. An element with R = 0 is called a short circuit, as shown in Fig. 2.2(a). For a short circuit, v = iR = 0 voltage
is zero but the current could be anything. In practice, a short-circuit is usually a connecting wire assumed to be a
perfect conductor.
Thus, v = iR = 0 ...(2.5)

+ i + i=0

v=0 R=0 v R=

– –

(a) (b)
Fig. 2.2 : (a) Short-circuit (R = 0) (b) Open-circuit (R = )

Note : A short-circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching zero.

Similarly, an element with R = is known as an open-circuit, as shown in Fig. 2.2(b). For an open-circuit,
indicating that the current is zero through the voltage could be anything.
v
Thus, i = lim =0 ...(2.6)
R R

Note : An open-circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching infinity.

All resistors do not obey Ohm’s law. A resistor that obeys Ohm’s law is known as a linear resistor. It has a
constant resistance and thus its current-voltage characteristic is as illustrated in Fig. 2.3(a). Its i-v graph is a straight
line passing through the origin. A non-linear resistor does not obey Ohm’s law. Its resistance varies with current and
its i-v characteristic is typically shown in Fig. 2.3(b).
v v

Slope = R
Slope = R

i i

(a) (b)

Fig. 2.3 : The i-v characteristic of (a) a linear resistor (b) a non-linear resistor

To find the value of R :

1. In case of linear resistor R = slope of v-i plot.
2. In case of non-linear resistor the value of resistance changes at different points on the curve thus at any

particular value of current we can find resistance as, R = dV / di at the point an v-i curve.

A useful quantity in circuit analysis is the reciprocal of resistance R, known as conductance and denoted by G,
1 i
G= = ...(2.7)
R v
 EC : THEORY BOOK 3

The conductance is a measure of how well an element will conduct electric current. The unit of conductance
is the mho (ohm spelled backward) or reciprocal ohm, with symbol , the inverted omega. Although engineers often
use the mho, in this book we prefer to use the Siemens (S), the SI unit of conductance,
1S = 1 = 1 A/V ...(2.8)

Note : Conductance is the ability of an element to conduct electric current, it is measured in mho ( ) or
Siemens (S).
From equation (2.7), we may write,
i = Gv ...(2.9)
The power dissipated by a resistor by a resistor can be expressed in terms of R,

v2
p = vi = i 2 R = ...(2.10)
R
The power dissipated by a resistor may also be expressed in terms of G as,

2 i2
p = vi = v G = ...(2.11)
G
We should note two things from equations (2.10) and (2.11):
1. The power dissipated in a resistor is a non-linear function of either current or voltage.
2. Since R and G are positive quantities, the power dissipated in a resistor is always positive. Thus, a
resistor always absorbs power from the circuit. This confirms the idea that a resistor is a passive element,
incapable of generating energy.

Example 2.1 : An electric iron draws 2 A at 120 V. Find its resistance.

Solution :
v 120
From Ohm’s law, R= = = 60
i 2

Example 2.2 : In the circuit shown in figure, calculate the current i, the conductance G, and the power p.

+
30 V 5k v
–

Solution :
The voltage across the resistor is the same as the source voltage (30 V) because the resistor and the voltage
source are connected to the same pair of terminals. Hence, the current is
v 30
i= = = 6 mA
R 5 × 10 3
1 1
The conductor is, G= = = 0.2 mS
R 5 × 10 3
We can calculate the power in various ways using either equations,
p = vi = 30 (6 × 10–3) = 180 mW
or, p = i2R = (6 × 10–3)2 5 × 103 = 180 mW
or, p = v2G = (30)2 0.2 × 10–3 = 180 mW
 4 Network Theory

Example 2.3 : A voltage source of 20 sin t V is connected across a 5 k resistor. Find the current through
the resistor and the power dissipated.

Solution :
v 20 sin t
i= = = 4 sin t mA
R 5 × 10 3
Hence, p = vi = 80 sin2 pt mV

2.2 Nodes, Branches and Loops

2.2.1 The Concept of Network and Circuit

To differential between a circuit and a network, we may regard a network as an interconnection of elements
or devices, whereas a circuit is a network providing one or more closed paths.

2.2.2 The Concept of Branch

A branch represents a single element such as a voltage source or a resistor.
In other words, a branch represents any two terminal element. The circuit in Fig. 2.10 has five branches,
namely, the 10 V voltage source, the 2 A current source, and the three resistors.

a 5 b

10 V 2 3 2A

c
Fig. 2.10 : Nodes, Branches and Loops

2.2.3 The Concept of Node

A node is the point of connection between two or more branches.
A node is usually indicated by a dot in a circuit. b

If a short-circuit (a connecting wire) connects two nodes, the 5

two nodes constitute a single node. The circuit in Fig. 2.10 has three
nodes a, b and c. Notice that the three points that form node b are a 2 3 2A
connected by perfectly conducting wires and therefore constitute a
single point. The same is true of the four points forming node c. We
demonstrate that the circuit in Fig. 2.10 has only three nodes by 10 V
redrawing the circuit in Fig. 2.11. The two circuits in Fig. 2.10 and c
Fig. 2.11 : The three-node circuit of
2.11 are identical. However, for the sake of clarity, nodes b and c are
Fig. 2.10 is redrawn
spread out with perfect conductors as in Fig. 2.10.
The concept of loop: A loop is any closed path in a circuit.
A loop is a closed path formed by starting at a node, passing through a set of nodes, and returning to the
starting node without passing through any node more than once. A loop is said to be independent if there is no inner
loop inside the loop. Independent loops or paths result in independent sets of equations.
A network with b branches, n nodes, and l independent loops will satisfy the fundamental theorem of network
topology,
b = l+n–1 ...(2.12)
 EC : THEORY BOOK 5

2.2.4 The Concept of Series and Parallel Connection

Two ore more elements are in series if they exclusively share a single node and consequently carry the same
current. Two ore more elements are in parallel if they are connected to the same two nodes and consequently have the
same voltage across them.
Elements are in series when they are chain connected or connected sequentially, end to end. For example, two
elements are in series if they share one common node and no other element is connected to that common node.
Elements in parallel are connected to the same pair of terminals. Elements may be connected in a way that they are
neither in series nor in parallel. In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.10, the voltage source and the 5 resistor are in series
because the same current will flow through them. The 2 resistor, the 3 resistor, and the current source are in
parallel because they are connected to the same two nodes b and c and consequently have the same voltage across
them. The 5 and 2 resistors are neither in series nor in parallel with each other.

Example 2.4 : Determine the number of branches and nodes in the circuit shown in figure. Identify
which elements are in series and which are in parallel?
5

10 V 6 2A

Solution :
Since there are four elements in the circuit, the circuit has four branches: 10 V, 5 , 6 and 2 A. The circuit
has three nodes as identified in figure. The 5 resistor is in series with the 10 V voltage source because the
same current would flow in both. The 6 resistor is in parallel with the 2 A current source because both are
connected to the same nodes 2 and 3.
5 2
1

10 V 6 2A

2.3 Kirchhoff’s Laws

Kirchhoff’s current law is based on the law of conservation of charge, which requires that the algebraic sum
of charges within a system cannot change.
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents entering a node (or a closed boundary)
is zero.
Mathematically, KCL implies that,
N
in = 0 ...(2.13)
n=1
 6 Network Theory

where N is the number of branches connected to the node and in is nth current entering (or leaving) the node.
By this law, currents entering a node may be regarded as positive, while currents leaving the node may be taken as
negative or vice-versa.
The prove KCL, assume a set of currents ik(t), k = 1, 2, ....., flow into a node. The algebraic sum of currents at the
node is,
iT(t) = i1(t) + i2(t) + i3(t) + .... ...(2.14)
Integrating bode sides of equation (2.14) gives,
qT(t) = q1(t) + q2(t) + q3(t) + .... ...(2.15)

where q k (t ) = ik (t ) dt and qT (t ) = iT (t ) dt.

But the law of conservation of electric charge requires that the algebraic sum of electric charges at the node
must not change, that is, the node stores no net charge. Thus, qT(t) = 0 iT(t) = 0, confirming the validity of KCL.
Consider the node in Fig. 2.16. Applying KCL gives,
i1 + (–i2) + i3 + i4 + (–i5) = 0 ...(2.16)

i1
i5

i2 i4
i3

Fig. 2.16 : Currents at a node illustrating KCL

Since currents i1, i3 and i4 are entering the node, while currents i2 and i5 are leaving it. By rearranging the
terms, we get,
i1 + i3 + i4 = i2 + i5 ...(2.17)
Equation (2.17) is an alternative form of KCL:
The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the currents leaving the node.
The concept of KCL can be applied on any closed boundary.
KCL also applies to a closed boundary. This may be regarded as a generalized case, because a node may be
regarded as a closed surface shrunk to a point. In two dimensions, a closed boundary is the same as a closed path.
As typically illustrated in the circuit of Fig. 2.17, the total current entering the closed surface is equal to the total
current leaving the surface.

Closed boundary

Fig. 2.17 : Applying KCL to a closed boundary

Kirchhoff’s second law is based on the principle of conservation of energy.

 EC : THEORY BOOK 7

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL): States that the algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed path (or loop) is
zero.
Expressed mathematically, KVL states that,
M
vm = 0 ...(2.19)
m=1

where, M is the number of voltages in the loop (or the number of branches in the loop) and vm is the mth voltage.
The illustrate KVL, consider the circuit in Fig. 2.19. The sign on each voltage is the polarity of the terminal
encountered first as we travel around the loop. We can start with any branch and go around the loop either clockwise
or counterclockwise. Suppose we start with the voltage source and go clockwise around the loop as shown, then
voltages would be –v1, +v2, +v3 , –v4 and +v5 , in that order. For example, as aw reach branch 3, the positive terminal
is met first, hence, we have +v3. For branch 4, we reach the negative terminal first, hence, –v4.
Thus, KVL yields,
–v1 + v2 + v3 – v4 + v5 = 0 ...(2.20)
Rearranging terms gives,
v2 + v3 + v5 = v1 + v4 ...(2.21)
which may be interpreted as,
Sum of voltage drops = Sum of voltage rises ...(2.22)
v2 v3
+ – + –

v1 v4

– v5 +

Fig. 2.19 : A single-loop circuit illustrating KVL

Note : KVL can be applied in two ways, by taking either a clockwise or a counterclockwise trip around the
loop. Either way, the algebraic sum of voltages around the loop is zero.

Example 2.5 : For the circuit in Fig. (a), find values v1 and v2.

2 2
+ v1 – + v1 –
– –
20 V v2 3 20 V i v2 3
+ +

(a) (b)

Solution :
To find v1 and v2, we apply Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s voltage law. Assume that current i flows through the
loop as shown in Fig. (b).
From Ohm’s law, v 1 = 2i, v2 = –3i ...(i)
Applying KVL around the loop gives,
–20 + v1 – v2 = 0 ...(ii)
8 Network Theory

Substituting equation (i) into equation (ii), we obtain,

–20 + 2i + 3i = 0 or 5i = 20 i=4A
Substituting ‘i’ in equation (i) finally gives,
v 1 = 8 V, v2 = –12 V

Example 2.6 : Determine vo and i in the circuit shown in Fig. (a).

4 2vo 4 2vo
i
+– +–

12 V 4V 12 V i 4V

vo vo
+ – + –
6 6
(a) (b)

Solution :
We apply KVL around the loop as shown in Fig. (b). The result is,
–12 + 4i + 2vo – 4 + 6i = 0 ...(i)
Applying Ohm’s law to the 6 resistor gives,
vo = –6 i ...(ii)
Substituting equation (ii) into equation (i) yields,
–16 + 10i – 12i = 0 i = –8 A
and vo = 48 V

Example 2.7 : Find current io and voltage vo in the circuit shown in figure.
a

io
+
0.5io vo 4 3A
–

Solution :
Applying KCL to node a, we obtain
3 + 0.5 io = io io = 6 A
For the 4 resistor, Ohm’s law gives,
vo = 4io = 24 V

Example 2.8 : Find currents and voltage in the circuit shown in figure.
8 a
+ v1 –

+ +
30 V v2 3 v3 6
– –
 EC : THEORY BOOK 9

Solution :
Let current from 30 V source is I and it break at node a thus we have two variables I and Io, now we apply.
KVL in two loops we get, loop dacd,
8 I a Io
8I + 3(I – Io) – 30 = 0
+ v1 –
30 = 11I – 3Io ...(i) I – Io
and since resistor 3 and 6 are parallel to each other thus, + +
30 V v2 3 v3 6
3(I – Io) = 6Io – –
3I = 9Io
I = 3Io ...(ii)
c
Now using equation (i) and (ii) we get,
10I = 30
I = 3 A and Io = 1 A
Thus, V1 = 8I = 24 V
V2 = V3 = 6

2.4 Series Resistor and Voltage Division

The two resistors are in series, since the current ‘i’ flows in both of them. Applying Ohm’s law to each of the
resistors, we obtain

i a R1 R2
+ v – + v –
1 2

b (a)

v 1 = iR1, v2 = iR2 ...(2.24)

If we apply KVL to the loop (moving in the clockwise direction), we have
–v + v1 + v2 = 0 ...(2.25)
Combining equations (2.24) and (2.25), we get
v = v1 + v2 = i(R1 + R2) ...(2.26)
v
or, i = ...(2.27)
R1 + R2
Equation (2.26) can be written as,
v = iReq ...(2.28)
Implying that the two resistors can be replaced by an equivalent resistor Req ; that is
Req = R1 + R2 ...(2.29)
Req
i a
+ v –

b
Fig. 2.20: Equivalent circuit
 10 Network Theory

Note : The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors connected in series is the sum of the individual
resistances.
For N resistors in series then,
N
Req = R1 + R2 + ... + RN = Rn ...(2.30)
n=1

The concept of voltage division rule:

To determine the voltage across each resistor in Fig. 2.29, we substitute equation (2.26) into equation (2.24)
and obtain,
R1 R2
v1 = v, v2 = v ...(2.31)
R1 + R2 R1 + R2

Note : Notice that the source voltage v is divided among the resistors in direct proportion to their resistance,
the larger the resistance, the larger the voltage drop. This is called the principle of voltage division.
In general, if a voltage divider has N resistors (R1, R2, ......, RN) in series with in series with the source voltage
v, the nth resistor (Rn) will have a voltage drop of
Rn
vn = v ...(2.32)
R1 + R2 + ... + RN

2.5 Parallel Resistors and Current Division

Consider the circuit in Fig. 2.31, where two resistors are connected in parallel and therefore have the same
voltage across them. From Ohm’s law,
i Node ‘a’
v = i1R1 = i2R2
v v i1 i2
or, i1 = ; i2 = ...(2.33)
R1 R2
v R1 R2
Applying KCL at node a gives the total current i as,
i = i1 + i2 ...(2.34)
Substituting equation (2.33) into equation (2.34), we get Node ‘b’
Fig. 2.31 : Two resistors in parallel
v v 1 1 v
i = + =v + = ...(2.35)
R1 R2 R1 R2 Req

where Req is the equivalent resistance of the resistors in parallel,

1 1 1
= + ...(2.36)
Req R1 R2

1 R1 + R2
or, =
Req R1 R2

R1 R2
or, Req = ...(2.37)
R1 + R2

Note : • The equivalent resistance of two parallel resistors is equal to the product of their resistances
divided by their sum.
• From equation (2.37), if R1 = R2, then Req = R1/2
 EC : THEORY BOOK 11

We can extend the result in equation (2.36) to the general case of a circuit with N resistors in parallel. The
equivalent resistance is
1 1 1 1
= + + ... + ...(2.38)
Req R1 R2 RN

Note : Req is always smaller than the resistance of the smallest resistor in the parallel combination.
If R1 = R2 = ... = RN = R, then

R
Req = ...(2.39)
N

The concept of current division rule :

Given the total current i entering node ‘a’ in Fig. 2.31.

iR1 R2
v = iReq = ...(2.40)
R1 + R2

Combining equations (2.33) and (2.40) results in

R2 i R1i
i1 = ; i2 = ...(2.41)
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
which shows that the total current i is shared by the resistors in inverse proportion to their resistances. This
is known as the principle of current division, and the circuit in Fig. 2.31 is known as a current divider. Notice that the
larger current flows through the smaller resistance.

2.6 Equivalent Conductance of Resistors in Series and Parallel

It is often more convenient to use conductance rather than resistance when dealing with resistors in parallel.
From equation (2.38), the equivalent conductance for N resistors in parallel is,
Geq = G1 + G2 + G3 + ... + GN ...(2.40)
1 1 1 1 1
where Geq = , G1 = , G2 = , G3 = ,....., GN = . Equation (2.40) states:
Req R1 R2 R3 RN

Note : The equivalent conductance of resistors connected in parallel is the sum of their individual conductances.
In the same manner, the equivalent conductance of resistors in series is obtained. The equivalent conductance
Geq of N resistors in series (such as shown in Fig. 2.29) is,
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ... + ...(2.41)
Geq G1 G2 G3 GN

Example 2.9 : Find Req for the circuit shown in figure.

4 1

2
Req 5

6 3

8 (a)
12 Network Theory

Solution :
To get Req, we combine resistors in series and in parallel. The 6 and 3 resistors are in parallel, so their
equivalent resistance is,
6×3
6 3 =2 =
6+3
(The symbol is used to indicate a parallel combination). Also, the 1 and 5 resistors are in series, hence
their equivalent resistance is,
1 +5 = 6
Thus the circuit in Fig. (a) is reduced to that in Fig. (b). In Fig. (b), we notice that the two 2 resistors are
series, so the equivalent resistance is,
2 +2 =4
The 4 resistors is now in parallel with the 6 resistor in Fig. (b), their equivalent resistance is
4×6
4 6 = = 2.4
4+6
4 4

2
Req 6 Req 2.4
2
8 8

(b) (c)

The circuit in Fig. (b) is now replaced with that in Fig. (c). In Fig. (c), the three resistors are in series. Hence,
the equivalent resistance for the circuit is,
Req = 4 + 2.4 + 8 = 14.4

Example 2.10 : Calculate the equivalent resistance Rab in the circuit in figure.

10 c 1 d 1
a
6

Req 3 4 5

12
b
b b
(a)

Solution :
The 3 and 6 resistors are in parallel because they are connected to the same two nodes c and b. Their
combined resistance is
3×6
3 6 = =2 ...(i)
3+6
Similarly, the 12 and 4 resistors are in parallel since they are connected to the same two nodes d and b.
12 × 4
Hence, 12 4 = =3 ...(ii)
12 + 4
Also the 1 and 5 resistors are in series; hence, their equivalent resistance is,
1 +5 = 6 ...(iii)
 EC : THEORY BOOK 13

With these three combinations, we can replace the circuit in Fig. (a) with that in Fig. (b), 3 in parallel with
6 gives 2 , as calculated in equation (i). This 2 equivalent resistance is now in series with the 1
resistance to give a combined resistance of 1 + 2 = 3 . Thus, we replace the circuit in Fig. (b) with that
in Fig. (c). In Fig. (b), we combine the 2 and 3 resistors in parallel to get,
2×3
2 3 = 1.2 = ...(ii)
2+3
This 1.2 resistor is in series with the 10 resistor, so that
Rab = 10 + 1.2 = 11.2
10 c 1 d 10 c
a a

2 3 6 2 3

b b
b b b b b
(b) (c)

Example 2.11 : Find io and vo in the circuit shown in figure. Calculate the power dissipated in the 3
resistor.

i 4 a io

+
12 V 6 vo 3
–

Solution :
We can see that two resistors 6 and 3 are parallel to each other thus the equivalent is,

6 3 =2
The equivalent circuit is shown in figure. Thus by voltage division rule,
i 4 a
2
vo = × 12 = 4 V
2+4
+
vo 4 12 V vo 2
and io = = A
3 3 –

2 16
and power in 3 resistor is, io2 R = 3 × io = W b
3

Example 2.12 : For the circuit shown in figure, determine (a) the voltage vo, (b) the power supplied by the
current source.
6k

+
30 mA vo 9k 12 k
–
 14 Network Theory

Solution :
(a) We can see that 6 k and 12 k resistors are in series thus equivalent is drawn in figure. Now by current
division rule,
io i2
18
i1 = × 30 mA = 20 mA i1
9 + 18
+
9 30 mA vo 9k 18 k
i2 = × 30 mA = 10 mA –
9 + 18
Thus, vo = 9000 i1 = 180 V
(b) Power supplied by current source is voltage across current source × current of the current source,
Po = (180 × 30) mW = 5.4 W

2.7 Wye-Delta Transformations

Situations often arise in circuit analysis when the resistors are neither in parallel nor in series. For example,
consider the bridge current in Fig. 2.22. How do we combine resistors R1 through R6 when the resistors are neither in
series nor in parallel?

R1

R2 R3
R4
vs

R5 R6

Fig. 2.22 : The bridge network

For solving such circuits we use the concept of star-delta or Y-delta or T-delta transformation. Y-network is
also called T and star network and delta network is also called -network.

1 3

R1 R2 R1 R2
1 3

R3 R3

2 4 2 4
(a) (b)

Fig. 2.23 : Two forms of the same network : (a) Y (b) T

Rc Rc
1 3 1 3

Rb Ra Rb Ra

2 4 2 4
(a) (b)

Fig. 2.24 : Two forms of the same network : (a) (b)

 EC : THEORY BOOK 15

2.7.1 Delta to Y-Conversion

Each resistor in the Y-network is the product of the resistors in the two adjacent branches, divided by the
sum of the three resistors.
Rc
a b
R1 R2

Rb Ra
R3

c
Fig. 2.25 : Superposition of Y and networks as an aid
in transforming one to the other

If the delta network has resistance Ra, Rb, Rc then we can find R1, R2, R3 as follows:
Rb Rc
R1 = ...(2.42)
Ra + Rb + Rc

Rc Ra
R2 = ...(2.43)
Ra + Rb + Rc

Ra Rb
R3 = ...(2.44)
Ra + Rb + Rc
Y to Delta Conversion:
If the Y network has resistance R1, R2, R3 then we can find Ra, Rb, Rc as follows:
R R
Ra = R2 + R3 + 2 3 ...(2.45)
R1

R R
Rb = R1 + R3 + 1 3 ...(2.46)
R2

R R
Rc = R1 + R2 + 1 2 ...(2.47)
R3
The Y and networks are said to be balanced when,
R 1 = R2 = R3 = RY
Ra = Rb = Rc = R
Under these conditions, conversion formulas become,
R
RY = or R = 3RY ...(2.48)
3
16 Network Theory

Example 2.13 : Convert the network in figure to an equivalent Y network.

a 25 b

Rc

Rb Ra
10 15

Original network

Solution :
Rb Rc 10 × 25 250
Using above equations, R1 = = = =5
Ra + Rb + Rc 15 + 10 + 25 50

Rc Ra 25 × 15
R2 = = = 7.5
Ra + Rb + Rc 50

Ra Rb 15 × 10
R3 = = =3
Ra + Rb + Rc 50
The equivalent Y network is shown in figure.
a b
5
7.5
R1 R2

R3 3

Y equivalent network

Example 2.14 : Obtain the equivalent resistance Rab for the circuit in figure and use it to find current i.
i a a

12.5 10

120 V c n 30
5
15 20

b b

Solution :
In this circuit, there are two Y networks and three networks. Transforming just one of these will simplify
the circuit. If we convert the Y network comprising the 5 , 10 and 20 resistors, we may select,
R 1 = 10 , R2 = 20 , R3 = 5
 EC : THEORY BOOK 17

Thus from equations,

R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Ra =
R1
10 × 20 + 20 × 5 + 5 × 10 350
= = = 35
10 10
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1 350
Rb = = = 17.5
R2 20

R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1 350
Rc = = = 70
R3 5

a
a
.5
12.5 17
7.292
70 30 21

15 10.5
35

b
b (b)
(a)

4.545

d
2.273 1.8182
30
c n

15 20

b
(c)

Equivalent circuit figures, with the voltage source removed.

With the Y converted to , the equivalent circuit (with the voltage source removed for now) is shown in
Fig. (a). Combining the three parts of resistors in parallel, we obtain
70 × 30
70 30 = = 21
70 + 30
12.5 × 17.5
12.5 17.5 = = 7.292
12.5 + 17.5
15 × 35
15 35 = = 10.5
15 + 35
So that, the equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. (b). Hence, we find
17.792 × 21
Rab = (7.292 + 10.5) 21 = = 9.632
17.792 + 21
vs 120
Then, i= = = 12.458 A
Rab 9.632
18 Network Theory

Example 2.15 : Three light bulbs are connected to a 9 V battery as shown in Fig. (a). Calculate : (a) the total
current supplied by the battery (b) the current through each bulb (c) the resistance of each bulb.

I I1

I2
+
15 W V2 R2
+
– V1
9V 20 W 9V R1
+ –
10 W V3 R3
–
(a)
(b)

(a) Lighting system with three bulbs (b) resistive circuit equivalent model

Solution :
(a) The total power supplied by the battery is equal to the total power absorbed by the bulbs, that is,
p = 15 + 10 + 20 = 45 W
Since, p = VI, then the total current supplied by the battery is
p 45
I= = =5A
V 9
(b) The bulbs can be modeled as resistors as shown in Fig. (b). Since R1 (20 W bulb) is in parallel with the
battery as well as the series combination of R2 and R3,
V1 = V2 + V3 = 9 V
The current through R1 is,
p1 20
I1 = = = 2.222 A
V1 9
By KCL, the current through the series combination of R2 and R3 is,
I2 = I – I1 = 5 – 2.222 = 2.778 A
(c) Since, p = I2 R,
p1 20
R1 = = = 4.05
I12 2.222 2
p1 15
R2 = = = 1.945
I 22 2.777 2
p3 10
R3 = = = 1.297
I 32 2.777 2

2.8 Summary
1. A resistor is a passive element in which the voltage ‘v’ across it is directly proportional to the current ‘i’
through it. That is, a resistor is a device that obeys Ohm’s law,
v = iR
where, R is the resistance of the resistor.
2. A short-circuit is a resistor (a perfectly, conducting wire) with zero resistance (R = 0). An open-circuit is
a resistor with infinite resistance (R = ).
 EC : THEORY BOOK 19

3. The conductance G of a resistor is the reciprocal of its resistance,

1
G=
R
4. A branch is a single two-terminal element in an electric circuit. A node is the point of connection between
two or more branches. A loop is a closed path in a circuit. The number of branches b, the number of
nodes n, and the number of independent loops l in a network are related as,
b = l+n–1
5. Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) states that the currents at any node algebraically sum to zero. In other
words, the sum of the currents entering a node equals the sum of currents leaving the node.
6. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) states that the voltages around a closed path algebraically sum to zero.
In other words, the sum of voltage rises equals the sum of voltage drops.
7. Two elements are in series when they are connected sequentially, end to end. When elements are in
series, the same current flows through them (i1 = i2). They are in parallel if they are connected to the same
two nodes. Elements in parallel always have the same voltage across them (v1 = v2).
8. When two resistors R1 = (1/G1) and R2 = (1/G2) are in series, their equivalent resistance Req and equivalent
conductance Geq are
G1G2
Req = R1 + R2 , Geq =
G1 + G2
9. When two resistors R1 (= 1/G1) and R2 (= 1/G2) are in parallel their equivalent resistance Req and
equivalent conductance Geq are
R1 R2
Req = ; Geq = G1 + G2
R1 + R2
10. The voltage division principle for two resistors in series is,
R1 R2
v1 = v; v2 = v
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
11. The current division principle for two resistors in parallel is,
R2 R1
i1 = i; i2 = i
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
12. The formulas for a delta-to-wye transformation are,
Rb Rc Rc Ra Ra Rb
R1 = , R2 = , R3 =
Ra + Rb + Rc Ra + Rb + Rc Ra + Rb + Rc
13. The formulas for a wye-to-delta transformation are,
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Ra =
R1

R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Rb =
R2

R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Rc =
R3
14. The basic laws covered in this chapter can be applied to the problems of electrical lighting and design of
dc meters.
 20 Network Theory

2.8 Finding Equivalent Resistance using Concepts of Folding and Mirror Symmetry
The Concept of Mirror Symmetry
Suppose in any circuit we have to find the equivalent resistance of circuit between terminals A and B, then we
can apply mirror symmetry if we are able to see that the circuit has mirror symmetry along a line perpendicular
(perpendicular axis of symmetry) to line AB for example (Reference Fig. 2.26).
R1 R1 R1 R1
C

A R3 B A B

D
R2 R2 R2 R2
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.26 : Perpendicular axis of symmetry

In this figure shown, we have to find resistance between points A and B then we can see that the circuit has
symmetric along the line which is perpendicular to the AB.
Lets apply the mirror symmetry in the above circuit the points lying on the mirror line are equipotential points
thus in the above circuit Fig. 2.26 (a) points are equipotential C-D are equipotential, thus the current in the resistor
connected between points C-D is zero thus to solve the circuit we can remove this resistors. Thus, we can draw the
equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. 2.26 (b), now we can easily solve this circuit to get the final equivalent resistance.
Similarly another example explaining the mirror symmetry is shown in Fig. 2.27.

b
b

R R R R
1 7 R 3

A R R B A a R R
e e c B
a c
5 6
2 R 4
R 8 R R R

d d
(a) 2R (b)

A B A 2R B

2R/3
2R
(c)

Fig. 2.27

In Fig. 2.27 (a) were have to find equivalent resistance between points A and B, here can see that perpendicular
axis of symmetry exist in the circuit, thus we can remove resistor between points BE and ED, thus we get simplified
circuit as shown in Fig. 2.27 (b) which can be easily solved to give equivalent resistance between points A and B.
 EC : THEORY BOOK 21

x
3 R
c d R
1 9 10 5
R R R R i3 i3 R
R R R
i1 i1
A R 7 R 8 B A i2 R R i2 B
O
a 11 12
b
R R i1 i1
6 i3 R R i3
R R R R
2
e f R
4 R
(b)
y
(a)
2R/3
R R
A 4R/5 B A B

2R
R R

(c) 2R/3

Fig. 2.28

In Fig. 2.28 (a) were have to find equivalent resistance between points A and B, here can see that perpendicular
axis of symmetry, exist in the circuit, thus we can apply mirror symmetry concept that is current in branch 9 and 10
will be same (if current is in branch 9 then current goes in branch 10) similarly current in branch 11 and 12 will be
same and current in branch 7 and 8 will be same thus we can detach the node ‘O’. Thus we simplified circuit as
shown in Fig. 2.28 (b) which can be easily solved to give equivalent resistance between points A and B.

A A

R2

D D
R1 R1 R1 R1
R1 R1 R1 R1

E R1 F E R1 F
R2 R2 R2 R2
B R1 C B R1 C

(a) (b)

R1 R1
A

2R1

R2 R2

E R1 F

B R1 C
(c)

Fig. 2.29
 22 Network Theory

In Fig. 2.29 (a) where have to find equivalent resistance between points B and C, here can see that perpendicular
axis of symmetry exist in the circuit, thus we can apply mirror symmetry concept that is current in branch AD will be
zero as node A and D are equipotential. Thus we get simplified circuit as shown in Fig. 2.29 (b) which can be further
simplified as shown in Fig. 2.29 (c).

R R

R R R
R R
R R
R R

R R
R R R R
R

R R
R R
R R
R R R R

A R B A R B
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.30

In Fig. 2.30 (a) were have to find equivalent resistance between points A and B, here can see that perpendicular
axis of symmetry exist in the circuit, thus we can apply mirror symmetry concept and thus we can detach all the
connections from the center nodes and get the equivalent as shown in Fig. 2.30 (b) which can be further simplified to
get the equivalent resistance.

R R
G R R
B
R R
R G R
R R R R
A C R R
F H A F E H C

R R R D R

E Equivalent circuit
R R
(b)
R
2R

D
3R
(a)
2R
3
R AC = R (c)
4

Fig. 2.31
 EC : THEORY BOOK 23

In Fig. 2.31, here we can see that the circuit to find the resistance between points A and C then we can see that
the circuit has symmetric along the line which is perpendicular to the AC. Lets apply the mirror symmetry in the
above circuit the points lying on the mirror line are equipotential points thus in the above circuit Fig. 2.31(a) points G-B
are equipotential and E-D are equipotential, thus the current in the resistor connected between points B-G and E-D
is zero thus to solve the circuit we can remove these resistors. Thus we can draw the equivalent circuit as shown in
Fig. 2.31 (b) and solution is shown in Fig. 2.31 (c).

R R R R

R R R R R R

A B
R R R R
(a) (b)

r r
2r

r r
2r
r r r r
r r 2r

2r
r r
A B (d)
(c)
Fig. 2.32

Fig. 2.32 example of mirror symmetry (a) is the circuit with its equivalent shown in (b) and (c) is the circuit
with its equivalent shown in (d).

The Concept of Folding Symmetry

Suppose in any circuit we have to find the equivalent resistance of circuit between terminals A and B, then we
can apply folding symmetry if we are able to see that the circuit is symmetric along line AB example Fig. 2.33(a), in
the circuit we can see that the circuit is symmetric above and below the AB line thus were can say that the nodes C
and D are at same potential (we can also apply mirror symmetry in this circuit, there are many circuits where both
symmetry can be applied but here we are learning folding symmetry). Since C and D nodes are at same potential thus
branch AC and branch AD will be in parallel and branch CB and branch BD will be in parallel thus we fold the
circuit along the line AB and thus joint C and D nodes and get the equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. 2.33(b), now in
the circuit of Fig. 2.33(b) we apply mirror symmetry and remove the branch O-D and thus the final equivalent circuit
is shown in Fig. 2.33(c).
 24 Network Theory

R R
R R R
R R A D
O
A B A B
R O R

R R/2 R/2
R/2
R R
R/2 R/2
(c)
D
D (b)
(a)
Fig. 2.33

Another example of folding symmetry is shown in the Fig. 2.34 (a) here we can apply folding symmetry here
nodes C-E, D-F will be at same potential. The folded circuit will be as shown in the circuit of Fig. 2.34(b) and Fig. 34(c).

R R
C D
Folding symmetry
A
R R O
R R
O
A B
R/2 R/2
R R R/2
R/2
R R
E F
E F 2R
R R
(a) 2R
(b)

A B
R/2 R/2 R/2
(c)

Fig. 2.34

Another example of folding symmetry is shown in the Fig. 2.35 (a) here we can apply folding symmetry along
the line AB and thus nodes C-E, D-F will be at same potential, thus we can simplify the circuit by removing the
resistance connected between C-E and D-F. The folded circuit will be as shown in the circuit of Fig. 2.35 (b) and
Fig. 2.35 (c).

Folding symmetry
B
B
A
R
R R R R B
A
R R
3R R 3R
C R E R R
R R
R R
A
D R F (b) (c)
(a)

Fig. 2.35
 EC : THEORY BOOK 25

Another example of folding symmetry is shown in the Fig. 2.36 (a) here we can apply folding symmetry along
the line AB and thus nodes C-H, D-I, E-J, F-K, G-L will be at same potential. The folded circuit will be as shown in the
circuit of Fig. 2.36 (b) and Fig. 2.36 (c).
D F

R R R R

C E G
R R R R
R R Folding symmetry
A r B
R
R R R R R

H J L
R
R R R

I K
(a)

A B
R/2 R/2 R/2
R/2 R/2 R/2

H J L
R/2
R/2 R/2 R/2

I K
(b)
A B
R/2 R/2 R/2 R/2
(c)
Fig. 2.36

2.9 Finding Equivalent Resistance of Infinite Ladder

Lets see an example explaining the method to find the equivalent resistance of an infinite ladder, Fig. 2.37.
1 M 1 1 1
A

2 2 2 2

B
1 N 1 1 1
Fig. 2.37

Let the equivalent resistance of the ladder is Req then removal or addition of one unit will not make any
significant difference, that is if equivalent seen between nodes A-B is Req then equivalent resistance seen between
nodes M-N will also be Req thus we can redraw the ladder as follows:
1 M
2 Req A
Thus, Req = 1 + (2 Req ) + 1 = 2 +
2 + Req
Req 2 Req
2
Req 2 Req 4 =0
B
Thus, Req = 3.23 1 N

Another example of infinite is shown in Fig. 2.38.

 26 Network Theory

4 4 4 4 4

3 3 3 3
Req = x 1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2 2
Fig. 2.38

Let the equivalent resistance is ‘x’ now using the method explained above we can redraw the circuit again as
shown in Fig. 2.39.
4 4

3
x 1 x 3 (x 1 + 2)

x
x = 4 + 3 ( x 1 + 2) = 4 + 3 +2
x+1
3(3x + 2) 3(3x + 2)
x = 4+ = 4+
3( x + 1) + 3x + 2 6x + 5
6x2 + 5x = 24x + 20 + 9x + 6
6x2 – 28x – 26 = 0
x = 5.46
Another example of infinite ladder is shown in Fig. 2.39.
2 3 4
R1 KR1 K R1 K R1 K R1
M
A

2 3
x R2 KR2 K R2 K R2

B
N

Fig. 2.39

Here in the above circuit if the equivalent resistance seen at terminal AB is ‘x’ then equivalent seen at terminal
MN will be ‘Kx’ (as if we see the equivalent from MN nodes then we can see that all resistors are getting multiplied
by K reference Fig. 2.40. Thus we get final circuit for solving the circuit as shown in Fig. 2.40 (b).
2 3 4
KR1 K R1 K R1 K R1
M R1

2 3
Kx KR2 K R2 K R2 R2 Kx

x
N
Fig. 2.40 : (a) equivalent seen at terminal M-N is Kx (b) Final circuit to solve the circuit
 EC : THEORY BOOK 27

2.10 Finding Equivalent Resistance of Infinite Grid

Lets see an example explaining the method to find the equivalent resistance of an infinite grid, reference
Fig. 2.41 (a), all the resistors are of value ‘R’ ohms. The method to solve such infinite grid is as follows:
Step-1 : We apply a current source of ‘I’ at terminal A and see the current in all the branches reference
Fig. 2.41 (b), we can see that due to symmetry current in equally divided in all 4 paths.
Step-2 : Similalry we apply a current source of ‘I’ at terminal B and see the current in all the branches reference
Fig. 2.41 (b), we can see that due to symmetry current in equally divided in all 4 paths.
Step-3 : Now the current source of ‘I’ is applied in between terminal A and B as shown in Fig. 2.41 (d) we can
find the current in branch AB using step-1 and step-2 i.e. I/2. Thus we can see that voltage across the current source
is IR/2. Thus equivalent resistance of the grid is R/2.

A B

....... .......

(a)
28 Network Theory

I/4
I/4 I/4
A

....... I I/4 .......

(b)

I/4
I/4 A I/4
B
....... I/4 .......

(c)
 EC : THEORY BOOK 29

I/2
A
B
....... .......
I

(d)

Fig. 2.41

Lets see another example explaining the method to find the equivalent resistance of an infinite grid, reference
Fig. 2.42, all the resistors are of value ‘R’ ohms. The method to solve such infinite grid is as follows:
Step-1 : We apply a current source of ‘I’ at terminal A and we can see that due to symmetry current in equally
divided in all 6 paths.
Step-2 : Similarly we apply a current source of ‘I’ at terminal B and we can see that due to symmetry current
in equally divided in all 6 paths.
Step-3 : Now the current source of ‘I’ is applied in between terminals A and B we can find the current in
branch AB using step-1 and step-2 i.e. I/3. Thus we can see that voltage across the current source will be IR/3, thus
equivalent resistance of the grid is R/3.

A B

Fig. 2.42

Lets see another example explaining the method to find the equivalent resistance of an infinite grid, reference
Fig. 2.43 (a), all the resistors are of value ‘R’ ohms. The method to solve such infinite grid as follows:
Step-1 : We apply a current source of ‘I’ at terminal C and we can see that due to symmetry current in equally
divided in all 4 paths and we can see further division of current also. Remember that due to symmetry the current
always divide symmetrically. (I/4 current divide equally in 3 paths into I/2) reference Fig. 2.43 (b).
 30 Network Theory

Step-2 : We apply a current source of ‘I’ at terminal B and we can see that due to symmetry current in equally
divided in all 4 paths and we can see further division of current also reference Fig. 2.43 (c).
Step-3 : Now the current source of ‘I’ is applied in between terminals C and B we can find the voltage between
terminals CB (using step-1 and step-2 we can find current in branches between C and B). Thus we can see that

IR IR 2 IR
voltage across the current source will be + = . Thus equivalent resistance of the grid is 2R/3.
3 3 3

....... .......
C I/12 I/12
B
I/12 I/4

I/4 C I/4

(b)

(a)

I I I
+ =
I/12 I/4 I/4 12 4 3
B
I/12 I/12 I/4 B
I I I
+ =
4 12 3
I
I
C C

(c) (d)
Fig. 2.43

Lets see another example explaining the method to find the equivalent resistance of an infinite grid, reference
Fig. 2.44, all the resistors are of value ‘R’ ohms. The method to solve such infinite grid is as follows:
Step-1 : We apply a current source of ‘I’ at terminal A and we can see the current in all branches.
Step-2 : Similalry we apply a current source of ‘I’ at terminal B and we can see that due to symmetry current
in equally divided in all 6 paths.
 EC : THEORY BOOK 31

Step-3 : Now the current source of ‘I’ is applied in between terminals A and B we can find the current in
branch AB using step-1 and step-2. Thus we can see that voltage across the current source will be
i i i i i i
V= + R+ + R+ + R
3 12 6 6 12 3
14
= iR
12
Thus equivalent resistance of the grid is 7/6R.

A B

(a)

i/6 i/6
i/12 i/12 i/3

i/3 i
A B
i

(b) (c)

i/6 + i/6
i/3 + i/12 i/3 + i/12

i
A B
+ i

(d)

Fig. 2.44 : Circuit representing solving infinite grid questions

 32 Network Theory

2.11 Finding Equivalent Resistance using Concept of Equipotential Points

This concepts help on finding the equivalent resistance of set of resistances arranged in a cube, this concept
is actually extension of folding symmetry and mirror symmetry. Lets see an example explaining this concept with
the help of an example.
The concept of equipotential point is defined as follows: “if any node in the circuit has same relationship with
starting node (A) and end node (B) then they are at same potential”. Consider the circuit shown in the Fig. 2.45.
10 k C 20 k 10 k C 20 k

20 k
A B A B

10 k D 20 k 10 k D 20 k
Fig. 2.45 : Circuit representing equipotential concept

We can see that node C and D are having same relation with node A and B i.e. node C is connected to B via
20 k resistor and connected to A via 10 k resistor exactly same relation node D has with node A and B. Thus here
node C and D are at same potential thus we can connect them with a wire.
Another example where the equipotential point concept is used is shown below in Fig. 2.46 (a), we have to
find the resistance between node A and B.

F R G

F R G
R R

D R R R R R R
H
R
R
D, E H, C
R C R
E R
R R R R
R R
R
A B A B
R (b)
(a)

R 2R

R/2 R/2
7
Req = R
R/2 R/2 12
R/2 R/2 R/2 R/2

R (c) R

Fig. 2.46 : Circuit representing equipotential concept

In the above circuit the nodes which are equidistant from node A and B will be at same potential thus we can
say that node D is at distance of 1 from A and 2 from B also node E also is at distance of 1 from A and 2 from B thus
node D-E are at same potential. Similarly we can see that node H is at distance of 2 from A and 1 from B also node C
is at distance of 2 from A and 1 from B thus C-H are at same potential. Thus we can redraw the circuit as shown in
Fig. 2.46 (b) (simply joining the equipotential nodes and connecting the remittances between various nodes). The
simplified circuit can be solved to get the equivalent resistance.
 EC : THEORY BOOK 33

Another example where the equipotential point concept is used is shown below in Fig. 2.47 (a), we have to
find the resistance between node A and B.

R R R

R A
G B
G, H, D R/3
R R

F R R R R R R R
H
R R/6
R

R D
E R C, E, F
R/3
R R

A C B
R R R
R
(a)

A
(b)

Fig. 2.47 : Circuit representing equipotential concept

In the above circuit the nodes which are equidistant from node A and B will be at same potential thus we can
say that node F, E and C are at distance of 1 from A and 2 from B thus these are equipotential nodes. Similarly, we can
see that node G, H and F are at distance of 2 from A and 1 from B thus these are equipotential nodes. Thus we can
redraw the circuit as shown in Fig. 2.47 (b) (simply joining the equipotential nodes and connecting the remittances
between various nodes). The simplified circuit can be solved to get the equivalent resistance of 5/6R.
Another example where the equipotential point concept is used is shown below in Fig. 2.48 (a), we have to
find the resistance between node A and B.

H R G
F R H, E R G
R R

C R R R
B
R
R R R R R R

R E
F R R R

R R

A D A R C, D R B
R (b)
(a)
 34 Network Theory

R/2 R/2 R/2 R/2

R R/2 R R R

R/2 R/2 R/2 R/2

A B A B
(c) (d)
Fig. 2.48 : Circuit representing equipotential concept

In the above circuit the nodes which are equidistant from node A and B will be at same potential thus we can
say that node C and D are at distance of 1 from A and B thus these are equipotential nodes. Similarly we can see that
node H and E are at distance of 2 from A and 2 from B thus these see equipotential nodes. Thus we can redraw the
circuit as shown in Fig. 2.48 (b) (simply joining the equipotential nodes and connecting the remittances between
various nodes). We can simplify the circuit and redraw it as shown in Fig. 2.48 (c) and it can be solved by applying
mirror symmetry, the equivalent resistance of the circuit is 3R/4.
 EC : THEORY BOOK 35

Practice Questions Q.7 Find the currents and voltages in the circuit shown
in figure.
Q.1 The essential component of a toaster is an
2 i1 i3 4
electrical element (a resistor) that converts
electrical energy to heat energy. How much current + v1 – i2 + v3 –

is drawn by a toaster with resistance 15 at +

10 V v2 3 6V
110 V?
–
Q.2 For the circuit shown in figure, calculate the
voltage v, the conductance G, and the power p.

Q.8 By combining the resistors in figure, find Req.

i
4 3 4
+
3 mA 10 k v
–
6 4 5
Req

Q.3 A resistor absorbs an instantaneous power of 3 3

30 cos2t mW when connected to a voltage source
v = 15 cost V. Find i and R. Q.9 Find Rab for the circuit in figure.

Q.4 Find v1 and v2 in the circuit of figure. 20

4
16 5
+ v1 – a

32 V –8 V 20
v2 Req 18 9 5
+ –
2
b
Q.5 Find vx and vo in the circuit of figure. 2

10
Q.10 Find v1 and v2 in the circuit shown in figure. Also
+ vx –
calculate i1 and i2 and the power dissipated in
70 V +
– 2vx the 12 and 40 resistors.
vo 12
+ – i1

5 + v –
1

6
Q.6 Find vo and io in the circuit of figure.
i2

io +
30 V 10 v2 40
+ –
9A 2 io/4 8 vo
–
 36 Network Theory

Q.11 For the circuit shown in figure, find: (a) v1 and v2, Q.16 For the circuit of figure, determine (a) vR2 (b) v2, if
(b) the power dissipated in the 3 k and 20 k
resistors, and (c) the power supplied by the current vR1 = 1 V.
source.
12 V v2
4 + 7V – a – +
– + +
9V
3V
+ + – +
3k v1 30 mA 5k v2 20 –8 V R2 vR2 vx
– – +
+ –
R1 vR1
– –
c b
Q.12 Transform the wye network in figure to a delta
network. Q.17 Determine vx in the circuit of figure.
R1 R2 8 2
2A
a b
10 20
+
R3 40 vx ix
30 V 10 2
–
c

Q.13 For the bridge network in figure, find Rab and i.

Q.18 In the circuit of figure, find the power absorbed
i a 13 by each of the five elements in the circuit.

12 V
24 30
20
240 V 8
+
30 vx
30 50
– 7
+ 4vx
–
b
A simple loop circuit
Q.14 Count the number of branches and nodes in the
circuit in figure. If ix = 3 A and the 18 V source
Q.19 For the single-node pair circuit of figure, find iA,
delivers 8 A of current, what is the value of RA? iB and iC.
[Hint: You need Ohm’s law as well as KCL]
5 13 A + iA iB iC

5.6 A vx 18 0.1vx 9 2A

18 V vx –
RA 6

ix
Q.20 Determine ‘i’ in the circuit of figure.
5V
Q.15 Determine ix and vx in the circuit of figure. 15 25 i
1V

5V 5V
+
3V ix vx 10
–
5
 EC : THEORY BOOK 37

Q.21 Determine ‘v’ in the circuit of figure by first Q.26 In the circuit of figure, calculate V1 and V2.
combining the three current sources, and then the
+ 1V – + 2V–
two 10 resistors.

+ + +
V1 5V V2
+ – – –
5A 10 v 1A 10 6A
–

Q.27 For the circuit in figure, use KCL to find the branch
Q.22 For the circuit of figure, calculate the voltage vx. currents I1 to I4.
2A
i3
3 3
I2 7A I4

I1 3A I3 4A
5
+
1A vx 6 9
– Q.28 Calculate v and ix in the circuit of figure.
5
12 + 16 V –
+ v – ix
3 3
+
10 V 4V + 3ix
–
–

Q.23 In the circuit of figure, use resistance combination

methods and current division to find i1, i2 and v3.
Q.29 Obtain v1 through v3 in the circuit of figure.
i1 i2 2 40
v1
+ –
+
120 A 125 50 240 v3 20
–
v2 – +
24 V + v3 10 V
–
Q.24 Determine the number of branches and nodes in
the circuit of figure.
12 V
1 4

Q.30 From the circuit in figure, find I, the power

dissipated by the resistor, and the power supplied
12 V 8 5 2A
by each source.
10 V

Q.25 Find i1, i2 and i3 in figure. I

4A
12 V 3

1A i2
5A A B i3
6A
i1 7A –8 V

2A C
 38 Network Theory

Q.31 Find Vx in the circuit of figure. Q.37 Calculate Vo and Io in the circuit of figure.
2Vx
1
+– 70 30
Io
+ 200 V
15 V Vx 5 +
– 20 Vo 5
–

2
Q.38 Find R for the circuit in figure.
Q.32 In the circuit shown in figure, determine vx and
R 10
the power absorbed by the 12 resistor.
+ 10 V –
1 1.2

+ vx – 20 V 30 V
4

20 A 2 8 12

3 6
Q.39 Evaluate Req for each of the circuits shown in
figure.

Q.33 For the network in figure, find the current, voltage

and power associated with the 20 k resistor.
2k

+ 1k
5 mA Vo 10 k 0.01Vo 5k 20 k
–
2k 1k

Q.34 Calculate Io in the circuit of figure.

(a)
Io 8

6k

10 V 3 6
4k 12 k

Q.35 All resistors in figure are 5 each. Find Req. 12 k

Req (b)

Q.40 If Req = 50 in the circuit of figure, find R.

Q.36 For the circuit in figure, determine i1 to i5.

3 10 R
i1
30
i3
i2
12 12 12
200 V i4 i5 Req 60
4 1 2
 EC : THEORY BOOK 39

Q.41 Calculate the equivalent resistance R ab at

terminals a-b for each of the circuits in figure.
c
5
5 6
a

20 10 8
10 40 d a b e

b
(a) 20 3

10
a f

80
60 20 30 Q.44 Transform the circuits in figure from to Y.

b 12
(b) a b

Q.42 Find the equivalent resistance at terminals a-b of

each circuit in figure. 12 12

10

c
40
(a)
20
60
a b
a

30
5
30 10
50
b
(a)
c
30 (b)

Q.45 Obtain the equivalent resistance at the terminals

12 a-b for each of the circuits in figure.
5 20
a

60
25 10 20
10
30
15 (b) 10

10 20
Q.43 Find the equivalent resistance Rab in the circuit of
b
figure. (a)
 40 Network Theory

Q.48 Find Req and I in the circuit of figure.

30

I 4 2
25 10 20
a

6 1
5 15
12

b
(b)
20 V 8 2

Q.46 Obtain the equivalent resistance Rab in each of

the circuits of figure. In (b), all resistors have a 4
value of 30 . 10 3
30 40

20 Req 5
a 10

60 50
80 Q.49 Three light bulbs are connected in series to a 120 V
source as shown in figure. Find the current I
b
(a) through the bulbs. Each bulb is rated at 120 Volts.
How much power is each bulb absorbing? Do they
a generate much light?
30 30 W 40 W 50 W
I

120 V

b
(b)
Q.50 Find Rab in the four-way power divider circuit in
Q.47 Calculate Io in the circuit of figure. figure. Assume each element is 1 .
Io 1 1

20 60 1
1
40
24 V 1 1 1
a 1
10 50 1 1

1 1
20

1 1
b
 EC : THEORY BOOK 41

Answers

1. (7.333 A) 25. (7 A, –1 A, 5 A)

2. (30 V, 100 µS, 90 mW) 26. (6 V, 3 V)

3. (2 cost mA, 7.5 k ) 27. (12 A, –10 A, 5 A, –2 A)

4. (16 V, –8 V) 28. (6 V, –4 A)

5. (20 V, –10 V) 29. (2 V, –22 V, 10 V)

6. (12 V, 6 A) 30. (–2 A, 12 W, –24 W, 20 W, 16 W)

7. (v1 = 6 V, v2 = 4 V, v3 = 10 V, i1 = 3 A, i2 = 500 mA, 31. (4.167 V)

i3 = 1.25 A)
32. (2 V, 21.33 W)
8. (10 )
33. (0.1 A, 2 kV, 0.2 kW)
9. (19 )
34. (1 A)
10. (v1 = 10 V, i1 = 833.3 mA, p1 = 8.333 W, v2 = 20 V,
35. (8.125 )
i2 = 500 mA, p2 = 10 W)
36. (56 A, 8 A, 48 A, 32 A, 16 A)
11. (a) 45 V, 60 V (b) 675 mW, 180 mW (c) 1.8 W
37. (32 V, 800 mA)
12. (Ra = 140 , Rb = 70 , Rc = 35 )
38. (2.5 )
13. (40 , 6 A)
39. (a) 727.3 (b) 3 k
14. (5 Branches, 3 Nodes, 1 )
40. (16 )
15. (vx = –4 V, ix = –400 mA)
41. (a) 12 (b) 16
16. (a) 4 V (b) –8 V
42. (a) 59.8 (b) 32.5
17. (vx = 12.8 V)
43. (24 )
18. (CW from left) 0.768 W, 1.92 W, 0.2048 W,
0.1792 W, –3.072 W 44. (a) 4 (b) R1 = 18 , R2 = 6 , R3 = 3

19. (3 A, –5.4 A, 6 A) 45. (a) 9.231 (b) 36.25

20. (–333 mA) 46. (a) 142.32 (b) 33.33

21. (50 V) 47. (997.4 mA)

22. (2.819 V) 48. (12.21 , 1.64 A)

23. (100 mA, 50 mA, 0.8 V) 49. (5.432 W, 4.074 W, 3.259 W)

24. (6 branches and 4 nodes) 50. (2 )

 42 Network Theory

Review Questions Q.8 In the circuit in figure V is

+ 10 V –
Q.1 The reciprocal of resistance is
(a) Voltage (b) Current
(c) Conductance (d) Coulombs 12 V 8V

Q.2 An electric heater draws 10 A from a 120 V line.

The resistance of the heater is + V –

(a) 1200 (b) 120 (a) 30 V (b) 14 V

(c) 12 (d) 1.2 (c) 10 V (d) 6 V
Q.3 The voltage drop across a 1.5 kW toaster that Q.9 Which of the circuit in figure will give you
draws 12 A of current is Vab = 7 V?
(a) 18 kV (b) 125 V
5V
(c) 120 V (d) 10.42 V a

Q.4 The maximum current that a 2 W, 80 k resistor

can safely conduct is (a) 3 V
(a) 160 kA (b) 40 kA
(c) 5 mA (d) 25 µA b

Q.5 A network has 12 branches and 8 independent 1V

loops. How many nodes are there in the network?

5V
(a) 19 (b) 17 a
(c) 5 (d) 4

Q.6 The current I in the circuit of figure is (b) 3 V

4 I
b

3V 5V 1V

5V
a
6

(a) –0.8 A (b) –0.2 A

(c) 0.2 A (d) 0.8 A (c) 3 V

Q.7 The current Io of figure is

b
1V
10 A
5V
a
2A 4A

(d) 3 V

Io b
1V

(a) –4 A (b) –2 A
(c) 4 A (d) 16 A
 EC : THEORY BOOK 43

Q.10 In the circuit of figure, a decrease in R3 leads to a Answers :

decrease of, select all that apply
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (c)
R1
6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (d) 9. (d) 10. (b, d)

Vs R2 R3

(a) current through R3

(b) voltage across R3
(c) voltage across R1
(d) power dissipated in R2
 3
Chapter
Method of Analysis

3.1 Introduction
Having understood the fundamental laws of circuit theory (Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws), we are now
prepared to apply these laws to develop three powerful techniques for circuit analysis: Khichdi Method (designed
by Siddharth Sabharwal GATE and ESE Toper), nodal analysis, which is based on a symmetric application of
Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL), and Kirchooff’s voltage law (KVL).
All the linear circuits can be solved by Khichdi method and all the students can solve any question linear
circuit using this method. You can use this method in objective and subjective exams also.

3.2 Khichdi Method of Analysis

In this method our main motive is to keep minimum number of variable to solve the circuit. Generally, the
format of the questions is that a circuit is given and we have to find a current in a branch or voltage across circuit
element. In this Khichdi method we follow following method to solve the question.
Step-1: First of all see the variable which value has to be answered in the question.
Step-2: Now use those variables and apply KCL at all the nodes, in this step we will find the current in all the
branches. In most of the circuits we do not need to add variables to mark current in all the branches but if we need
then we can increase the variables by assuming current in branches as I1, I2 .....
Step-3: Now apply KVL in loops to find all the variables.
Lets see examples of this method.

Example : 3.1 Find the value of Ix

4

2 Ix 8

3A 8 2Ix

Solution :
Lets mark all the nodes A, B, C, D. In this circuit we already have one variable i.e. Ix, now we apply KCL at
all the nodes and try to find current in all the branches of the circuit.
Now lets apply KCL at node A we get current in branch AC is 3 – Ix.
Now lets apply KCL at node C we get current in branch CB is 3 – 3Ix.
Now lets apply KCL at node B we get current in branch BD is 3 – 2Ix.
2 Network Theory

+ 4 –

3 – Ix 3 – Ix
2 Ix B – 8 +
A C
+ – 3 – 3Ix
3 – 2Ix

3A 2Ix
4

Applying KVL in loop ACBA (we do not apply KVL in loop with any current sources as we do not know
current across the current sources) we get,
4(3 – Ix) + 8(3 – 3Ix) – 2Ix = 0
12 + 24 – 4Ix – 24Ix – 2Ix = 0
36
= Ix
30

6
= Ix = 1.2 Ampere
5

Example 3.2 : Find the value of Ix

2

Ix 4Ix
4A 6
4

Solution :
Lets mark all the nodes A, B, C, D. In this circuit we already have one variable i.e. Ix, now we apply KCL at
all the nodes and try to find current in all the branches of the circuit.
Now lets apply KCL at node A we get current in branch AC is 4 + 3Ix.
Now lets apply KCL at node C we get current in branch CD is 4 – Ix.
Now lets apply KCL at node B we get current in branch BA is 3Ix.
+ 2 –
4 + 3Ix
3Ix 3 B
A C
– +
Ix 4Ix 4 – Ix
+ +
4A
4 6
– –

D
Now we apply KVL in loop DACD (we do not apply KVL in loop with any current sources as we do not
know current across the current sources),
9Ix + 2(4 + 3Ix) + 6(4 – Ix) – 4Ix = 0
5Ix + 32 = 0
32
Ix = = 6.4 Ampere
5
 EC : THEORY BOOK 3

Example 3.3 : Find the value of Vo

6 mA

1k

4V +
Vo 1k 2 mA
1k –

Solution :
In this circuit we have only 3 nodes A, B and C.
6 mA
By applying KCL at node B we get current in branch AB is 8 mA.
In the circuit we can see that voltage at node A is Vo.
1k
Now applying KCL at node A A Node B
8 mA
(Incoming current = outgoing current) we get that,
+
V V 4 4V
Vo 2 mA
6 = 8+ o + o 1k
1k 1k 1k –
6 = 8 + 2Vo – 4
C
Vo = 1
Thus answer is 1 Volts.

Example 3.4 : Find the value of Ib in the circuit of figure.

250
+–
Ib 60Ib
24 V 50 150

Solution :
250
24 – 250Ib 24 – 310Ib
In this example we will show that to keep the number of A +–
B C
variables minimum we can change the method also, here Ib 60Ib
we first of all apply KVL and then we apply KCL to find 24 V I1 50 I2 150
the answer. That is in Khichdi method we can first apply.
KVL and then KCL, lets see the solution. First of all we
marked the nodes A, B, C and D. Here D is the reference D

node.
If we take D as ground then voltage at node A is 24 V, since the current in AB is Ib. Thus voltage at terminal
B is 24 – 250 Ib (drop across resistor) and voltage at node C is 24 – 310Ib (drop across the dependent source).
Now we can apply KCL at node B,
Ib = I1 + I2
24 250 Ib 24 310 Ib
Ib = +
50 150
24 – 310Ib + 72 – 750Ib = 150Ib
24 + 72
= Ib
310 + 750 + 150
Ib = 79.33 mA
4 Network Theory

Another method to solve the above question is to redraw the circuit as shown below. Assume that voltage at
node B is,

250 60Ib
Vo
A +– C
B
IB
24 V I1 50 I2 150

Now applying KCL at node B we get the (outgoing current = incoming current)
I1 + I2 = Ib
Vo Vo 60 I b
+ = Ib
50 150
3Vo + Vo – 60Ib = 150Ib
4Vo = 210Ib

24 Vo
Since, Ib =
250

210
4Vo = (24 Vo )
250
1000Vo = 210 × 24 – 210Vo
Vo = 4.1652
24 Vo
Ib = = 79.33 mA
250

Example 3.5 : Find the value of Vx in the circuit of figure.

+
2A 10 Vx 20 0.2Vx
–

Solution :
We can see that the circuit has only two terminals A and B. Now we can simply apply KCL at node A to get
the answer.

Node ‘A’
I1 I2

Node ‘B’

KCL at node A (incoming current = outgoing current)

2 = I1 + I2 + 0.2Vx
Vx Vx
2 = + + 0.2Vx
10 20
Vx = 5.71 Volts
 EC : THEORY BOOK 5

Example 3.6 : Find out Io in the circuit shown in figure.

Io
4 2

8
10
60 V 4Io

Solution :
The circuit has 4 nodes A, B, C and D. Now we can see that to find out current in all the branches we have
to apply KLC at all the nodes. First of all we apply KCL at node C, since we know only one incoming current
at node C thus we assume that current in branch BC is I and thus we get current in branch CD as Io + I.
Io C

– Io + I
4 I 2
+ 10 +
– +
A B 8
–
60 V 4Io – I
4Io

D
Now we apply KCL at node B we get current in branch BA as 4Io – I.
Now we have 2 variable in the circuit thus we need 2 KVL equations i.e. we have to apply KVL in 2 loops and
then solving the 2 equations we will get the final answer.
We first apply KLV in loop (we do not apply KVL in loop with any current sources as we do not know
current across the current sources) DACD,
–60 + 4Io + 8Io + 8I = 0
60 = 12Io + 8I ...(i)
and loop BACB, 10(4Io – I) + 4Io – 2I = 0
40Io – 10I + 4Io – 2I = 0
44Io = 12I
44
I= Io ...(ii)
12
Putting result of equation (ii) in equation (i) we get,
60 = 12Io + 8I;
8 × 44
60 = 12 + Io
12
Io = 1.4516 Ampere

The Source Transformation

Source transformation simply means replacing one source by an equivalent source. A practical voltage source
can be transformed into an equivalent practical current source can be transformed into an equivalent practical
current source and similarly a practical current source into voltage source.
Case-1: Transforming practical voltage source to practical current source. Any practical voltage source or
simply a voltage source consists of an ideal voltage source in series with an internal resistance or impedance
[Reference Fig. 3.1(a)].
 6 Network Theory

Rs
a a

Vs Vs/Rs Rs

b b

(a) (b)
Practical voltage source Practical current source
with battery and resistor with current source and resistor
in series in parallel

Fig. 3.1

Using source transformation we can convert any practical voltage source into practical current source (please
carefully see the direction of current source and polarity of battery) of current Vs/Rs and resistor of value Rs.
This is again explained in Fig. 3.2.
Rs i i
+ +

Vs
Vs v Rs v
Rs

– –
(a) (b)

Fig. 3.2 : Source transformation

We can see that in Fig. 3.2 (a), KVL in loop we get,

= Vs – iRs
Vs v
Now, i =
Rs
This is some as KCL in Fig. 3.2 (b).
Case-2: Transforming practical current source to practical voltage source. Any practical current source or
simply current source, there is an ideal current source in parallel with the internal resistance or impedance [Reference
Fig. 3.3 (a)].

Rs

Is Rs
Is R s

(a) (b)
Practical current source Practical voltage source
with battery and resistor with voltage source and resistor
in parallel in series
Fig. 3.3

Using source transformation we can convert any practical current source into practical voltage source (please
carefully see the direction of current source and polarity of battery) of voltage IsRs and resistor of value Rs.
Thus we have these 4 cases of source transformation.
 EC : THEORY BOOK 7

Case-1:
R
a a

Vs
Vs Rs
Rs

b b

Case-2:
R
a a

Vs
Vs Rs
Rs

b b

Case-3:
Rs
a a
+

Is Rs VsRs

b –
b

Case-4:
Rs
a a
+

Is Rs VsRs

b –
b

Fig. 3.4, all 4 cases of source transformation.

Few examples of source transformation:
4

1. 4 3A 12 V

10

2. 0.5Vx 10 5Vx

Fig. 3.5, examples of source transformation.

Note : Source transformation is valid in dependent and independent sources.

8 Network Theory

Example 3.6 : Find the value of Vo in the circuit shown in figure.

1 2
+–
2Vo
+
30 V 2 Vo 16 3A
–

Solution :
In this question if we apply source transformation in 3 A source we can solve this question with single
variable only figure.

1 Vo 2
+–
2Vo
+
30 V 2 Vo 16 3A
–

(a)

1 Vo 2
B +–
A
I2 I3 2V o 48 V
+
30 V 2 Vo
– 16
I1

D
(b)

Now KCL at node A

I1 + I2 + I3 = 0
Vo Vo 30 Vo 2Vo 48
+ + =0
2 1 18
9Vo + 18Vo – 540 – Vo – 48 = 0
Vo = 22.61 Volt

Example 3.7 : Find the value of ‘i’ in circuit shown in figure.

6

25 V 5i
–+

2 i 4 3
 EC : THEORY BOOK 9

Solution :
In this circuit we first of find voltage at all the nodes and try to solve the circuit using single variable only.
The circuit has 4 nodes A, B, C, D, figure. 6
Taking D as reference node we get voltage at node A is 2i.
Voltage at node B is 2i – 25. 25 V 5i
2i – 25
Voltage at node C is 7i – 5. 2i 7i – 25
A B C
Now we can find current in branches AD, BD and CD & applying 2 i I1 4 I2 3
KCL at node D we get that,
i + I1 + I2 = 0 D
2 i 25 7 i 25
i+ + =0
4 3
2i 25 7 i 25
–i = +
4 3
–12i = 6i – 75 + 28i – 100
175 = 28i + 6i + 12i
175
i= = 3.804 Ampere
46

Example 3.8 : Find the value of ‘i’ in the circuit shown in figure.

10

2V

2A 2 i 4 7A

Solution :
This circuit has 3 nodes A, B and C.
10
First of all we apply KCL at node C we get,
(outgoing current = incoming current), B
A
i+7 = I+2
2V
I = i+5
2A 2 I i 4 7A
Now applying KVL in loop CABC we get that,
4i + 2I – 2 = 0
4i + 2(i + 5) – 2 = 0 Node ‘C’

4
i= Ampere
3

Example 3.9 : Find the value of Io in the circuit shown in the circuit.

2 2
4
8V

4A 8
10 Network Theory

Solution :
The nodes in the circuit are A, B, C and D. To mark current in all the branched we take a new variable I and
then we mark current in all the branches i.e. figure. 4 + Io
Current in branch AB is assumed to be I. A

Now KCL at node C we get current in branch AC is Io + 4 – I. 2 I 2 4 + Io – I

Now KCL at node B we get current in branch BC is I – 4. 4
8V B C
And we know that current in branch CD is Io.
I–4
Now we have 2 variables thus we need two KVL equations, 4A 8 Io

KVL in loop ABCA we get,

2I + 4(I – 4) – 2(4 + Io – I) = 0 4 + Io D

2I + 4I – 16 – 8 – 2Io + 2I = 0
8I – 2Io = 24 ...(i)
and KVL in loop DACD we get,
–8 + 2(4 + Io – I) + 8Io = 0
–8 + 8 + 2Io – 2I + 8Io = 0
10Io = 2I
I = 5Io ...(ii)
Now using equation (ii) and equation (i) we get,
8I – 2Io = 24
40Io – 2Io = 24
Io = 0.631 Ampere

Example 3.10 : Find the value of Vo in the circuit of figure.

50 10

io + vo –

+ 4io
–
10

250 V 40

0.2vo 5A

Solution :
We can see that nodes in the circuit are A, B, C, D, E and F. There are already two variables in the circuit we
can see that:

50 B 10 0.1Vo C
A
Io + 0.1Vo Io + vo –
(Io + 5 – 0.1Vo)
I1 4Io
10

250 V 40
F

0.2Vo 5A

Node ‘D’

By KCL at node B we get current in branch AB is, Io + 0.1Vo.

 EC : THEORY BOOK 11

By KCL at node F we get current in branch FC is, I1 = Io + 5 – 0.2Vo.

Vo
We can also find current in BC as, = 0.1Vo .
10
Now KCL at node C we get current in ED is, Io + 5 – 0.1Vo.
Now we have 2 variable thus we need 2 KVL equations, we apply KVL in loops DABCD, and the equation
is,
–250 + 50Io + 5Vo + Vo + 40Io + 200 – 4Vo = 0
2Vo + 90Io = 50 ...(i)
and KVL in loop FBCF we get,
10Io – 4Io – Vo = 0
Vo = 6Io ...(ii)
Now using equation (i) and (ii) we get,
2Vo + 90Io = 50
Vo
Now, Io =
6
So, 17Vo = 50
Vo = 2.94 Volts

Example 3.11 : Find the value of Vo in the circuit shown in figure.

+
2 Vo 8
–
12 V
3A
4 2Vo

Solution :
We mark the nodes in the circuit we get nodes A, B, C and D as shown in the figure.
A 12 2Vo
Vo + 8
2 Vo 8
2 3A
–
12 V C B
Vo
4 3 2Vo
2

We can see that at node A the voltage is 12 V, the current in branch AC is Vo/2.
Vo
And thus KCL at node C we get current in branch CD is 3.
2
12 2Vo
Since voltage at node B is 2Vo thus current in branch AB is .
8
Now KVL in loop DACD,
Vo
12 + Vo + 4 3 =0
2
24 = 3Vo
Vo = 8
 12 Network Theory

Example 3.12 : Find the value of ‘i’ in the circuit figure.

1 i 2
3
15 A

3i

Solution :

15 – i
i 2
1
3
15 A C B
15 + 2i
3i 15 + 3i

D
We first of all mark nodes in the circuit A, B, C and D.
First we apply KCL at node A we get current in branch AC is, 15 – i.
We apply KCL at node C we get current in branch CB is, 15 + 2i.
We apply KCL at node B we get current in branch BC is, 15 + 3i.
Now we apply KVL in loop ACBA,
(15 – i) + 3(15 + 2i) – 2i = 0
15 – i + 45 + 6i – 2i = 0
60 = –3i
i = –20

3.3 Nodal Analysis

Nodal analysis provides a general procedure for analyzing circuits using node voltages as the circuit variables.
Choosing node voltages instead of element voltage as circuit variables is convenient and reduces the number of
equations one must solve simultaneously.
To simplify matters, we shall assume in this section that circuits do not contain voltage sources. Circuits that
contain voltage sources will be analyzed in the next section.
In nodal analysis, we are interested in finding the node voltages. Given a circuit with ‘n’ nodes without
voltage sources, the nodal analysis of the circuit involves taking the following three steps.

Steps to Determine Node Voltages

1. Select a node as the reference node. Assign voltages v1, v2, ...., vn – 1 to the remaining n – 1 nodes. The
voltages are referenced with respect to the reference node.
2. Apply KCL to each of the n – 1 non-reference nodes. Use Ohm’s law to express the branch currents in terms
of node voltages.
3. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the unknown node voltages.

Note : The method is only for theory we will always use Khichdi method for solving the questions.
 EC : THEORY BOOK 13

Example 3.13 : (I will recommend you to solve using Khichdi method, here we will solve the question by
Nodal analysis just for illustration purpose). Find out the node voltages in the circuit shown in the figure.

Solution :
Consider the Fig. (b), except for the branches with current sources, the labeling of the currents is arbitrary.
The reference node is selected, and the node voltages v1 and v2 are now to be determined.
5A

5A i1 = 5 i1 = 5
2 4 v2
1 v1
4 i2 i2 i4 = 10
i3 i5
2 6 10 A 10 A
2 6

(a) (b)

At node 1, applying KCL and Ohm’s law gives,

i 1 = i2 + i3
v1 v2 v1 0
5 = +
4 2
Multiplying each term in the last equation by 4, we obtain,
20 = v1 – v2 + 2v1
or, 3v1 – v2 = 20 ...(i)
At node 2, we do the same thing and get,
i2 + i4 = i1 + i5
v1v2 v 0
+ 10 = 5 + 2
4 6
Multiplying each term by 12 results in,
3v1 – 3v2 + 120 = 60 + 2v2
3v1 – 5v2 = –60 ...(ii)
Now solving equation (i) and (ii) we get,

40
v 2 = 60 V and v1 = V
3

3.4 Nodal Analysis with Voltage Sources

We now consider how voltage sources affect nodal analysis. We use the circuit in (Fig. 3.7) for illustration.
Consider the following two possibilities.
Case-1: If a voltage source is connected between the reference node and a non-reference node, we simply set
the voltage at the non-reference node equal to the voltage of the voltage source. In (Fig. 3.6) for example,
v 1 = 10 V
Thus, our analysis is somewhat simplified by this knowledge of the voltage at this node.
Case-2: If the voltage source (dependent or independent) is connected between two non-reference nodes, the
two non-reference nodes form a generalized node or supernode, we apply both KCL and KVL to determine the node
voltages.
 14 Network Theory

Supernode
4 10

i4 2V
v1 v2
2 5V
v2
v1 v3
i1
i2 i3 2A 2 4 7A
10 V
8 6

Fig. 3.6 : A circuit with a supernode Fig. 3.7

Note : A supernode is formed by enclosing a (dependent or independent) voltage source connected between
two non-reference nodes and any elements connected in parallel with it.
Now in the (Fig. 3.6) the node 2 and node 3 act as the supernode thus the KCL will be applied at the supernode
(these 2 nodes will act as a single node) thus the KCL equation will be
i1 + i4 = i2 + i3
v1 v2 v v3 v2 0 v3 0
or, + 1 = +
2 4 8 6

Example 3.14 : For the circuit shown in figure, find the node voltages.
10

2V
v1 v2

2A 2 4 7A

Solution :
The supernode contains the 2 V source, nodes 1 and 2, and the 10 resistor. Applying KCL to the supernode
as shown in Fig. (a) gives,

2 A 1 v1 v2 2 7A

i1 i2

2A 2 4 7A

(a)

2 = i1 + i2 + 7
 EC : THEORY BOOK 15

Expressing i1 and i2 in terms of the node voltages,

v1 0 v2 0
2 = + +7
2 4
8 = 2v1 + v2 + 28
or, v 2 = –20 – 2v1 ...(i)
To get the relationship between v1 and v2, we apply KVL to the circuit in Fig. (b).

2V
1 2
+ +

v1 v2

– –

(b)

Going around the loop, we obtain,

–v1 – 2 + v2 = 0
v 2 = v1 + 2 ...(ii)
From equations (i) and (ii), we write, v 2 = v1 + 2 = –20 – 2v1 or 3v1 = –22
v 1 = –7.333 V
and v 2 = v1 + 2 = –5.333 V
Note that the 10 resistor does not make any difference because it is connected across the supernode.

3.5 Planar and Non-planar Circuits

A planar circuit is one that can be drawn in a plane with no branches crossing one another, otherwise it is
non-planar. A circuit may have crossing branches and still be planar if it can be redrawn such that it has no crossing
branches. For example, the circuit in Fig. 3.8 (a) has two crossing branches, but it can be redrawn as in Fig. 3.8 (b).
Hence, the circuit in Fig. 3.8 (a) is planar. However, the circuit in Fig. 3.9 is non-planar, because there is no way to
redraw it and avoid the branches crossing. Non-planar circuits can be handled using nodal analysis, but they will
not be considered in this text.
1A

1A

2 2

1 5 6 3 1 3
4
5 6
4
8 7

(b)
8 7 The same circuit redrawn with
no crossing branches

(a)
A planar circuit with crossing branches
Fig. 3.8
 16 Network Theory

5
4
7 2
6
3

13
5A 12 9
11 8

10

Fig. 3.9 : A non-planar circuit

3.6 Mesh Analysis

Mesh analysis provides another general procedure for analysing circuits, using mesh currents as the circuit
variables. Using mesh currents instead of element currents as circuit variables is convenient and reduces the number
of equations that must be solved simultaneously.

Note : Recall that a loop is a closed path with no node passed more than once. A mesh is a loop that does not
contain any other loop within it.
To understand mesh analysis, we should first explain more about what we mean by a mesh.

Note : A mesh is a loop which does not contain any other loops within it.

I1 R1 I2 R2
b
a c
I3

V1 i1 R3 i2 V2

e
f d

Fig. 3.10 : A circuit with two meshes

In Fig. 3.10, for example paths abefa and bcdeb are meshes, but path abcdefa is not a mesh. The current through
a mesh is known as mesh current. In mesh analysis, we are interested in applying KVL to find the mesh currents in
a given circuits.
In the mesh analysis of a circuit with ‘n’ meshes, we take the following three steps.

Steps to Determine Mesh Currents

1. Assign mesh currents i1, i2, ......, in to the ‘n’ meshes.
2. Apply KVL to each of the ‘n’ meshes. Use Ohm’s law to express the voltages in terms of the mesh currents.
3. Solve the resulting ‘n’ simultaneous to get the mesh currents.
To illustrate the steps, consider the circuit in Fig. 3.10. The first step requires that mesh currents i1 and i2 are
assigned to meshes 1 and 2. Although a mesh current may be assigned to each mesh in an arbitrary direction, it is
conventional to assume that each mesh current flows clockwise.
 EC : THEORY BOOK 17

As the second step, we apply KVL to each mesh. Applying KVL to mesh 1, we obtain,
–V1 + R1i1 + R3(i1 – i2) = 0
or, (R1 + R3) i1 – R3i2 = V1
For mesh 2, applying KVL gives,
R2i2 + V2 + R3(i2 – i1) = 0
or, –R3i1 + (R2 + R3) i2 = –V2
Now using these two equations we can easily find the current in both the mesh.

Example 3.15 : For the circuit in figure, find the branch currents I1, I2 and I3 using mesh analysis.

I1 5 I2 6

I3

10
15 V i1 i2 4

10 V

Solution :
We first obtain the mesh currents using KVL.
For mesh 1,
–15 + 5i1 + 10(i1 – i2) + 10 = 0
or, 3i1 – 2i2 = 1 ...(i)
For mesh 2,
6i2 + 4i2 + 10(i2 – i1) – 10 = 0
or, i 1 = 2i2 – 1 ...(ii)
Using the substitution method, we substitute equation (ii) into equation (i) and write,
6i2 – 3 – 2i2 = 1
i2 = 1 A
From equation (ii), i 1 = 2i2 – 1 = 2 – 1 = 1 A
Thus, I1 = i1 = 1 A;
I2 = i2 = 1 A;
I3 = i1 – i2 = 0

3.7 Mesh Analysis with Current Sources

Applying mesh analysis to circuits containing current sources (dependent or independent) may appear
complicated. But it is actually much easier than what we encountered in the previous section, because the presence
of the current sources reduces the number of equations. Consider the following two possible cases:
• Case-1 : When a current source exists only in one mesh. Consider the circuit in Fig. 3.11 for example. We
set i2 = –5 A and write a mesh equation for the other mesh in the usual way, that is,
–10 + 4i1 + 6(i1 – i2) = 0
i 1 = –2 A ...(3.17)
 18 Network Theory

• Case-2 : When a current source exists between two meshes. Consider the circuit in Fig. 3.12 (a), for
example. We create a supermesh by excluding the current source and any elements connected in series
with it, as shown in Fig. 3.12 (b).

Note : A supermesh results when two meshes have a (dependent or independent) current source in common.

4 3

10 V i1 6 i2 5A

Fig. 3.11 : A circuit with a current source

6 10
6 10

20 V i1 i2 4 20 V i1 i2 4
6A

i1 0 i2 (b)
Exclude these
(a) elements

Fig. 3.12 : (a) Two meshes having a current source in common

(b) a supermesh, created by excluding the current source

Thus we can see that while creating the supermesh we get one relation between current i1 and i2 by applying
KCL and we create superrich by removing the current source and thus we apply KVL to get another relation between
the currents.
Therefore, applying KVL to the supermesh in Fig. 3.12 (b) gives,
–20 + 6i1 + 10i2 + 4i2 = 0
Now solving the two equations we get the values of the currents,
i 1 = –3.2 A; i2 = 2.8 A

Nodal Versus Mesh Analysis

We can see that if there are ‘b’ number of branches in a circuit and ‘n’ number of nodes then the circuit has
b – n + 1 number of mesh, thus if we use mesh analysis we require b – n + 1 number of equations for solving the circuit
and for nodal analysis we require voltage at all the nodes (taking one node as reference) thus we need n – 1 number
of equations in nodal analysis. Thus we can choose that method of analysis which require less number of equations.
 EC : THEORY BOOK 19

Practice Questions Q.6 Find ‘v’ and ‘i’ in the circuit of figure.

4 6V
Q.1 Find the value of Io.
2 i
+
14 V 3 v 2 6
4 2
–

5A Io

6 3Io 8 10 V
Q.7 Find the value of vx in the circuit of figure.
3

Q.2 Find the value of Io. + vx –

20 V 3vx
2 2 6 3
1 +– 4
Io

2 10 A 4 1

2 2A
1 Io 2
10 V

Q.8 Find v1, v2 and v3 in the circuit of figure, using

Q.3 Obtain the node voltages in the circuit of figure. nodal analysis.
1 6 2 6

25 V 5i
3A 2 7 12 A v2
v1 –+ v3

2 i 4 3

Q.4 Find the value of ix in the circuit shown in figure.

4 Q.9 Calculate the mesh currents i1 and i2 of the circuit
of figure.
ix 2 2 8
1 3 2 6

3A 4 2ix

0 45 V i1 12 i2 30 V

Q.5 Find out the value of ix in the circuit shown in

4 3
figure.
[Hint: Here, you should apply our Khichdi
2
method only and then find current in all the
4ix
branches, current in 2 and 4 resistor is i1 and
3 2
1 3 in 9 and 3 is i2].
ix
Q.10 Use mesh analysis to find the current Io in the
4A 6
4 circuit of figure.
 20 Network Theory

i1 A i2 1

Io
i2 3vo
4 2
24
10
4 i1 i2 i3
24 V i1
24 V +
2 8 4 vo
12 + 4Io –
i3 –

Q.15 Determine currents i1, i2 and i3 in the circuit of

Q.11 Using mesh analysis, find Io in the circuit of figure. figure.
6
i1 4

Io 2A
4 8

i2 i3
2
16 V 2 –
+ 10io
1 i1 2
10 V

Q.12 Use mesh analysis to determine i1, i2 and i3 in

figure. Q.16 Find the currents I1 through I4 and the voltage vo
in the circuit,
vo
2 i3 2
I1 I2 I3 I4

8A 10 20 30 20 A 60
i1 4
8V
4A
8
i2
1
Q.17 Obtain vo in the circuit,

Q.13 For the circuit in figure, find the node voltages.

30 V 20 V
+
500 mA vo 4k
1 2 100 3 –
2k 5k
60

30 25 50 V Q.18 Find the value of Vx ,

50

0 +
2A 10 Vx 20 0.2Vx
Q.14 In the circuit of figure, determine the currents i1, i2 –

and i3.
 EC : THEORY BOOK 21

Q.19 Determine Ib in the circuit, Q.24 For the circuit in figure, find v1 and v2:
60Ib 4k
Ib 250

2k 3vo
v1 v2
24 V 50 150 +
3 mA 1k vo
–

Q.20 Find Vo and the power dissipated in all the

resistors in the circuit, Q.25 Find Vo in the circuit of figure.
12 6 1 4 2Vo
Vo

+
30 V 2 Vo 16 3A
60 V 12 24 V –

Q.26 Find the node voltages for the circuit in figure.

1
Q.21 Calculate v1 and v2 in the circuit. + vo –

10 V 4Io 2vo
v1 2 v2 v1 v2 v3 2

io

1A 4 1 4 10 V
8 4 15 A

Q.22 Find io and the power dissipated in each resistor Q.27 Apply mesh analysis to find ‘i’ in figure.
in the circuit. 10

2A
i1
2 6V

10 V 3S i

i2 1 i3
io 4A 4
6S 5S 5
8V

Q.23 Find current io in the circuit of figure.

Q.28 Find current ‘i’ in the circuit of figure.
io
4 8

4 2
4A
10
8

2 4
60 V 3io
30 V i 3 1
 22 Network Theory

Q.29 Find vo and io in the circuit of figure. Q.32 Calculate the current gain io/is in the circuit of
3
figure.
20 10

1 vo 2 io
+
is vo 30 5vo 40
io 27 V –
2 2io

Q.33 Find vx and ix in the circuit shown below.

ix 10
Q.30 Apply mesh analysis to find vo in the circuit of
figure.
3A 5
vx/4
5A
50 V
+
vx 2 4ix
2 vo 8 –

1
4 20 V
40 V

Q.31 In the circuit of figure, solve for I1, I2 and I3.

10 V

6 I1 1A

4A 2

12 I2 I3 4

8V
 EC : THEORY BOOK 23

Answers
1. (Io = –2.14 Amp.) 18. (5.714 V)

2. (–0.428 Amp.) 19. (79.34 mA)

3. (v1 = –6 V, v2 = –42 V) 20. (3 V, 293.9 W, 750 mW, 121.5 W)

4. (ix = 1.2 Amp.) 21. (40 V, 40 V)

5. (ix = –6.4 Amp.) 22. (29.45 A, 144.6 W, 129.6 W, 12 W)

6. (–400 mV, 2.8 Amp.) 23. (1.73 A)

7. (73.34 V) 24. (1 V, 3 V)

8. (v1 = 7.608 V, v2 = –17.39 V, v3 = 1.6305 V) 25. (22.34 V)

9. (i1 = 2.5 A, i2 = 0 A) 26. (4.97 V, 4.85 V, –0.12 V)

10. () 27. (1.188 A)

11. (–4 A) 28. (8.561 A)

12. (i1 = 4.632 A, i2 = 631.6 mA, i3 = 1.4736 A) 29. (57 V, 18 A)

13. (V1 = –10 V, V2 = 14.286 V, V3 = 50 V) 30. (20 V)

14. () 31. (–1 A, 0 A, 2 A)

15. (i1 = –428.6 mA, i2 = 2.286 A, i3 = 2 A) 32. (–0.3)

16. (–6 A, –3 A, –2 A, 1 A, –60 V) 33. (–4 V, 2.105 A)

17. (20 V)
 24 Network Theory

Review Questions Q.4 In the circuit of figure (Question 3) in the voltage

v2 is
Q.1 At node 1 in the circuit of figure, applying KCL
(a) –8 V (b) –1.6 V
gives:
(c) 1.6 V (d) 8 V

Q.5 The current ‘i’ in the circuit of figure is,

8
2A
4
3 v1 4
v2
1 2
10 V i 6V
12 V
6 6

2
12 v1 v1 v1 v2 (a) –2.667 A (b) –0.667 A
(a) 2 + = +
3 6 4 (c) 0.667 A (d) 2.667 A
v 12 v1 v2 v1
(b) 2 + 1 = + Q.6 The loop equation for the circuit in (Question 5)
3 6 4
is,
12 v1 0 v1 v1 v2
(c) 2 + = + (a) –10 + 4i + 6 + 2i = 0
3 6 4
(b) 10 + 4i + 6 + 2i = 0
v 12 0 v1 v2 v1
(d) 2 + 1 = + (c) 10 + 4i – 6 + 2i = 0
3 6 4
(d) –10 + 4i – 6 + 2i = 0
Q.2 In the circuit of figure of (Question 1), applying
Q.7 In the circuit of figure, current i1 is,
KCL at node 2 gives:
2 1
v2 v1 v2 v2
(a) + =
4 8 6
+
v1 v2 v2 v2
(b) + = 20 V i1 v 2A i2
4 8 6 –
v1 v2 12 v2 v2
(c) + =
4 8 6
3 4
v2 v1 v2 12 v
(d) + = 2 (a) 4 A (b) 3 A
4 8 6
(c) 2 A (d) 1 A
Q.3 For the circuit in figure, v1 and v2 are related as:

6 8V
v1 i v2
Answers :
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (c)
12 V 4
6. (a) 7. (d)

(a) v1 = 6i + 8 + v2
(b) v1 = 6i – 8 + v2
(c) v1 = –6i + 8 + v2
(d) v1 = –6i – 8 + v2
 4
Chapter
Network Theorem

4.1 Introduction
The growth in areas of application of electric circuits has led to an evolution from simple to complex circuits.
To handle the complexity, engineers over the years have developed some theorems to simplify circuit analysis. Such
theorems include Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems. Since these theorems are applicable to linear circuits, we first
discuss the concept of circuit linearity. In addition to circuit theorems, we discuss the concepts of superposition, and
maximum power transfer in this chapter. The concepts we develope are applied in the last section to source modeling
and resistance measurement.

4.2 Concept of Linearity Property

Linearity is the property of an element describing a linear relationship between cause and effect. Although the
property applies to many circuit elements, we shall limit its applicability to resistors in this chapter. The circuit with
R, L, C and linear dependent sources are also a linear circuit. The linearity property is a combination of both the
homogeneity (scaling) property and the additivity property.
The homogeneity property requires that if the input (also called the excitation) is multiplied by a constant,
then the output (also called the response) is multiplied by the same constant. For a resistor, for example, Ohm’s law
relates the input ‘I’ to the output ‘v’,
V = iR ...(4.1)
If the current is increased by a constant ‘k’ then the voltage increase corresponding by ‘k’, that is,
kV = kiR ...(4.2)
The additivity property requires that the response to a sum of inputs is the sum of the responses to reach input
applied separately. Using the voltage-current relationship of a resistor, if
v 1 = i1R ...(4.3 a)
and v 2 = i2R ...(4.3 b)
then applying (i1 + i2) gives,
v = (i1 + i2) R
= i1R + i2R = v1 + v2 ...(4.4)
We say that a resistor is a linear element because the voltage-current relationship satisfies both the homogeneity
and the additivity properties. In general, a circuit is linear if it is both additive and homogeneous. A linear circuit
consists of only linear elements, linear dependent sources, and independent sources.
To illustrate the linearity principle, consider the linear circuit shown
in Fig. 4.1. The linear circuit has no independent sources inside it. It is
excited by a voltage source vs, which serves as the input. The circuit is vs Linear i R
circuit
terminated by a load R. We may take the current ‘i’ through ‘R’ as the output.
Suppose, vs = 10 V gives i = 2 A. According to the linearity principle, vs = 1 V
will give i = 0.2 A. By the same taken, i = 1 mA must be due to vs = 5 mV. Fig. 4.1
A linear with input vs and output ‘i’
2 Network Theory

Example 4.1 : For the circuit in figure, find Io when vs = 12 V and vs = 24 V.

2 8

+ vx –
Io
4

i1 i2 4
6

vs 3vx

Solution :
Applying KVL to the two loops, we obtain,
12i1 – 4i2 + vs = 0 ...(i)
–4i1 + 16i2 – 3vx – vs = 0 ...(ii)
But, vx = 2i1 equation (ii) becomes,
–10i1 + 16i2 – vs = 0 ...(iii)
Adding equations (i) and (iii) yields,
2i1 + 12i2 = 0 i1 = –6i2
Substituting this in equation (i), we get,
vs
–76i2 + vs = 0 i2 =
76
12
When vs = 12 V, Io = i2 = A
76
24
When vs = 24 V, Io = i2 = A
76
showing that when the source value is doubled, Io doubles.

Note : Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 4.2, we can see that in the linear circuit. We have more than one
independent sources. Now when the sources of value Vs1, Vs2, Is are applied then the current in the resistor is I.

Is

Vs1 Linear I R
circuit

Vs2

Fig. 4.2

Now if we want to double the current in the resistor then value of all the independent sources need to be
doubled. Remember that only independent sources need to be doubled, the dependent sources inside the
circuit need not be changed.
 EC : THEORY BOOK 3

4.3 Superposition Theorem

If a circuit has two or more independent sources, one way to determine the value of a specific variable (voltage
or current) is to use nodal or mesh analysis as in (Chapter-3). Another way is to determine the contribution of each
independent source to the variable and then add them up. The latter approach is known as the superposition. The idea
of superposition rests on the linearity property. (We will not use this theorem, this is only for illustration purpose).

Note : The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or current through) an element in a linear
circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltage across (or currents through) that elements due to each independent
source acting alone.
The principle of superposition helps us to analyze a linear circuit with more than one independent source by
calculating the contribution of each independent source separately. However, to apply the superposition principle,
we must keep two things in mind:
1. We consider one independent source at a time while all other independent sources are turned-off. This
implies that we replace every voltage source by 0 V (or a short-circuit), and every current source by 0 A
(or an open circuit). This way we obtain a simpler and more manageable circuit.
2. Dependent sources are left intact because they are controlled by circuit variable.

Remember : Steps to apply superposition principle:

1. Turn-off all independent sources except one source. Find the output (voltage or current) due to that active
source using the techniques covered in (Chapter-2 and 3).
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to the independent sources.

Keep in mind that superposition is based on linearity. For this reason, it is not applicable to the effect on
power due to each source, because the power absorbed by a resistor depends on the square of the voltage or current.
If the power value is needed, the current through (or voltage across) the element must be calculated first using
superposition.

Example 4.2 : Use the superposition theorem to find ‘v’ in the circuit of figure.
8

+
6V v 4 3A
–

Solution :
Since there are two sources, let, v = v1 + v2
where, v1 and v2 are the contributions due to the 6 V voltage source and the 3 A current source, respectively.
To obtain v1, we set the current source to zero, as shown in Fig. (a). Applying KVL to the loop in Fig. (a) gives,
8 8 i2

i3
+ +
6V i1 v1 4 v2 4 3A
– –

(a) (b)
4 Network Theory

12i1 – 6 = 0 i1 = 0.5 A
Thus, v 1 = 4i1 = 2 V
We may also use voltage division to get v1 by writing,
4
v1 = (6) = 2 V
4+8
To get v2, we set the voltage source to zero, as in Fig. (b). Using current division,
8
i3 = (3) = 2 A
4+8
Hence, v 2 = 4i3 = 8 V
and we find, v = v1 + v2 = 2 + 8 = 10 V

Note : The above example was for showing the method of superposition theorem, but generally we will use
superposition theorem only for questions of format as shown below (Example 4.3).

Example 4.3 : Find the value of io due to 4 A current source only in circuit of figure.

3
5io
1
4A

5 io 4

20 V

Solution :
In such questions we where we have to find current in branch or voltage across the device we will remove all
the other sources and keep only independent source, for example here 20 V source will be removed and 4 A
current source will be activated. Now we turn-off the 20 V source so that we have the circuit shown in below
figure. We apply mesh analysis in order to obtain io .
For loop-1, i1 = 4 A ...(i)
For loop-2, –3i1 + 6i2 – 1i3 – 5io = 0 ...(ii)

i2
3
5i o
1
4A i1

5 io i3 4

i1 0 i3

For loop-3, –5i1 – 1i2 + 10i3 + 5io = 0 ...(iii)

But at node 0, i 3 = i1 – io = 4 – io ...(iv)
 EC : THEORY BOOK 5

Substituting equations (i) and (iv) into equations (ii) and (iii) gives two simultaneous equations,
3i2 – 2io = 8 ...(v)
i2 + 5io = 20 ...(vi)

52
which can be solved to get, io = A ...(vii)
17

Note : We can apply Khichdi method also to solve the above circuit. In the practice problems no need to
apply superposition theorem, solve it using Khichdi method only.

Example 4.4 : For the circuit shown in the figure, some measurement are made as shown in the table.

IL

S.No. Vs Is IL
Vs Linear
R 1. 14 V 6 A 2 A
circuit
2. 18 V 2 A 6 A

Is

Then find the relationship between IL and Vs, Is.

Solution :
These are very simple kind of problems where we use the concept that since the circuit is linear thus IL will
have linear relation with Vs and Is. Thus we can write that,
IL = aVs + bIs
Now using the data given in the question,
2 = 14a + 6b
and 6 = 18a + 2b
Now, solving the above two equation we get that,
a = 0.4 and b = –0.6
Thus, IL = 0.4Vs – 0.6 Is

Example 4.5 : Consider the following circuits shown below.

Ia 2 Ib 2

6 6 6 6
2 2 2 2

12 V
12 V 8V 18 V 6 3A 12 V
6

(a) (b)

Find the relationship between Ia and Ib.

 6 Network Theory

Solution :
If we redraw Fig. (b) using source transformation in the middle branch, we can get circuit as shown below.

Ib 2

6 6
2 2

6
18 V 12 V
18 V

(c)

Now if we compare the circuit in Fig. (c) and Fig. (a). We can see that all the sources are multiplied with 1.5
and all the resistors are of same vale thus if we apply the concept of superposition then we can say that,
Ib = 1.5Ia

4.4 Thevenin Theorem

If often occurs in practice that a particular element in a circuit is variable (usually called the load) while other
elements are fixed. Each time the variable element is changed, the entire circuit has to be analyzed all over again. To
avoid this problem, Thevenin’s theorem provides a technique by which the fixed part of the circuit is replaced by an
equivalent circuit. According to Thevenin’s theorem, the linear circuit in Fig. 4.3(a) can be replaced by that in
Fig. 4.3 (b). (The load in Fig. 4.3 may be a single resistor or another circuit). The circuit to the left of the terminals a-b
in Fig. 4.3 (b) is known as the Thevenin equivalent circuit.

I a RTh
I a
+ +
Linear
two-terminal V Load VTh V Load
circuit
– –
b b
(a) (b)

Fig. 4.3 : Replacing a linear two-terminal circuit by its Thevenin equivalent

(a) original circuit (b) the Thevenin equivalent circuit

The statement of the Thevenin theorem is as follows:

Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting
of a voltage source VTh in series with a resistor RTh, where VTh is in the open-circuit voltage at the terminals and RTh
is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off. Consider Fig. 4.4.
RTh
a
a
Linear VTh
circuit
b
b

Fig. 4.4 : Replacing a linear two-terminal circuit by its Thevenin equivalent

Suppose we want to find Thevenin equivalent of a circuit between terminal ‘a’ and ‘b’, we have to find the
Thevenin equivalent voltage VTh and Thevenin equivalent resistance RTh of the circuit.
 EC : THEORY BOOK 7

To find Thevenin voltage of a circuit between terminals ‘a’ and ‘b’ we follow these step.
Simply remove the load between terminals ‘a’ and ‘b’ thus open-circuit the circuit between terminal ‘a’ and ‘b’,
the voltage seen between these open circuited terminals ‘a’ and ‘b’ is called Thevenin voltage VTh.
Thus VTh is the open-circuited voltage across the terminals as shown in Fig. 4.5, that is,
VTh = voc

a
Linear +
two-terminal voc
circuit
–
b

Fig. 4.5

To find the Thevenin resistance of a circuit between terminals ‘a’ and ‘b’ we follow these step.
With the load disconnected and terminals a-b open circuited, we turn-off all independent sources. The input
resistance (or equivalent resistance) of the dead circuit at the terminals a-b is equal to RTh.
To apply this idea in finding the Thevenin resistance RTh, we need to consider two cases:
Case-1 : If the network has no dependent sources, we turn-off all independent sources. RTh is the input
resistance of the network looking between terminal ‘a’ and ‘b’.
Case-2 : If the network has dependent sources, we turn-off all independent sources, dependent sources are
not to be turned off because they are controlled by circuit variables. We apply a voltage source vo at terminals ‘a’ and
‘b’ and determine the resulting current io. Then RTh = vo/io, as shown in Fig. 4.6 (a). Alternatively, we may insert a
current source io at terminals a-b as shown in Fig. 4.6 (b) and find the terminal voltage vo . Again RTh = vo/io. Either of
the two approaches will give the same result. In either approach we may assume any value of vo and io. For example,
we may use vo = 1 V or io = 1 A, or even use unspecified values of vo or io.
a io a
Circuit with Circuit with +
all independent v all independent v
vo RTh = o vo io RTh = o
sources set io sources set io
equal to zero equal to zero –
b b
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.6

Example 4.6 : Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the circuit shown in figure, to the left of the
terminals a-b.
4 1 a

32 V 12 2A RL

Solution :
We find RTh by turning off the 32 V voltage source (replacing it with a short-circuit) and the 2 A current
source (replacing it with an open-circuit). The circuit becomes what is shown in Fig. (a).
4 × 12
Thus, RTh = 4 12 + 1 = +1= 4
16
8 Network Theory

4 1 4 VTh 1
a a
+
RTh i1 i2 VTh
12 32 V 12 2A

–
b b
(a) (b)

To find VTh, consider the circuit in Fig. (b). Applying mesh analysis to the two loops, we obtain,
–32 + 4i1 + 12(i1 – i2) = 0
i 2 = –2 A
Solving for i1, we get i1 = 0.5 A.
Thus, VTh = 12(i1 – i2) = 12(0.5 + 2.0) = 30 V
Alternatively, it is even easier to use nodal analysis. We ignore the 1 resistor since no current flows
through it. At the top node, KCL gives,
32 VTh V
+ 2 = Th
4 12
or, 96 – 3VTh + 24 = VTh
VTh = 30 V

Example 4.7 : Find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit in figure at terminals a-b.
2vx

2 2
a

+
5A 4 vx 6
–

b
(a)

Solution :
First of all we will find Thevenin voltage VTh, we can see that terminals ‘a’ and ‘b’ are already open circuited,
thus we will find out the open-circuit voltage. 2vx
We can see that, Vab = Vdb
also, Vdb = 3Vx 1.5Vx
Now applying KCL at node ‘d’ we can see that current 2 V 2
c x d
a
in branch cd is 1.5Vx. – 2V + +
x
Now applying KCL at node ‘c’ we get +
5 A Vx Vab
(incoming current = outgoing current), 4 vx 6
–2
Vx 3 –
5 + Vx = + Vx b
4 2 (b)
20
Vx = V
3
Thus, VTh = 3Vx = 20 V
Now to find the RTh, since the circuit has dependent source thus we will apply a source Vo at terminal a-b
and see the current to find out the resistance, one easier method is [Refer Fig. (b)], we can see that resistance
between terminals a-b is equal to resistance between d – b + 2 .
 EC : THEORY BOOK 9

Thus, Rab = Rdb + 2

Now we will find Rdb, we apply Vo voltage between terminal b-d as 2vx
shown in [Fig.(c)] (we remove the independent source).
We can see that at terminal ‘c’ the voltage is 3Vx or Vo,
2 Io
Now nodal analysis at node ‘b’ we can see that, c
d
– 2V +
Vx Vx 3Vx Vx/4 x
Io = + = 6
2 4 4 + Vo
4 vx
Vo 3Vx – Vx/2
Thus, = Rcb = =4
Io 3Vx /4
b
(c)
Thus, RTh = Rcb + 2 = 6

Example 4.8 : Find the Thevenin equivalent at terminals a-b of the circuit in figure.
10 k 20 k

+ V –
o

a
70 V 4Vo
b

Solution :
We can see that open-circuit voltage in the circuit will be Thevenin voltage of the circuit, let the current in the
circuit shown in Fig. (a) is I.
10 k 20 k

+ V –
I o

a
70 V 4Vo
b

(a)

Thus, Vo = 10,000 Io
Now KVL in the loop we get, 70 = Vo + 20,000Io + 4Vo
70
Io = = 1 mA
70, 000
Thus, Vab = VTh = 70 – Vo = 60 V
Now to find RTh, we remove all the independent sources and apply Vx at terminal a-b Fig. (b),
Vx
RTh = 10 k 20 k
Ix A
+ V –
We can see that, Vo = –Vx o Ix
Vx V 4Vo
KCL at node ‘A’ we get, Ix = + x Vx 4Vo
10, 000 20, 000
Vx 5 Vo
= +
10, 000 20, 000 B
(b)
Vx
I x = 2.857 k
Thus, VTh = 60 V and RTh = 2.857 k
 10 Network Theory

Example 4.9 : Determine the Thevenin equivalent at terminal a-b for the circuit in figure.
10io 2
a
io

2A 4

Solution :
We can see that in the circuit the terminals ‘a’ and ‘b’ are already open circuited. [Refer Fig. (a)], no current
will flow in branch ‘ca’ thus,
10io
c 2
io = 2 A a
and KVL in loop cabc we get, io +

10io + Vab – 8 = 0 +
2A 8V 4 Vab
Vab = –10io + 8 = –12 V
–
Thus, VTh = –12 V
–
Now to find RTh we remove the independent sources and apply b
(a)
voltage Vx at terminal a-b [Refer Fig. (b)], we can see that,
Vx 2
RTh = c a
Ix io
10io Ix
Now Ix = io, thus KVL in loop acba we get,
2Ix – 10io + 4io – Vx = 0 4 Vx
Vx = 2Ix – 6io
Vx = –4Ix b
(b)
Vx
RTh = = 4
Ix
Thus, VTh = –12 V; RTh = –4

4.5 Norton Theorem

Norton’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting
of a current source IN in parallel with a resistor RN, where IN is the short-circuit current through the terminals and RN
is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off.
Thus, the circuit in Fig. 4.7 (a) can be replaced by the one in Fig. 4.7 (b).
a
a
Linear
two-terminal IN RN
circuit
b
(a) b
(b)
Fig. 4.7 : (a) Original circuit (b) Norton equivalent circuit

To find the Norton current IN, we determine the short-circuit flowing from terminal a to b in both circuits in
Fig. 4.7. It is evident that the short-circuit in Fig. 4.7 (b) is IN. This is same as short-circuit current from terminal a to b
in Fig. 4.7 (a).
 EC : THEORY BOOK 11

Linear
two-terminal isc = IN
circuit

b
Fig. 4.8 : Finding Norton current IN

Thus, IN = isc as shown in Fig. 4.8.

Remember : The value of RN is same as RTh thus the method followed to find RN is same as that of finding RTh.

Note :
• The Norton equivalent and Thevenin equivalent of a circuit between terminals a and b are related with
each other throughout source transformation.
RTh
a a

VTh VTh
RTh
RTh

b
b

Fig. 4.9

V
Fig. 4.9 here, we can see that Norton equivalent has Isc = Th and RN = RTh.
RTh
Similarly,
RN
a a

IN RN INRN

b b
Fig. 4.10

Fig. 4.10 here, we can see that, VTh = INRN and RTh = RN.
• One very important observation can be made that is,
VTh
RTh =
IN
• In many questions we have to Norton equivalent then we can simply find Thevenin equivalent and
apply source transformation.

Example 4.10 : Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit in figure at terminals a-b.
8
a

4
2A 5

12 V
b
8
12 Network Theory

Solution :
We find RN in the same way we find RTh in the Thevenin equivalent circuit. Set the independent sources
equal to zero. This leads to the circuit in below [Fig. (a)], from which we find RN.
20 × 5
Thus, RN = 5 (8 + 4 + 8) = 5 20 = =4
25
To find IN, we short-circuit terminals a and b, as shown in Fig. (b).
We ignore the 5 resistor because it has been short-circuited.
Applying mesh analysis, we obtain,
i 1 = 2 A, 20i2 – 4i1 – 12 = 0
From these equations, we obtain,
i 2 = 1 A = isc = IN

8 8 a
a

4
RN
4 5 2A i1 5 i2 isc = IN

12 V
b
8 8 b
(a) (b)

8
a
+
4
2A i3 i4 5 VTh = voc

12 V
–
b
8
(c)

Alternatively, we may determine IN from VTh/RTh. We obtain VTh as the open-circuit voltage across terminals
a and b in Fig. (c). Using mesh analysis we obtain,
i3 = 2 A
25i4 – 4i3 – 12 = 0 i4 = 0.8 A
and voc = VTh = 5i4 = 4 V
a
VTh 4
Hence, IN = = =1A
RTh 4 1A 4
as obtained previously. Thus, the Norton equivalent circuit is as shown
in Fig. (d). b
(d)
Example 4.11 : Using Norton’s theorem, find RN and IN of the circuit in figure at terminals a-b.
2ix

5
a
ix

4 10 V

b
 EC : THEORY BOOK 13

Solution :
We will find Thevenin equivalent to find the Norton equivalent, now we will find VTh, since terminals a-b are
already open circuited we have to find voltage between terminals a and b, consider Fig. (a).
10 2ix
We can see that, ix = A
4
Now KVL in the loop ‘adba’ we get,
d – 5 +
10ix + 10 – VTh = 0 a
ix +
VTh = 10 + 10ix 2ix
4 10 V VTh
10
= 10 + 10 = 35 V
4 –
b
Now we will find RTh, we will remove all the independent sources (a)
[(Refer Fig. (b)], we short circuited the independent voltage source.

2ix

5 a
ix Io

4 Vo

(b) b

We can see that now, ix = 0

and thus only 5 resistor is see between terminal a and b.
Thus, RTh = 5
Thus equivalent of circuit is,
5
a a

35 V 7A 5

b b

Remember : If the circuit does not have any independent source then in the Thevenin and Norton equivalent
of the circuit the value of VTh and IN is zero thus the equivalent only has RTh or RN.

Example 4.12 : Find Norton and Thevenin equivalent of the circuit shown in Fig. (a).

3k
a
io

6V 20io 2k

b
(a)
 14 Network Theory

Solution :
First of all we will find VTh that is Vab in the circuit of Fig. (a), we can see that,
6V
io = = 2 mA
3k
Thus, Vab = –(20io × 2 k )
Vab = –80 V
Thus, VTh = –80 V
Now we will find RTh, we will remove the independent source of 6 V, we will get the circuit as shown in
Fig. (b).
3k a

io Ix

20io 2k Vx

(b) b

We can see that, io = 0

and thus resistance seen by Vx will be 2 k .
Thus, RTh = 2 k
The equivalent of the circuit is,
2k
a a

–80 V 40 mA 2k

b
b

4.6 Validity of Norton/Thevenin Theorem

We know that Norton and Thevenin equivalent are dual of each other that is by source transformation we can
convert Norton equivalent to Thevenin equivalent and vice-versa, but it is very important to learn the conditions
when Norton and Thevenin equivalent cannot be calculated. The conditions are as follows:
1. If we are finding equivalent of any circuit between terminals a and b, then if RTh or RN is zero then we
cannot find the Norton equivalent of the circuit, we can only find Thevenin equivalent.
5k

a a
+
10 V 20 V
15 V 20 k Vab 45 V

–
b b
(a) (b)

Fig. 4.11

We can see that in the circuit the open-circuit voltage (Vab) is equal to 45 V (we can get this by simple KVL
in the loop). We can also find the equivalent resistance between terminals a and b by removing the
independent sources (short circuiting the voltage sources) we get that, RTh = 0.
 EC : THEORY BOOK 15

Thus equivalent of the circuit is simply the 45 V battery and we cannot apply source transformation on the
ideal sources, thus Norton equivalent of the circuit cannot be found.

Remember : We can never apply source transformation on the ideal voltage and ideal current sources, it
can be applied in the practical current and voltage sources only.
2. If we are finding equivalent of any circuit between terminals a and b, then if RTh or RN is infinity then we
cannot find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit, we can only find Norton equivalent.
10 k 10 k
a a
+
10 V
5A Vab 5A

–
b b
Fig. 4.12

In the above circuit we cannot open-circuit the terminals a and b as the current of 5 A has to flow thus we
cannot find the open-circuit voltage. Thus we cannot find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit. Also, if
we short-circuit the terminals a and b, the current will be 5 A and we can see that equivalent resistance
between terminals a and b (removing the independent sources) the equivalent resistance is infinity. Thus
equivalent of the circuit will be same as 5 A current source.

Note : In any circuit these shortcuts can be used:

R
a a

1. Is Is

b b
The resistance in series with current source is equal to current source only (apply Norton theorem, we will
get Isc = Is and RN = ).
a a

2. Vs R Vs

b b
The resistance in parallel with voltage source is equal to voltage source only (apply Thevenin theorem, we
will get VTh = Vs and RTh = 0).

4.7 Maximum Power Transfer

In many practical situations, a circuit is designed to provide power to a load. There are applications in areas
such as communications where it is desirable to maximize the power delivered to a load. We now address the
problem of delivering the maximum power to a load when given a system with known internal losses. It should be
noted that this will result in significant internal losses greater than or equal to the power delivered to the load.
The Thevenin equivalent is useful in finding the maximum power a linear circuit can deliver to a load. We
assume that we can adjust the load resistance RL. If the entire circuit is replaced by its Thevenin equivalent except for
the load, as shown in Fig. 4.13, the power delivered to the load is,
2
VTh
p = i 2 RL = RL
RTh + RL
 16 Network Theory

RTh a

VTh RL

b
Fig. 4.13 : The circuit used for maximum power transfer

For a given circuit, VTh and RTh are fixed. By varying the load resistance RL, the power delivered to the load
varies as sketched in Fig. 4.14. We notice from Fig. 4.14 that the power is small for small or large values of RL but
maximum for some value of RL between 0 and . We now want to show the this maximum power occurs when RL is
equal to RTh. This is known as the maximum power theorem.
P

Pmax

RL
0 RTh

Fig. 4.14 : Power delivered to the load as a function of RL

Note : Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load resistance equals the Thevenin resistance
as seen from the load (RL = RTh).
To prove the maximum power transfer theorem, we differentiate ‘p’ in above equation with respect to RL and
set the result equal to zero. We obtain putting,
dp
=0
dRL
we get, RTh = RL
The maximum power transferred is obtained by using above equations we get,
2
VTh
pmax =
4RTh

Example 4.13 : Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer in the circuit of figure, find the maximum
power.
6 3 2 a

12 V 12 2A RL

Solution :
We need to find the Thevenin resistance RTh and the Thevenin voltage VTh across the terminals a-b. To get
RTh, we use the circuit in Fig. (a) and obtain,
6 × 12
RTh = 2 + 3 + 6 12 = 5 + =9
18
 EC : THEORY BOOK 17

6 3 2
a

RTh
12

b
(a)

To get VTh, we consider the circuit in Fig. (b). Applying mesh analysis gives,
–12 + 18i1 – 12i2 = 0, i2 = –2 A
6 3 2
+

12 V 12 2A VTh
i1 i2
–
(b)

2
Solving for i1, we get, i1 = . Applying KVL around the outer loop to get VTh across terminals a-b, we
3
obtain,
–12 + 6i1 + 3i2 + 2(0) + VTh = 0 VTh = 22 V
For maximum power transfer, RL = RTh = 9

2
VTh 22 2
and the maximum power is, pmax = = = 13.44 W
4 RL 4 × 9

Note : Some important observations of the maximum power transfer theorem are:
1. If we have any linear circuit then we can apply the maximum power transfer theorem as shown in
Fig. 4.15.
RTh
a

Linear
RL VTh RL
circuit

b
Fig. 4.15
2
VTh
In the above circuit for the maximum power transfer the condition is RTh = RL and pmax = .
4RTh
2. If the load is not a resistor rather a circuit then steps to solve such circuit are Fig. 4.16.
RTh
a
+
Linear
two-terminal Load VTh VTh/2 Load
circuit
–
b
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.16
In above case the load is a circuit, then for maximum power the load should be such that the voltage across
the load should be VTh/2.
 18 Network Theory

4.8 Reciprocity Theorem

This theorem states that, in any circuit or network, the flow of current is because of a single voltage source
within any specified branch of circuit is equivalent to the current value within the original branch whenever the
voltage source was arranged once the source is moved to that specified branch of the circuit. This theorem is used in
a reciprocal network that is linear and bilateral circuit that has simply one independent source and this theorem can
also be used for both AC and DC circuits. Lets understand the theorem with the help of an example, Fig. 4.17.
R4 R4

a c b a c b
R2 R3 R2 R3

Vs R1 Ammeter Ammeter R1 Vs

b b
(a) (b)

Fig. 4.17

In the above Fig. 4.17 (a) we can see that circuit has all the linear elements and there is not dependent source
and only one independent source thus reciprocity theorem can be applied. Thus, if input is applied in branch ‘ab’
and response i.e. current is seen in branch ‘db’ then if the response and input location are interchanged as seen in
Fig. 4.17 (b) where the response is seen in branch ‘ab’ and input is applied in branch ‘db’, the reciprocity theorem
states that ration of response to input remain same in both the circuit.
Another example to explain the reciprocity theorem is as follows:
a c a c

Linear 3A 3A Linear
10 V 10 V
network network

b d b d
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.18

In Fig. 4.18 (a) if the 10 V is applied between ‘a-b’ then we get current of 3 A from ‘c-d’, thus if we apply 10 V
between ‘c-d’ then by reciprocity theorem we get that current between ‘a-b’ will be 3 A.

Remember : Reciprocity theorem is applicable when following conditions are followed:

1. Circuit is linear and bilateral.
2. Circuit does not have any dependent source.
3. Circuit has only one independent source.
There are many questions asked on the basis of reciprocity theorem and the format of the questions is as
follows. A black box is given and we only know that the network is linear and bilateral. In such questions always
remember that the reciprocity theorem is applicable and replace the black box with a T-network as shown below in
Fig. 4.19.
Ra Rb

Black box
linear Rc
network

Fig. 4.19 : Always replace black box with T-network as shown

 EC : THEORY BOOK 19

Example 4.14 : The figure shows two different sets of input and output variables for the same two-port
resistive network N. Ix is,
8A 4A
Ix
Resistive Resistive
4V 1 6V 3
network ‘N’ network ‘N’

(a) (b)

Solution :
In this question we will use the concept shown above, that is we will replace the network with a T-network.
Using Fig. (a) we get,
8A b 4A

Ra Rb
4V Rc 4A 1

(c)

Now we will find the values of Ra, Rb, Rc. KCL at node ‘b’ we get that current in resistor. Rc is 4 A.
Thus, 4Rc = 4(Rb + 1)
Rc = Rb + 1
Let, Rb = 1
Thus, Rc = 2
Now KVL in first loop we get,
4 = 8Ra + 4Rc
4 = 8Ra + 8
1
Ra =
2
Now to solve for circuit in Fig. (b), we will use these values of resistor.

Ix Ix –0.5

–0.5 1
6V 2 3 6V 2 4

(d)

6
We get, Ix = = 7.2 A
0.5 + 4 2
Thus we get, Ix = 7.2 A
20 Network Theory

Example 4.15 : The short-circuit test of a two-port network is shown in [Fig. (a)], the voltage across the
terminals ‘AA’ in the network shown in [Fig. (b)] will be

10 A
B

20 V N 2A

B
(a)
A B

N 10 V

A B
(b)

Solution :
In this question we will use the concept shown above, that is we will replace the network with a T-network.
Using Fig. (a) we get,

10 A b

Ra Rb
20 V Rc 2A

(c)

Now we will find the values of unknown resistors in the circuit of Fig. (c).
By KCL at node ‘b’ we get, current in resistor Rc is 8 A.
Thus, 8Rc = 2Rb
If, Rc = 1
we get, Rb = 4
Now KVL in first loop we get,
20 = 10Ra + 8Rc
Ra = 1.2
Now to solve for circuit in Fig. (b) we will use these values of resistor,

1.2 4
+

1 10 V

(d)

Now applying voltage division rule we get that voltage at open-circuit end is,
1
× 10 = 2 V
1+ 4
 EC : THEORY BOOK 21

Example 4.16 : The terminal volt-ampere conditions of a linear reciprocal network ‘N’ are shown in the
[Fig. I(a)]. What is the current ‘I’ corresponding to the terminals conditions shown in the figure?
4A I
A1 B1 A1 B1

12 V 2A 30 V 6V
N N

A2 B2 A2 B2
(a) (b)

Figure-I : (a) and (b)

Solution :
We can simply solve this circuit using the concept of linearity and reciprocity (no need to use the T-network).
Using the circuit in [Fig. I(a)] if we apply linearity, we get [Fig. II(a)], since in circuit of [Fig. I(a)] the 12 V
battery is producing 4 A and 2 A current thus 30 V battery will produce 10 A and 5 A.
10 A
A1 B1 A1 B1

Linearity 5A Reciprocity
30 V 1A 6V
property property

A2 B2 A2 B2
(a) (b)

Figure-II : (a) and (b)

Now applying reciprocity property in circuit of [Fig. I(a)], we can see that if 12 V battery is applied between
terminals ‘B1’ and ‘B2’ then current in the short-circuit between terminals ‘A1’ and ‘A2’.
We get current of 1 A. Now applying superposition and combining circuit of [Fig. II(a) and Fig. II(b)] will we
get circuit of [Fig. I(b)] and we get that,
I = 10 – 1 = 9 A

4.9 Tellegen’s Theorem

Tellegen’s theorem depends on Kirchhoff’s law. Therefore, this theorem can apply to the network which
obeys Kirchhoff’s law. This theorem can be applied to the wide range of the network having linear or non-linear,
time-variant, passive or active elements.
Tellegen’s theorem states that: “The summation of instantaneous power consumed by various elements in
various branches is equal to zero for any network”.

Note : Tellegen’s theorem works based on the principle of the law of conservation of energy.
For a general analysis of the theorem, we consider the ‘n’ number of elements are given in the network. The
instantaneous current passes through the element is i1, i2, i3, ...., in. And the instantaneous voltage of this branch is v1,
v2, v3, ....., vn. Therefore, the instantaneous current and voltage of element-1 are i1 and v1. The instantaneous power
(p1) consumed by this element is v1i1,
p 1 = v1i1
Instantaneous power of element-2 is (p2),
p 2 = v2i2
Similarly, the instantaneous power of nth element is (pn),
p n = vn i n
 22 Network Theory

According to Tellegen’s theorem, the summation of all instantaneous power is zero. It means we need to sum
all instantaneous power p1, p2, p3, ......., pn,
p1 + p2 + p3 + ... + pn = 0
v1i1 + v2i2 + v3i3 + ... + vnin = 0
In general form, we can write the above equation for the kth branch,
n n
pk = vk i k = 0
k =1 k =1

where,
n = total number of branches in the network
vk = instantaneous voltage of kth branch
ik = instantaneous current of kth branch
pk = instantaneous power of kth branch

Remember : Tellegen theorem is applicable on all type of network elements i.e. this theorem is applicable on
linear and non-linear elements, time variance and time invariant network elements.

4.10 Millman’s Theorem

The Millman’s theorem states that – when a number of voltage sources (V1, V2, V3, ......, Vn) are in parallel
having internal resistance (R1, R2, R3, ......, Rn) respectively, the arrangement can replaced by a single equivalent
voltage source ‘V’ in series with an equivalent series resistance ‘R’. In other words, it determines the voltage across
the parallel branches of the circuit, which have more than one voltage sources, i.e. reduces the complexity of the
electrical circuit.

Note : This theorem is simply the extension of source transformation and Thevenin/Norton equivalent.
Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 4.20,
a

R1 R2 R3 RN

V1 V2 V3 VN

b
(a)

a a

V1 V2 V3
R1 R2 R3 Ieq Req
R1 R2 R3

b b
(b) (c)

Fig. 4.20

Applying the source transformation in the circuit of Fig. 4.20 (a) we get the circuit of Fig. 4.20 (b) and this can
be further simplified as shown in Fig. 4.20 (c),
V1 V2 V3 V
Ieq = + + ...... N
R1 R2 R3 RN

and Req = R1 R2 R3 .......RN

Note : This theorem is for illustration only, it is not much important for exams.
 EC : THEORY BOOK 23

4.11 Substitution Theorem

Substitution theorem states that: “If we know the voltage across any branch and the current passing through
that branch, we can replace that branch with various elements provided that the voltage and current should not
change through that branch”.
Let’s understand the substitution theorem with a network shown in the below figure.

+ 5 –
a b

+
15 V 10
–

c
Fig. 4.21

We can see that voltage in the branch ‘bc’ is 10 V and the current in the branch in 1 A thus we can replace the
resistor in branch ‘bc’ by a single voltage source of 10 V or a single current source of 1 A.

+ 5 – 5 5
a b

15 V 10 15 V 10 V 15 V 1A

c
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 4.22

4.12 Compensation Theorem

Compensation theorem states that in a linear time-invariant network when the resistance (R) of an uncoupled
branch, carrying a current (I), is changed by ( R), then the currents in all the branches would change and can be
obtained by assuming that an ideal voltage source of (Vc) has been connected such that, Vc = 1 ( R) in series with
(R + R) when all other sources in the network are replaced by their internal resistances.
To understand the compensation theorem, consider the below figure.
In this Fig. 4.23, the voltage source ‘V’ is an independent voltage and source Z1

and two impedance Z1 and Z2 are linear or bilateral elements. Therefore, we V Z2

can apply the compensation theorem to this network. The current that passes through I

the loop is I. Now, assume that the impedance Z2 increased by Z. Due to this change,
the current passes through the loop is changed and it is I . The new circuit diagram Fig. 4.23
is shown in the Fig. 4.24 below.
Z1

V I Z2 + Z

Fig. 4.24

Due to the change in impedance, the change in current given by I,

I = I–I
 24 Network Theory

According to the statement of compensation theorem, we can directly calculate the change in the current I.
For that, we need to modify the circuit.
The first modification is that, connect a voltage a voltage source of value I Z in the branch of which impedance
is changed. And the polarity of this voltage source is opposite to the main source. The newly added source Vc is
known as the compensation source,
Vc = I Z
The second modification is that we need to remove the old voltage source by its internal impedance. If we
consider an ideal voltage source, in this condition, we can remove this voltage source by short circuiting its terminal.
After these modifications, the remaining circuit is as shown in the figure below.
Z1

Z2 + Z
I
VC = I Z

Fig. 4.25

By solving the above circuit, we can easily find the change in current after the change in the impedance.

I Z
That is, I=
Z1 + Z2 +

Note : This theorem is not much important.

 EC : THEORY BOOK 25

Practice Questions Q.6 Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the circuit
in figure to the left of the terminals.
Q.1 User superposition to find vx in the circuit of
5 Ix 3
figure. a

20 vx
6V 1.5Ix 4

25 V 5A 4 0.1vx
b

Q.7 Obtain the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit in

figure.
Q.2 For the circuit in figure, use the superposition 4vx
10
theorem to find i. a
24 V 8
+
5 vx 15
–
4 4
b
i

12 V 3A Q.8 Find the Norton equivalent circuit for the circuit

3
in figure at terminals a-b.
3 3
a
Q.3 Find vx in figure, using source transformation.
4
15 V 4A 6

2 0.25vx

b
+
6V 2 vx 18 V Q.9 Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit
–
in figure at terminals a-b.
2vx
Q.4 Use source transformation to find ix in the circuit a
shown in figure. +
6 10 A 2 vx
5
–
ix
b
24 mA 10 2ix
Q.10 Calculate the current io in the circuit of figure.
What value of input voltage is necessary to make
io equal to 5 A?
Q.5 Using Thevenin’s theorem, find the equivalent 5 25
circuit to the left of the terminals in the circuit of
io
figure. Then find I.
6 6 30 V 40 15
a

12 V 2A 4 1
Q.11 (a) In the circuit of figure, calculate vo and io when
vs = 1 V.
b
 26 Network Theory

(b) Find vo and io when vs = 10 V. 2A

(c) What are vo and io when each of the 1
resistors is replaced by a 10 resistor and 9
vs = 10 V?

1
3A 4 5 6A

1 1 + vo –

io 2 30 V
+
vs 1 vo 1 Q.16 Use source transformation to find vo in the circuit
–
of figure.
4k

Q.12 Use the superposition principle to find io and vo

3vo
in the circuit of figure. 2k

io 10 20 +
3 mA 1k vo
+ vo – –

6A 40 4vo 30 V
Q.17 Find the Norton equivalent with respect to
terminals a-b in the circuit shown in figure.
2A
Q.13 For the circuit in figure, use superposition to find i.
Calculate the power delivered to the 3 resistor. 20
a

120 V 40 12
1 2A
20 V 4

b
i
Q.18 Obtain the Thevenin equivalent at terminals a-b
2 16 V
3
of the circuit shown in figure.
3A

Q.14 Use superposition to solve for vx in the circuit of

figure. 10 16
a

ix 10
+ 5
2 6A 4A vx 8
– 24 V

4ix
Q.19 Find the Thevenin and Norton equivalent at
terminals a-b of the circuit shown in figure.
Q.15 Obtain vo in the circuit of figure using source
14 V
transformation. Check your result using PSpice 14
a
or MultiSim.

1A 6 3A 5

b
 EC : THEORY BOOK 27

Q.20 Obtain the Thevenin and Norton equivalent

circuits of the circuit in figure with respect to 80 20
terminals a and b.
R
a
40 V
12
+ 10 90
30 V Vx 60 2Vx
–
Q.26 Find the maximum power transferred to resistor
b
R in the circuit of figure.
Q.21 Find the Norton equivalent at terminals a-b of the 10 k 22 k
circuit in figure.
0.25vo +
100 V 40 k vo 0.003vo 30 k R
–
6 2
a
Q.27 For the circuit in figure, determine the value of R
+
18 V 3 vo such that the maximum power delivered to the
–
load is 3 mW.
b
R

Q.22 Obtain the Norton equivalent at terminals a-b of R

the circuit in figure.
R
8k I
a
RL
+ 1V 2V 3V
2V 0.001V ab 80I Vab 50 k
–

b Q.28 The following results were obtained from

Q.23 Obtain the Thevenin and Norton equivalent measurements taken between the two terminals
circuits at terminals a-b for the circuit in figure. of a resistive network:
3 2 Terminal voltage 12 V 0V
a
Terminal current 0A 1.5 A
+
50 V 6 vx 0.5vx 10 Find the Thevenin equivalent of the network.
–
Q.29 The Thevenin equivalent at terminals a-b of the
b
linear network shown in figure is to be determined
Q.24 Find the Norton equivalent for the circuit in figure. by measurement. When a 10 k resistor is
10 connected to terminals a-b, the voltage Vab is
measured as 6 V. When a 30 k resistor is
+ connected to the terminals, Vab is measured as
20 vo 0.5vo
– 12 V. Determine:
a
(a) The Thevenin
Linear
equivalent at network
Q.25 The variable resistor ‘R’ in figure is adjusted until terminals a-b ; b
its absorbs the maximum power from the circuit:
(b) Vab when a 20 k resistor is connected to
(a) Calculate the value of R for maximum power. terminals a-b.
(b) Determine the maximum power absorbed
by R.
 28 Network Theory

Answers
1. (vx = 31.25 V) 16. (3 V)

2. (i = 2 A) 17. (10 , 666.7 mA)

3. (Vx = 7.5 V) 18. (20 , –49.2 V)

4. (7.059 mA) 19. (4 , –8 V, –2 A)

5. (VTh = 6 V, RTh = 3 , I = 1.5 A) 20. (1.1905 V, 476.2 m , 2.5 A)

6. (VTh = 5.333 V, RTh = 444.4 m ) 21. (3 , 1 A)

7. (VTh = 0 V, RTh = –7.5 ) 22. (100 k , –20 mA)

8. (RN = 3 , IN = 4.5 A) 23. (10 , 166.67 V, 16.667 A)

9. (RN = 1 , IN = 10 A) 24. (–3.333 , 0 A)

10. (600 mA, 250 V) 25. (25 , 7.84 W)

11. (a) 0.5 V, 0.5 A (b) 5 V, 5 A (c) 5 V, 500 mA 26. (Theoretically)

12. (17.99 V, 1.799 A) 27. (1 k , 3 mW)

13. (1.875 A, 10.55 W) 28. (8 , 12 V)

14. (–26.67 V) 29. (a) 24 V, 30 k (b) 9.6 V

15. (–6.6 V)
 EC : THEORY BOOK 29

Review Questions Q.7 The Norton resistance RN is exactly equal to the

Thevenin resistance RTh.
Q.1 The current through a branch in a linear network
(a) True (b) False
is 2 A when the input source voltage is 10 V. If the
voltage is reduced to 1 V and the polarity is Q.8 Which pair of circuits in figure are equivalent?
reversed, the current through the branch is
5 5
(a) –2 A (b) –0.2 A
(c) 0.2 A (d) 2 A (e) 20 A
20 V 4A
Q.2 For superposition, it is not required that only one
independent source be considered at a time, any
(i) (ii)
number of independent sources may be
considered simultaneously.
(a) True (b) False 4A 5 20 V 5

Q.3 The superposition principle applies to power

calculation. (iii) (iv)

(a) True (b) False (a) (i) and (ii) (b) (ii) and (iv)
Q.4 Refer to figure, the Thevenin resistance at (a) (i) and (iii) (b) (iii) and (iv)
terminals a and b is
Q.9 A load is connected to a network. At the terminals
5 to which the load is connected, RTh = 10 and
V Th = 40 V. The maximum possible power
a supplied to the load is
50 V 20
b
(a) 160 W (b) 80 W
(c) 40 W (d) 1 W

(a) 25 (b) 20 Q.10 The source is supplying the maximum power to

the load when the load resistance equals the
(c) 5 (d) 4
source resistance.
Q.5 The Thevenin voltage across terminals a and b of (a) True (b) False
the circuit in (Q.4)
(a) 50 V (b) 40 V
(c) 20 V (d) 10 V

Q.6 The Norton current at terminals a and b of the

Answers :
circuit in (Q.4) 1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (b)
(a) 10 A (b) 2.5 A
6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (a)
(c) 2 A (d) 0 A
 5
Chapter
Capacitors and Inductors

5.1 Introduction
So far we have limited our study to resistive circuits. In this chapter, we shall introduce two new and important
passive linear circuit elements, the capacitor and the inductor. Unlike resistors, which dissipate energy, capacitors
and inductors do not dissipate but store energy, which can be retrieved at a later time. For this reason, capacitors and
inductors are called storage elements.

5.2 Capacitors
A capacitor is a passive element designed to store energy in its electric field. Besides resistors, capacitors are
the most common electrical components. Capacitors are used extensively in electronics, communications, computers
and power systems. For example, they are used in the tuning circuits of radio receivers and as dynamic memory
elements in computer systems. A capacitor is typically constructed as depicted in Fig. 5.1.
A capacitor consists of two conducting plates separated by an insulator (or dielectric).
When a voltage source ‘v’ is connected to the capacitor, as in Fig. 5.2, the source deposits a positive charge ‘q’
on one plate and a negative charge – ‘q’ on the other. The capacitor is said to store the electric charge. The amount of
charge stored, represented by ‘q’, is directly proportional to the applied voltage ‘v’ so that,
q = Cv ...5.1
where, ‘C’ the constant of proportionality, is known as the capacitance of the capacitor.
Dielectric with
permittivity

Metal plates, + –
each with area ‘A’ +
+q –q
+ –
+

+ –
+

+ –
v
d
Fig. 5.2 : A capacitor with
Fig. 5.1 : A typical capacitor applied voltage ‘v’

Note : Alternatively, capacitance is the amount of charge stored per plate for a unit voltage difference in a
capacitor.

Capacitance depends on the physical dimensions of the capacitor. For example, for the parallel-plate capacitor
shown in Fig. 5.1, the capacitance is given by
A
C= ...5.2
d
where ‘A’ is the surface area of each plate, ‘d’ is the distance between the plates, and ‘ ’ is the permittivity of
the dielectric material between the plates. Equation (5.2) applies to only parallel-plate capacitors.
The obtain the current-voltage relationship of the capacitor, we take the derivative of both sides of equation (5.1).
 2 Network Theory

dq
Since, i = ...(5.3)
dt
Differentiating both sides of equation (5.1) gives,
dv
i = C ...(5.4)
dt
This is the current-voltage relationship for a capacitor, assuming the passive sign convention. Capacitors
that satisfy equation (5.4) are said to be linear. For a non-linear capacitor, the plot of the current-voltage relationship
is not a straight line.
The voltage-current relation of the capacitor can be obtained by intergrating both sides of equation (5.4).
t
1
We get, v(t) = i( ) d ...(5.5)
C

t
1
or, v(t) = i( ) d + v(to ) ...(5.6)
C
to

where, v(to) = q(to)/C is the voltage across the capacitor at time to. Equation (5.6) shows that capacitor voltage
depends on the past history of the capacitor current. Hence, the capacitor has memory – a property that is often
exploited.

Remember : It is very important to remember the polarity of ‘v’ and direction of current following the
equation (5.5) and (5.4), the current found by equation (5.6) is that which enters the positive terminal of
capacitor. (This is very important point).
C
dv 1 i
Here, i= C , v= idt
dt C + v –

C
dv 1 i
and here, i= C , v= idt
dt C + v –

The instantaneous power delivered to the capacitor is,

dv
p = vi = Cv ...(5.7)
dt
The energy stored in the capacitor is therefore,
t t v(t ) v( t )
dv 1 2
w= p( ) dt = C v d =C v dv = Cv ...(5.8)
d 2 v( )
v( )

We note that v(– ) = 0, because the capacitor was uncharged at t = – . Thus,

1 2
w= Cv ...(5.9)
2
Using equation (5.1), we may rewrite equation (5.10) as,
q2
w= ...(5.10)
2C

Note :
1. Using equation (5.10) we can see that at any time amount of energy stored in the capacitor is equal to

1 2
Cv , where ‘v’ is the voltage across the capacitor at that time.
2
2. We always assume that capacitor is uncharged at t = – , thus v(– ) = 0.
 EC : THEORY BOOK 3

We should note the following important properties of a capacitor:

1. Note from equation (5.4) that when the voltage across a capacitor is not changing with time (i.e. dc voltage),
the current through the capacitor is zero. Thus, a capacitor is an open-circuit at steady state.

Note : A circuit is said to be at steady state when voltage and current are not changing with time, when a
circuit is containing capacitor then steady state means voltage across capacitor is fixed and thus current is
zero through the capacitor.

2. The voltage on the capacitor must be continuous. The voltage on a capacitor cannot change abruptly. The
Capacitor resists an abrupt change in the voltage across it. According to equation (5.4), a discontinuous
change in voltage requires an infinite current, which is physically impossible. Conversely, the current
through a capacitor can change instantaneously.
3. The ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy. It takes power from the circuit when storing energy in its
field and returns previously stored energy when delivering power to the circuit.
4. A real, non-ideal capacitor has a parallel-model leakage resistance, as shown in Fig. 5.3. Thus remember
that if in any question leakage resistance of a capacitor is given then it means that the leakage resistance
has to be attached in parallel to the capacitor.
R

C C

Leaky capacitor with Representation leaky capacitor

capacitance ‘C’ and leakage as a parallel combination of
resistance ‘ R’ ideal resistance ‘ R’ and capacitor ‘ C’
Fig. 5.3

Example 5.1 : (a) Calculate the charge stored in a 3 pf capacitor with 20 V across it.
(b) Find the energy stored in the capacitor.

Solution :
(a) Since q = Cv,
q = 3 × 10–12 × 20 = 60 pC

1 2 1
(b) The energy stored is, w= Cv = × 3 × 10 12 × 400 = 600 pJ
2 2

Example 5.2 : The voltage across a 5 µF capacitor is,

v(t) = 10 cos 6000t V
Calculate the current through it.

Solution :
dv 6 d
By definition the current is, i(t) = C = 5 × 10 (10 cos 6000t )
dt dt
= –5 × 10–6 × 6000 × 10 sin 6000t
= –0.3 sin 6000t A

Example 5.3 : Determine the voltage across a 2 µF capacitor if the current through it is,
i(t) = 6e–3000t mA
Assume that the initial capacitor voltage is zero.
4 Network Theory

Solution :
t
1
Since, v = i dt + v(0) and v(0) = 0
C
0

t
1 3000t 3
v = 6
6e dt 10
2 × 10 0

t
3 × 10 3 3000t 3000t
= e = (1 e )V
3000
0

Example 5.4 : Determine the current through a 200 µF capacitor whose voltage is shown in figure.
v( t)

50

0 t
1 2 3 4

–50

Solution :
The voltage waveform can be described mathematically as,
50t V 0<t<1
100 50t V 1<t<3
v(t) =
200 + 50t V 3<t<4
0 otherwise

dv
Since, i = C and C = 200 µF, we take the derivative of ‘v’ to obtain,
dt
50 0<t<1 10 mA 0<t<1
50 1<t<3 10 mA 1<t<3
i(t) = 200 × 10 6 × =
50 3<t<4 10 mA 3<t<4
0 otherwise 0 otherwise
Thus the current waveform is as shown in figure.

i(mA)

10

0 t
1 2 3 4

–10
 EC : THEORY BOOK 5

Example 5.5 : Obtain the energy stored in each capacitor in Fig. (a) under dc conditions.

2 mF
+ v1 –

2k 2k i

5k 5k
6 mA 3k 4k 6 mA 3k 4k
+
4 mF v2
–
(a) (b)

(Concept used in these kind of problem – In the circuit with only dc sources the capacitors act as open-
circuit at steady state. Thus to find the voltage by which the capacitors are charged at steady-state we
simply open-circuit the capacitor and solve the circuit to find out the voltage across the open-circuit
terminals. The voltage across the open-circuit is the voltage by which the capacitor gets charged steady-
state, we will closely analyse this concept in next 3 examples).

Solution :
Under dc conditions, we replace reach capacitor with an open-circuit, as shown in Fig. (b). The current
through the series combination of the 2 k and 4 k resistors is obtained by current division as,
3
i= (6 mA) = 2 mA
3+2+4
Hence, the voltage v1 and v2 across the capacitors are
v 1 = 2000i = 4 V, v2 = 4000i = 8 V
1 1
and the energies stored in them are, w1 = C1 v12 = (2 × 10 3 ) (4)2 = 16 mJ
2 2
1 1
w2 = C 2 v22 = (4 × 10 3 ) (8)2 = 128 mJ
2 2

Example 5.6 : Find the voltage across the capacitor in the circuit of Fig. (a).
10 10

20 V 20 F 20 V

(a) (b)

Solution :
Using the same concept we simply open-circuit the capacitor [Fig. (b)] and we found that the voltage across
the open-circuit terminal will be 20 V. Thus capacitor is charged with 20 V.

Example 5.7 : Find the voltage across the capacitor in the circuit of figure.
10

+
1A v(t) 2F
–
 6 Network Theory

Solution :
This question is very important, we generally say that capacitor is open-circuit is case of DC sources, but
here in the above circuit we can see that capacitor cannot be open-circuited because then there will be no
path for the current 1 A, thus current through capacitor cannot be zero in this circuit. Thus the voltage across
the capacitor will be
1
v(t) = i dt
C
Assuming that the current source is applied at t = 0, thus the voltage across the capacitor will be
t
1 t
v(t) = 1 dt =
2 2
0

Thus voltage across the capacitor will keep on rising and will never become constant

Remember : Thus generally in circuit of DC sources the circuit is at steady-state when the voltage across
branches and current in branches is not changing with time. Thus at steady-state the capacitor is open
circuited. Thus in these circuit try to open-circuit the capacitor if we are able to do so [like an (Example 5.4
and Example 5.5)] then circuit is reaching the steady-state but in case of (Example 5.6) we cannot open-
circui the capacitor as the current thought capacitor cannot be made zero because of the current source, thus
voltage across the capacitor keep on changing. Thus in circuit where current sources are connected directly
to capacitor then the capacitor cannot be open circuited.

5.3 Series and Parallel Capacitors

In order to obtain the equivalent capacitor Ceq of N capacitor in parallel, consider the circuit in Fig. 5.8(a). The
equivalent circuit is in Fig. 5.8 (b). Note that the capacitors have the same voltage ‘v’ across them. Applying KCL of
Fig. 5.8 (a),
i = i1 + i2 + i3 + ... + iN
dv
But, ik = C k
dt

dv dv dv dv
Hence, i = C1 + C2 + C3 + ... + C N
dt dt dt dt

N
dv dv
= Ck = C eq
k=1 dt dt

where, Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 + ... + CN ...(5.11)

i1 i2 i3 iN
+ +
i C1 C2 C3 CN v i v Ceq
– –

(a) (b)

Fig. 5.8 : (a) Parallel connected N capacitors

(b) Equivalent circuit for the parallel capacitors
 EC : THEORY BOOK 7

Note :
1. The equivalent capacitance of N parallel connected capacitors is the sum of the individual capacitances.
2. If two capacitors are in parallel then,
Ceq = C1 + C2 ...(5.12)

We now obtain Ceq of N capacitors connected in series by comparing the circuit in Fig. 5.9 (a) with the
equivalent circuit in Fig. 5.9 (b). Note that the same current ‘i’ flows (and consequently the same charge) through the
capacitors. Applying KVL to the loop in Fig. 5.9 (a),
v = v1 + v2 + v3 + ... + vN
1
But, vk = i( ) d
Ck

1 1 1
Therefore, v = i( ) d + i( ) d + ... + i( ) d
C1 C2 CN

1 1 1 1
= + + ... + i( ) d = i( ) d
C1 C2 CN C eq

1 1 1 1 1
where, = + + + ... + ...(5.13)
C eq C1 C 2 C3 CN

C1 C1 C1 CN
i i
+ v – + v – + v – + v –
1 2 3 N
+
v v v Ceq
–

(a) (b)

Fig. 5.9 : (a) Series connected N capacitor

(b) Equivalent circuit for the series capacitor

Note :
• The equivalent capacitance of series connected capacitors is the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals
of the individual capacitances.
• For N = 2 (i.e., two capacitors in series), we get
1 1 1
= +
C eq C1 C 2

C1C 2
or Ceq = ...(5.14)
C1 + C 2

5.4 Current and Voltage Division Rule in Case of Capacitors

Here we will first of all see the voltage and current division rule of impedances (Z). Let us consider the
impedances connected in series as shown in Fig. 5.10.
The equivalent impedance of the circuit is,
Zeq = Z1 + Z2 + Z3 ... ZN
8 Network Theory

And the current in the circuit will be Z1 Z2 Z3 ZN

i

Vs + v1 – + v2 – + v3 – + vN –
I=
Zeq Vs

Now we can easily find the voltage across the impedances,

Z1
V1 = IZ1 = Vs Fig. 5.10
Zeq
Z2
V2 = IZ2 = Vs
Zeq
ZN
Similarly, VN = IZN = Vs
Zeq

Note : If two impedances are connected in series then, Z1 Z2

Vs Z1 + v1 – + v2 –
Here we get, V1 = ...(5.15)
Z1 + Z2
Vs
Vs Z2
V2 = ...(5.16)
Z1 + Z2

Lets us consider the impedances connected in series as shown in Fig. 5.11.

I1 I2 I3 IN
+
Is V Z1 Z2 Z3 ZN
–

Fig. 5.11

The equivalent impedance of the circuit is,

1 1 1 1
= + + ... +
Zeq Z1 Z2 ZN
Thus we can see that, V = Is Zeq
V Zeq V Zeq
Thus we can see that, I1 = = Is ; I2 = = Is
Z1 Z1 Z2 Z2
V Zeq
Similarly, IN = = Is
ZN ZN

Note : If two impedances are connected in parallel then,

1 1 1
= +
Zeq Z1 Z2
I1 I2
+
Z1 Z2
Zeq = Is V Z1 Z2
Z1 + Z2
–
Zeq Z2
I1 = I s = Is ...(5.17) Fig. 5.12
Z1 Z1 + Z2
Zeq Z1
I2 = Is = Is ...(5.18)
Z2 Z1 + Z2
 EC : THEORY BOOK 9

Now we can apply the above concept in current and voltage division rule for capacitors. We will see (in later

1 1
chapters) that the impedance of capacitor is Z = = . Now we can apply the concept learnt above. Let us
sC j C
consider two capacitors in series as shown in Fig. 5.13, lets apply the voltage division rule:
C1 C2
Z1 1/ sC1 C2
V1 = Vs = Vs = Vs
Z1 + Z2 1 1 C1 + C 2 + v1 – + v2 –
+
sC1 sC 2
Vs
Z2 1/ sC 2 C2
V2 = Vs = Vs = Vs
Z1 + Z2 1 1 C1 + C 2 Fig. 5.13
+
sC1 sC 2
Similarly let us consider two capacitors in parallel as shown in Fig. 5.14, lets apply the current division rule:
I s Zeq I s Z2 C1 I1 I2
I1 = = = Is +
Z1 Z1 + Z2 C 1 + C 2
Is V C1 C2
I s Zeq –
I s Z1 C2
I2 = = = Is
Z2 Z1 + Z2 C 1 + C 2
Fig. 5.14

Example 5.7 : Determine Ceq for each circuit in figure.

C
C C
Ceq
Ceq C
C C
C C

(a) C
(b)

Fig. (i) : (a) and (b)

Solution :
Let us consider the circuit of [Fig. (i) (a)], we can see that the capacitor of branch ‘cd’ and ‘db’ are in series,
thus we can redraw the circuit by combining the series capacitors as shown in [Fig. (ii) (b)], further simplifying
by combining the capacitors in parallel we get circuit as shown in [Fig. (ii) (c)], now combining the capacitor
in series we get circuit as shown in [Fig. (ii) (d)]. Here we have these formulas, the equivalent of two series
capacitor is,
C1C 2
Ceq =
C1 + C 2
and equivalent of two parallel capacitor is,
Ceq = C1 + C2

C C
a c a

Ceq C
C C C/2
C C

b d b
(a) C (b)
10 Network Theory

C
a a

C 3C/2 C 0.6C

b b
(c) (d)

Fig. (ii) : (a), (b), (c) and (d)

The final answer is 1.6 C.
Let us consider the circuit of [Fig. (i) (b)], this is an easy problem we can redraw the circuit as shown in
[Fig. (iii) (a)].

2C
C C

C
C C
2C

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. (iii) : (a), (b) and (c)
By combining the capacitors in parallel we get the circuit of [Fig. (iii) (b)] and then combining the capacitors
in series we get the final equivalent shown in [Fig. (iii) (c)].

Example 5.8 : Find the equivalent capacitance in the circuit of figure, all the capacitors are in µF.
80

12 40
a

50 20
12 30 10

b
60

Solution :
We can see that the right most three capacitors (30, 20, 10) are in parallel, combining them we get the
equivalent is 60, also we can combine the two top capacitor (80, 40) are in parallel so their equivalent is 120,
thus the resulting circuit as shown in [Fig. (a)]. Now combining the two capacitor (60, 60) in series we get
their equivalent 30, thus the resulting circuit is as shown in [Fig. (b)]. Now combining the two capacitor
(30, 50) in parallel we get their equivalent 80, thus the resulting circuit is as shown in [Fig. (b)].
12 120 12 120 12 120

12 60 12 30 12 80
50 50

(a) 60 (b) (c)

 EC : THEORY BOOK 11

12 12

12 48 60 10

(d) (e) (f)

Now combining the two capacitor (80, 120) in series we get their equivalent 48, thus the resulting circuit is
as shown in [Fig. (d)]. Now combining the two capacitor (48, 12) i parallel we get their equivalent 60, thus the
resulting circuit is as shown in [Fig. (e)]. Now combining the two capacitor (12, 60) in series we get their
equivalent 10, thus resulting circuit is as shown in [Fig. (f)]. So the equivalent is 10.

5.5 Inductors
An inductor is a passive element designed to store energy in its magnetic field. Inductors find numerous
applications in electronic and power systems. They are used in power supplies, transformers, radios, TVs, radars,
and electric motors.

Length, l
Cross-sectional area, ‘A’

Core material

Number of turns, ‘N’

Fig. 5.20

Any conductor of electric current has inductive properties and may be regarded as an inductor. But in order
to enhance the inductive effect, a practical inductor is usually formed into a cylindrical coil with many turns of
conducting wire, as shown in Fig. 5.20.

Note : An inductor consists of a coil of conducting wire.

If current is allowed to pass through an inductor, it is found that the voltage across the inductor is directly
proportional to the time rate of change of the current. Using the passive sign convention,
di
v = L ...(5.19)
dt

Note : Inductance is the property whereby an inductor exhibits opposition to the change of current flowing
through it, measured in henry (H).
The inductance of an inductor depends on its physical dimension and construction. For example, for the
inductor, (solenoid) shown in Fig. 5.20,
N 2 µA
L= ...(5.20)
l
where, N is the number of turns, l is the length, ‘A’ is the cross-sectional area, and µ is the permeability of the
core. Using the above relation of ‘v’ and ‘i’ of an inductor by integration we can get that,
t
1
i = v( ) d ...(5.21)
L
 12 Network Theory

t
1
or, i = v( ) d + i(to ) ...(5.22)
L
to

where, i(to) is the total current for – < t < to and i(– ) = 0.
The inductor is designed to store energy in its magnetic field. The energy stored can be obtained from
equation (5.19). The power delivered to the inductor is,
di
p = vi = L i ...(5.23)
dt
t t
di
The energy stored is, w= p( ) dt = L id
d
1 2
Since i(– ) = 0, w= Li ...(5.24)
2
Note :
1. Using equation (5.24), we can see that at any time amount of energy stored in the inductor is equal to

1 2
Li , where ‘i’ is the current across the inductor at that time.
2

2. We always assume that inductor is uncharged at t = – .

3. Remember the passive sign convention followed by inductor, the voltage and current equation of inductor
follow the sign convention shown in the figure below.

di 1 i L
v = L ; i= v dt
dt L + v –

di 1 L –i
v = L ; i= v dt
dt L + v –

These sign convention are very important.

We should note the following important properties of an inductor:

1. Note from equation (5.19) that the voltage across an inductor is zero when the current is constant. Thus an
inductor acts like a short-circuit at steady-state in a circuit with only dc sources.
2. An important property of the inductor is its opposition to the change in current flowing through it. The
current through an inductor cannot change instantaneously. According to equation (5.19), a discontinuous
change in the current through an inductor requires an infinite voltage, which is not physically possible.
Thus, an inductor opposes an abrupt change in the current through it. However, the voltage across an
inductor can change abruptly.
3. Like and ideal capacitor, the ideal inductor does not dissipate energy. The energy stored in it can be
retrieved at a later time. The inductor takes power from the circuit when storing energy and delivers power
to the circuit when returning previously stored energy.
4. A practical, non-ideal inductor has a significant resistive component, as L Rw

shown in Fig. 5.21. This is due to the fact that the inductor is made of a
conducting material such as copper, which has some resistance. This
resistance is called, the winding resistance Rw , and it appears in series Cw
with the inductance of the inductor. Rw is usually very small, it is ignored Fig. 5.21 : Circuit model for
a practical inductor
in most cases. The non-ideal inductor also has a winding capacitance Cw
due to the capacitive coupling between the conducting coils. Cw is very
small and can be ignored in most cases.
 EC : THEORY BOOK 13

Example 5.9 : The current through a 0.1 H inductor is i(t) = 10te–5t A. Find the voltage across the inductor
and the energy stored in it.
Solution :
di
Since, v = L and L = 0.1H
dt
d
v = 0.1 (10 t e 5t )
dt
= e–5t + t(–5) e–5t = e–5t (1 – 5t) V
1 2 1
The energy stored is, w= Li = (0.1)100t 2 e 10t = 5t 2 e 10t J
2 2

Example 5.10 : Find the current through a 5 H inductor if the voltage across it is

30t 2 ; t > 0
v(t ) =
0; t <0
Also, find the energy stored at t = 5 s. Assume i(v) > 0.

Solution :
t
1
Since, i= v(t ) dt + i(to ) and L = 5 H
L
to

t
1 t3
i= 30t 2 dt + 0 = 6 × = 2t 3 A
5 3
0
The power, p = vi = 60t5
5 5
t6
5
and the energy stored is then, w= p dt = 60t dt = 60 = 156.25 kJ
6
0 0
Alternatively, we can obtain the energy stored using equation, by writing,
1 2 1 1
w 05 = Li (5) Li(0) = (5)(2 × 53 )2 0 = 156.25 kJ
2 2 2
as obtained before.

Example 5.11 : Consider the circuit in [Fig. (a)]. Under dc conditions, find (a) i, vC, and iL, (b) the energy
stored in the capacitor and inductor.

i 1 5 i 1 5

iL iL
4 4
12 V 2H 12 V
+ +
vC 1F vC
– –
(a) (b)

Solution :
(a) Under dc conditions, we replace the capacitor with an open-circuit and the inductor with a short-
circuit, as in Fig. (b). It is evident from Fig. (b) that,
12
i = iL = =2A
1+ 5
 14 Network Theory

The voltage vC is the same as the voltage across the 5 resistor. Hence,
vC = 5i = 10 V

1 2 1
(b) The energy in the capacitor is, wC = CvC = (1) (10 2 ) = 50 J
2 2
1 2 1
and that in the inductor is, wL = LiL = (2) (2 2 ) = 4 J
2 2

5.6 Series and Parallel Inductors

Now that the inductor has been added to our list of passive elements, it is necessary to extend the powerful
tool of series-parallel combination. We need to know how to find the equivalent inductance of a series connected or
parallel connected set of inductors found in practical circuits.
Consider a series connection of ‘N’ inductors, as shown in [Fig. 5.22(a)], with the equivalent circuit shown in
[Fig. 5.22(b)]. The inductors have the same current through them. Applying KVL to the loop,
v = v1 + v2 + v3 + ... + vN
di
Substituting vk = Lk results in,
dt
di di di di
v = L1 + L2 + L3 + ... + LN
dt dt dt dt
di
= (L1 + L2 + L3 + ... + LN )
dt

N
di di
= Lk = Leq
k =1 dt dt

where, Leq = L1 + L2 + L3 + ... + LN ...(5.25)

i L1 L2 L3 LN i
+ + v – + v – + v – .... + v – +
1 2 3 N

v v Leq

– –
(a) (b)

Fig. 5.22 : (a) Series connection of N inductors

(b) Equivalent circuit for the series inductors

Note : If we have two inductors in series then,

Leq = L1 + L2 ...(5.26)

The equivalent inductance of series connected inductors is the sum of the individual inductances.
i i
+ IN +
i1 i2 i3
v v Leq
L1 L2 L3 LN

– –

(a) (b)

Fig. 5.23 : (a) A parallel connection of N inductors (b) Equivalent circuit for the parallel inductors
 EC : THEORY BOOK 15

Inductors in series are combined in exactly the same way as resistors in series. We know consider a parallel
connection of N inductors, as shown in [Fig. 5.23(a)], with the equivalent circuit in [Fig. 5.23(b)]. The inductors have
the same voltage across them. Using KCL,
i = i1 + i2 + i3 + ... + iN
1
But, ik = v dt
Lk

t t
1 1 1
Hence, i = v dt + v dt + ... + v dt
L1 L2 LN
to to

t
1 1 1
= + + ... + v dt
L1 L2 LN
to

N t t
1 1
= v dt = v dt
L
k =1 k Leq
to to

1 1 1 1 1
where, = + + + ... + ...(5.27)
Leq L1 L2 L3 LN

Note :
1. The equivalent inductance of parallel inductors is the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the
individual inductances.
2. If two inductors are in parallel then,
1 1 1 L L
= + ; Leq = 1 2 ...(5.28)
Leq L1 L2 L1 + L2

Remember : Important characteristics of the basic elements

Relation Resistors (R) Capacitors (C) Inductor (L)

t
1 di
v-i v = iR v= i( ) d + v(to ) v=L
C dt
to
t
dv 1
i-v i = v/R i =C i= v( ) d + i(to )
dt L
to

v2 1 2 1 2
p or w p = i2 R = w= Cv w= Li
R 2 2
C 1C 2
Series Req = R1 + R2 C eq = Leq = L1 + L2
C1 + C2
R1 R2 L1 L2
Parallel Req = Ceq = C1 + C2 Leq =
R1 + R2 L1 + L2
At dc Same Open-circuit Short-circuit
 16 Network Theory

Example 5.12 : Find the equivalent inductance of the circuit shown in figure.

4H 20 H

Leq 7H 12 H

8H 10 H

Solution :
The 10 H, 12 H and 20 H inductors are in series, thus, combining then gives a 42 H inductance. This 42 H
inductor is in parallel with the 7 H inductor so that they are combined, to give

7 × 42
= 6H
7 + 42
This 6 H inductor is in series with the 4 H and 8 H inductors. Hence,
Leq = 4 + 6 + 8 = 18 H

5.7 Current and Voltage Division Rule in Inductors

L1 L2
We will use the concept already seen in (Topic 5.4), we can easily see the voltage
+ V – + V –
division in case of series connected inductors Fig. 5.26. The impedance of inductor 1 2

is given by Z = j L or SL. Vs
Here we will apply the voltage division rule i.e.,
Z1 j L1 L1 Fig. 5.26
V1 = Vs = Vs = Vs
Z1 + Z2 j L1 + j L2 L1 + L2

Z2 j L2 L2
V2 = Vs = Vs = Vs
Z1 + Z2 j L1 + j L2 L1 + L2
We can see that the voltage division rule in case on inductors is same as that of resistors.
Now lets see the current division rule in case of parallel inductors, consider the circuit in Fig. 5.27.
Applying the current division rule we get,
I1 I2
Z2 j L2 L2
I1 = Is = Is = Is
Z1 + Z2 j L1 + j L2 L1 + L2 Is L1 L2

Z1 j L1 L1
I2 = Is = Is = Is
Z1 + Z2 j L1 + j L2 L1 + L2
Fig. 5.27
We can see that the current division rule in case on inductors is same as that of resistors.

Example 5.13 : For the circuit in figure, i(t) = 4(2 – e–10t) mA. If i2(0) = –1 mA. Find: (a) i1(0), (b) v(t), v1(t) and
v2(t), (c) i1(t) and i2(t).
i 2H
+ + v1 –
i1 i2
+
v v2 4H 12 H
–
–
 EC : THEORY BOOK 17

Solution :
(a) From i(t) = 4(2 – e–10t) mA, i(0) = 4(2 – 1) = 4 mA.
Since i = i1 + i2, i1(0) = i(0) – i2(0) = 4 – (–1) = 5 mA
(b) The equivalent inductance is,
Leq = 2 + 4 12 = 2 + 3 = 5 H
di 10t
Thus, v(t) = Leq = 5(4) ( 1) ( 10) e mV = 200e–10t mV
dt
di 10t
and v1(t) = 2 = 2( 4) ( 10) e mV = 80e– 10t mV
dt
Since v = v1 + v2, v2(0) = v(t) – v1(t) = 120e–10t mV
(c) The current i1 is obtained as,
t t
1 120 10t
i1(t) = v2 dt + i1 (0) = e dt + 5 mA
4 4
0 0

t
= 3e 10t + 5 mA = –3e–10t + 3 + 5 = 8 – 3e–10t mA
0

t t
1 120 10t
Similarly, i2(t) = v2 dt + i2 (0) = e dt 1 mA
12 12
0 0

t
= e 10t 1 mA = –e–10t + 1 – 1 = –e–10t mA
0
Note that, i1(t) + i2(t) = i(t)

Example 5.14 : Find out the current through the inductor at steady state in the circuit of figure.
5k 10 k

20 V 10 H 5k

Solution :
The concept used in the circuit with dc sources is that at steady state the voltage and current is constant,
thus inductor will act as short-circuit. Now to find out the current by which inductor is charged at steady
state we simply short-circuit the inductor and find out the current thought the short-circuit, this will be the
current by which inductor gets charged. Thus we simply short-circuit the inductor and get the circuit as
shown in figure, we can easily solve the circuit and get that,
20
I= mA = 4 mA
5
Thus, inductor is charged by 4 mA current,
5k 10 k

I
20 V 5k
18 Network Theory

Example 5.15 : Find out the current through the inductor at steady state (assume that the inductor is
initially uncharged and battery is applied at t = 0) in the circuit of figure.

i (t )

5V 5H

Solution :
We know that in the circuit with dc supply the inductor act as short-circuit at steady state, but here we can
see that the voltage across inductor is always 5 V, it will never become short-circuit. Thus in such cases
where a dc voltage is applied directly across the inductor the inductor will never reach the steady state.
t t
1 1
Thus, i(t) = v dt + i(0) = 5 dt + 0 = t
L 5
0 0

The current through the inductor will keep on increasing and thus inductor will never reach the steady
state.

Remember : In circuit with dc sources at steady state generally the capacitor are open circuited and inductor
are short circuited. But if we are not able to open-circuit the capacitor that is for example an ideal current
source is applied directly to the capacitor then capacitor cannot be open circuited as then no path will be
available for the current, in such cases capacitor will never reach steady state and voltage across the
capacitor will keep on changing. Similarly if we are not above to short-circuit the inductor that is for
example in ideal voltage source is applied directly to the inductor then inductor cannot be short circuited,
in such cases inductor will never reach steady state and current through the inductor will keep on changing.
R

Is C Is C Vs L Vs R L

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Here in the Fig. (a) and Fig. (b) we cannot open-circuit the capacitor and current through capacitor will
never become zero thus voltage across the capacitor will keep on changing. Thus in these circuits the
capacitor will never reach the steady-state. Similarly in the Fig. (c) and Fig. (d), we cannot short-circuit the
inductor and voltage through inductor will never become zero thus current through the inductor will keep
on changing. Thus in these circuits the inductor will never reach the steady state.

Example 5.16 : If the voltage across the capacitor of 5 F as shown in the figure, find the energy stored in
the capacitor at t = 10.
v (t )

t
0 7 12 15
 EC : THEORY BOOK 19

Solution :
We know that to find the energy stored in the capacitor at any time instant, we simply have to find the
voltage across the capacitor at that time instant and apply the formula 1/2 Cv2.
Here at t = 10 we can see that voltage across the capacitor is 7 V, thus the energy stored in capacitor is,
1
(5) (7)2 = 122.5 Joule
2

Example 5.17 : If the current across the inductor of 5 H as shown in the figure, find the energy stored in
the inductor at t = 10.
i(t)

t
0 7 12 15

Solution :
We know that to find the energy stored in the inductor at any time instant, we simply have to find the current
through the inductor at that time instant and apply the formula 1/2 Li2.
Here at t = 10 we can see that voltage across the inductors is 7 A, thus the energy stored in inductor is,
1
(5) (7)2 = 122.5 Joule
2

Example 5.18 : Find the energy supplied by the voltage source to the inductor, the inductor is initially
charged with current 2 mA.
2k

10 V 4H

Solution :
We can see that at steady state the inductor will be short circuited, and thus the current by which the
inductor will get charged is 5 mA. Since the inductor was initially charged with 2 mA. Thus energy supplied
by the voltage source is different final energy of inductor and initial energy of in inductor
1 1
= L(ifinal )2 L(iinitial )2
2 2
1
= (4)[(5 × 10 3 ) (2 × 10 3 )2 ]
2
= 42 × 10–6 Joule
 20 Network Theory

Practice Questions i2 3H

i
Q.1 What is the voltage across a 4.5 µF capacitor if the + v1 –
+
charge on one plate is 0.12 mC? How much energy +
i1 6H
is stored? v v2 8H
–
Q.2 If a 10 µF capacitor is connected to a voltage source –
with v(t) = 75 sin2000t V. Determine the current
through the capacitor. Q.9 If the voltage across a 7.5 F capacitor is 2te–3t V,
find the current and the power.
Q.3 Under dc conditions, find the energy stored in
the capacitors in figure. Q.10 The voltage across a 4 µF capacitor is shown in
figure. Find the current waveform.
3k
v( t) V

1k 30 µF 10

4 8
0 t(ms)
50 V 20 µF 6k 2 6

–10

Q.4 If the current through a 1 mH inductor

Q.11 At t = 0, the voltage across a 25 mF capacitor is
i(t) = 60 cos100t mA, find the terminal voltage
10 V. Calculate the voltage across the capacitor
and the energy stored.
for t > 0 when current 5t mA flows through it.
Q.5 The terminal voltage of a 2 H inductor is
Q.12 The current through a 0.5 F capacitor is 6(1 – e–t) A.
v = 10(1 – t) V. Find the current flowing through it
Determine the voltage and power at t = 2s. Assume
at t = 4s and the energy stored in it at t = 4s.
v(0) = 0.
Assume i(0) = 2 A.
Q.13 A 4 mF capacitor has the current waveform shown
Q.6 Determine vC, iL, and the energy stored in the
in figure. Assuming that v(0) = 10 V, sketch the
capacitor and inductor in the circuit of figure
voltage waveform v(t).
under dc conditions.
i(t) (mA)
iL 6H
15

+ 10
10 A 6 2 4F vC
– 5
0 t(s)
2 4 6 8
–5
Q.7 Calculate the equivalent inductance for the
–10
inductive ladder network in figure.
20 mH 100 mH 40 mH
Q.14 Find the voltage across the capacitor in the circuit
of figure under dc conditions.
Leq 50 mH 40 mH 30 mH 20 mH 10 50

20
+ +
40 C1 v1 C2 v2
Q.8 In the circuit of figure, i1(t) = 0.6e–2t A. If i(0) = 1.4 A, –
60 V
–
find: i2(0) (b) i2(t) and i(t) (c) v1(t), v2(t) and v(t).
 EC : THEORY BOOK 21

Q.15 Two capacitors (25 µF and 75 µF) are connected

to a 100 V source. Find the energy stored in each i1 i2
+
capacitor if they are connected in is v
6 µF 4 µF
(a) Parallel (b) Series –

Q.16 Determine the equivalent capacitance for each of

the circuits of figure.
Q.19 An inductor has a linear change in current from
4F 12 F
50 mA to 100 mA in 2 ms and induces a voltage of
160 mV. Calculate the value of the inductor.

3F 6F Q.20 The current through a 12 mH inductor is

4 sin100t A. Find the voltage, across the inductor

(a) 4F for 0 < t < s, and the energy stored at

200
6F

t= s.
200
5F 4F 2F
Q.21 The voltage across a 200 mH inductor is given by
v(t) = 3t2 + 2t + 4 V for t > 0
(b) Determine the current i(t) through the inductor.
Assume that, i(0) = 1 A.
3F 6F
2F Q.22 The voltage across a 2 H inductor is 20(1 – e–2t) V.
If the initial current through the inductor is 0.3 A,
4F 3F
find the current and the energy stored in the
inductor at t = 1s.

(c) Q.23 The current in an 80 mH inductor increases from

0 to 60 mA. How much energy is stored in the
Q.17 Determine the equivalent capacitance at terminals inductor?
a-b of the circuit in figure.
Q.24 If the voltage waveform in figure is applied to a
5 µF 6 µF 4 µF
a
10 mH inductor, find the inductor current i(t).
Assume i(0) = 0.
2 µF 3 µF 12 µF v(t)

b 5

Q.18 If v(0) = 0, find v(t), i1(t) and i2(t) in the circuit of

0 t
figure. 1 2
is (mA)
–5
30

3
0 t Q.25 Find the equivalent inductance of the circuit in
1 2 4 5
figure. Assume all inductors are 10 mH.
–30
 22 Network Theory

Q.29 Determine Leq that may be used to represent the

inductive network of figure at the terminals.
di
2
i 4H dt
a +–

Leq 3H 5H

Q.26 Determine Leq at terminals a-b of the circuit in b

figure. Q.30 Consider the circuit in figure. Find (a) Leq, i1(t) and
10 mH i2(t) if is = 3e–t mA (b) vo(t) (c) energy stored in the
20 mH inductor at t = 1 s.
60 mH
i1 i2
25 mH 20 mH
a b 4 mH
+
is vo 20 mH
–
30 mH 6 mH

Q.27 Find Leq at the terminals of the circuit in figure.

Leq
6 mH 8 mH
a
Q.31 In the circuit of figure, sketch vo,
5m 12 mH
H
8 mH
+
H i1(t) vo 2H i2(t )
6m 4 mH –

b
10 mH 8 mH

i1(t ) (A)
Q.28 Find Leq in each of the circuits in figure.
L 3

L t(s)
Leq 0 3 6
L L
L i2(t ) (A)

4
(a)

t(s)
L L 0 2 4 6
L
Q.32 The inductors in figure are initially charged and
Leq are connected to the black box at t = 0. If i1(0) = 4 A,
L L
i2(0) = –2 A and v(t) = 50e–200t mV, t 0.
(b)
 EC : THEORY BOOK 23

Find: i(t)
(a) the energy initially stored in each inductor
i1 i2
(b) the total energy delivered to the black box + t=0
from t = 0 to t = Black box v 5H 20 H

(c) i1(t) and i2(t), t 0 –

(d) i(t), t 0

Answers
1. (26.67 A, 1.6 mJ)
1.5t 2 kV ; 0 < t < 1s
2. (1.5 cos2000t A) 18. v(t ) = [3t 1.5] kV ; 1 < t < 3s
2
3. (20.25 mJ, 3.375 mJ) [0.75t 7.5t + 23.25] kV ; 3 < t < 5s

4. (–6 sin100t mV, 1.8 cos2 (100t) µJ) 18t mA ; 0 < t < 1s
i1 = 18 mA ; 1 < t < 3s
5. (–18 A, 320 J)
[9t 45] mA ; 3 < t < 5s
6. (15 V, 7.5 A, 450 J, 168.75 J)
12t mA ; 0 < t < 1s
7. (25 mH)
i2 = 12 mA ; 1 < t < 3s
8. (a) 0.8 A, [(b) (–0.4 + 1.2e–2t) A, (–0.4 + 1.8e–2t) A], [6t 30] mA ; 3 < t < 5s
[(c) –36 e–2t V, –7.2 e–2t V, –28.8 e–2t V]
19. (6.4 mH)
9. 15(1 – 3t) e–3t A, 30t(1 – 3t) e–6t W
20. (4.8 cos100t V, 96 mJ)
20 mA ; 0 < t < 2 ms
21. (5t3 + 5t2 + 20t + 1) A
10. v= 20 mA ; 2 < t < 6 ms
20 mA; 6 < t < 8 ms 22. (5.977 A, 35.72 J)

11. [0.1t2 + 10] V 23. (144 µJ)

12. (13.624 V, 70.66 W) 250t 2 A ; 0 < t < 1s

24. i (t ) =
2
[1 t + 0.25t ] kA; 1 < t < 2s
10 + 3.75t V ; 0 < t < 2s
22.5 2.5t V ; 2 < t < 4s 25. (3.75 mH)
13. v(t ) =
12.5 V; 4 < t < 6s
26. (7.778 mH)
2.5t 2.5 V; 6 < t < 8s
27. (20 mH)
14. (v1 = 42 V, v2 = 48 V)
28. (a) 1.4 L (b) 500 mL
15. (a) 125 mJ, 375 mJ (b) 70.31 mJ, 23.44 mJ
29. (6.625 H)
16.. (a) 3 F (b) 8 F (c) 1 F
30. (a) 6.667 mH, e–t mA, 2e–t mA
17. (2.5 µF) (b) –20 e–t µV
(c) 1.3534 nJ
 24 Network Theory

32. (a) 40 J, 40 J (b) 80 J (c) 5 × 10–5 (e–200t – 1) + 4 A,

31. vo(t) (V)
1.25 × 10–5 (e–200t – 1) – 2 A
6 (d) 6.25 × 10–5 (e–200t – 1) + 2 A
4

2
6
0 t(s)
2 3 4 5
–2

–4

–6
 EC : THEORY BOOK 25

Review Questions Q.7 A 5 H inductor changes its current by 3 A in 0.2s.

The voltage produced at the terminals of the
Q.1 What charge is on a 5 F capacitor when it is
inductor is
connected across a 120 V source?
(a) 75 V (b) 8.888 V
(a) 600 C (b) 300 C
(c) 3 V (d) 1.2 V
(c) 24 C (d) 12 C
Q.8 If the current through a 10 mH inductor increases
Q.2 Capacitance is measured in
from zero to 2 A, how much energy is stored in
(a) Coulombs (b) Joules the inductor?
(c) Henrys (d) Farads (a) 40 mJ (b) 20 mJ
Q.3 When the total charge in a capacitor is doubled, (c) 10 mJ (d) 5 mJ
the energy stored
Q.9 Inductors in parallel can be combined just like
(a) remains the same resistors in parallel.
(b) is halved (a) True (b) False
(c) is doubled
Q.10 For the circuit in figure, the voltage divider
(d) is quadrupled
formula is
Q.4 Can the voltage waveform in figure be associated
L1
with a real capacitor?
+ v1 –
v(t)
+
10 vs v2 L2
–

0 t
1 2

L + L2 L + L2
–10 (a) v1 = 1 vs (b) v1 = 1 vs
L1 L2

(a) Yes (b) No L2 L1

(c) v1 = vs (d) v1 = vs
L1 + L2 L1 + L2
Q.5 The total capacitance of two 40 mF series
connected capacitors in parallel with a 4 mF
capacitor is
Answers :
(a) 3.8 mF (b) 5 mF
1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (c)
(c) 24 mF (d) 44 mF (e) 84 mF
6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (d)
Q.6 In figure, if i = cos4t and v = sin4t, the element is

v i Element

(a) a resistor (b) a capacitor (c) an inductor

 6
Chapter
First Order Circuit

6.1 Introduction
Now that we have considered the three passive elements (resistors, capacitors, and inductors) and one active
element (the op-amp) individually, we are prepared to consider circuits that contain various combinations of two or
three of the passive elements. In this chapter, we shall examine two types of simple circuits: a circuit comprising a
resistor and capacitor and a circuit comprising a resistor and an inductor. These are called RC and RL circuits,
respectively. As simple as these circuits are, they find continual applications in electronics, communications, and
control system, as we shall see.
We carry out the analysis of RC and RL circuits by applying Kirchhoff’s laws, as we did for resistive circuits.
The only difference is that applying Kirchhoff’s law to purely resistive circuits results in algebraic equations, while
applying the laws to RC and RL circuits produces differential equations, which are more difficult to solve that
algebraic equations. The differential equations resulting from analyzing RC and RL circuits are of the first order.
Hence the circuits are collectively known as first order circuits.

Note : The first order circuits are defined by first order differential equation.

6.2 Unilateral Laplace Transform

Since all the circuits start working at t = 0 thus, we use the unilateral Laplace transform for solving the
differential equation. Here we will study the basics of unilateral Laplace transform.
The unilateral Laplace transform of a signal x(t) is defined as,

st
Lu[x(t)] = X (s ) = x (t ) e dt
0

where the lower limit of integration, 0–, implies that we do include discontinuities and impulses that occur at
t = 0 in the interval of integration. Hence, X(s) depends on x(t) for t 0. The evaluation of the inverse unilateral
Laplace transform is also the same as for bilateral Laplace transforms. We shall denote the relationship between x(t)
and X(s) as,
Lu
x( t ) X(s)

Lets see the unilateral Laplace transform of few important signals:

1. Unilateral Laplace Transform of u(t),

Unilateral Laplace Transform st st 1

u(t ) u(t ) e dt = 1e dt =
s
0 0

2. Unilateral Laplace Transform of e–at u(t),

at Unilateral Laplace Transform st st ( s + a )t 1

e u(t ) e u(t ) e dt = e dt =
s+a
0 0
2 Network Theory

3. Unilateral Laplace Transform of (t),

Unilateral Laplace Transform at

(t ) (t ) e u(t ) = 1
0

Remember : Generally in all network theory questions we only need three signals and you can remember
their unilateral Laplace transform:
Universal Laplace Transform 1
u(t )
s

at Universal Laplace Transform 1

e u(t )
s+a
Universal Laplace Transform
(t ) 1

Now lets see two very important properties of universal Laplace transform.
Property No. 1 : Differentiation in time domain

If, Lu
x( t ) X(s)

dx(t ) Lu
then, sX(s ) x(0 )
dt
Repeated application of this property yields,

d 2 x( t ) Lu
2
s 2 X(s ) sx(0 ) x(0 )
dt
Proof thus, we have,

dx(t ) dx(t ) st
Lu = e dt
dt dt
0
Integrating by parts, we obtain,

dx(t ) st st
Lu = x (t ) e +s x (t ) e dt
dt 0
0
For the Laplace transform X(s) to exist, it is necessary that, x(t) e–st 0 as t for R(s) > 0.
dx(t )
Thus, Lu = [0 – x(0–)] + sX(s)
dt

dx(t )
Lu = sX(s) – x(0–)
dt

Property No. 2 : Integration in the domain

If, Lu
x( t ) X(s)
t
Lu X( s )
then, x( ) d for x(t) = 0, t<0
s
0

0
x( ) d
t
Lu X(s)
and x( ) d +
s s
 EC : THEORY BOOK 3

Proof : We will use the differentiation property to prove this.

t
Let, y(t) = x( ) d
0
d
then, x(t) = y (t )
dt
Thus, unilateral Laplace transform of above equation will be
X(s) = sY(s) – y(0–)
0
Since, y(0–) = x( ) d = 0
0
X(s )
Thus, X(s) = sY(s) Y ( s) =
s
t
X(s )
Thus, we can say that unilateral Laplace transform of x( ) d is .
s
0
t
Similarly, y(t) = x( ) d

d
then, x(t) = y (t )
dt
Thus unilateral Laplace transform of above equation will be
X(s) = sY(s) – y(0–)
0
Since, y(0–) = x( ) d

X(s ) y(0 )
Thus, Y(s) = +
s s
0

t
x( ) d
X (s)
Thus, we can say that unilateral Laplace transform of x( ) d is + .
s s

6.3 The RC Circuit

Consider a circuit with resistors and various sources connected to a capacitor at t = 0 assume that the
capacitor is initially charged, the circuit is shown as a black box as shown in Fig. 6.1(a). W know that, this black box
circuit can be represented by a Thevenin equivalent as shown in Fig. 6.1(b).
t=0
t=0 RTh

Linear circuit with

resistors, dependent
sources and C VTh C
independent
sources

(a) (b)
Fig. 6.1

If we have any circuit with a capacitor we will first of all find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit across the
terminals of the capacitor. Now we will convert the circuit from time domain to Laplace domain.
 4 Network Theory

Steps in applying the Laplace Transform

1. Transform the circuit from the time domain to the s-domain.
2. Solve the circuit using nodal analysis, mesh analysis, source transformation, superposition, or any circuit
analysis technique with which we are familiar.
3. Take the inverse transform of the solution and thus obtain the solution in the time domain.
Thus first of all we need how to represent the circuit elements in Laplace domain:
1. Representation of resistor in Laplace domain:
iv-relation in the time domain,
v(t) = R i(t)
By operational Laplace transform,
L {v(t)} = L{R i(t)} = R L{i(t)}
V(s) = R I(s)
Thus represented of resistor in Laplace domain is as shown in Fig. 6.2.
i(t) I(s)
+ +

v(t) R V(s) R

– –

Fig. 6.2

2. Representation of capacitor in Laplace domain:

dv(t )
For a capacitor, i(t) = C
dt
which transforms into the s-domain as,
I(s) = C[sV(s) – v(0–)] = sCV(s) – Cv(0–)

1 v(0 )
or, V(s) = I (s) +
sC s
The s-domain equivalents are shown in Fig. 6.3. With the s-domain equivalents, the Laplace transform
can be used readily to solve first and
i (t ) I(s) I (s )
+ + + +
1/sC
+ – +
v(t) v(0) C V(s) V(s) 1/sC Cv(0)
– v(0)/s –

– – –
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 6.3 : Representation of a capacitor

(a) time domain (b, c) s-domain equivalents

3. Representation of inductor in Laplace domain:

di(t )
For an inductor, v(t) = L
dt
 EC : THEORY BOOK 5

Taking the Laplace transform of both sides gives,

V(s) = L[sI(s) – i(0–)] = sLI(s) – Li(0–)

1 i(0 )
or, I(s) = V (s ) +
sL s
The s-domain equivalents are shown in Fig. 6.4, where the initial condition is modeled as a voltage or
current source.

i (t ) I(s) I(s)
+ + +
sL
–
v(t) i(0) L V(s ) V(s) sL i(0 )/s
–
Li(0 )
– – –
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 6.4 : Representation of an inductor

(a) time-domain (b, c) s-domain equivalents

4. Representation of voltage and current independent in Laplace domain:

For example if we have a voltage source (VTh) which turn-on to gets activated at t = 0, then it can be shown as
VTh u(t), then this can be shown as VTh/s in Laplace domain.
t=0

VTh VTh u(t) VTh/s

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 6.5 : Voltage source in Laplace domain

For example if we have a current source (ITh) which turn-on to gets activated at t = 0, then it can be shown as
ITh u(t), then this can be shown as ITh/s in Laplace domain.
t=0

ITh ITh u (t) ITh/s

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 6.6 : Current source in Laplace domain

Consider a circuit which has resistors, dependent and independent sources with a single capacitor, then we
first of all find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit across the terminals of the capacitor. Let the equivalent voltage
is VTh and equivalent resistance is RTh. This is already shown in (Fig. 6.1). Now we will solve the circuit using
Laplace transform, we consider that the capacitor is initially charged with voltage Vo.
 6 Network Theory

t=0
i (t ) RTh RTh i (t ) RTh I(s)

+
Vc(s) 1/Cs
+ + –
VTh v C (t ) C VTh u(t) v C (t ) C Vth /s
– –
Vo/s

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 6.7

We convert the circuit into Laplace as shown in Fig. 6.7(c). Now, we will find the current and voltage in
Laplace and using inverse Laplace transform, we will get them in time domain.
First lets find the I(s), applying KVL in the circuit of Fig. 6.7(c), we get,
VTh I (s ) Vo
= I (s ) RTh + +
s Cs s
VTh Vo 1
= RTh + I (s)
s Cs

VTh Vo
Thus, I(s) =
1
RTh s +
RTh C

VTh Vo t/
Thus, i(t) = e
RTh
Here, = time constant of the circuit that is RThC
Now lets find the Vc(s), applying KVL in the circuit of Fig. 6.7(c), we get,
1 Vo
Vc(s) = I (s ) +
Cs s

VTh Vo 1 Vo
= +
1 Cs s
RTh s +
RTh C

VTh Vo Vo VTh Vo VTh VTh Vo

Vc(s) = + + = +
s s s+ 1 s s+
1
RTh C RThC
vc(t) = {VTh + (VTh – Vo) e–t/ } u(t)
This is a very important result and we will generalize this result.
Thus to solve any circuit with single capacitor we will follow this method:
1. Step-1 : First of all we need to find the voltage by which the capacitor is initially charged, for this we draw
the circuit before t = 0. For drawing the circuit before t = 0 we place the switch in its condition mentioned
for t < 0 and then we open-circuit the capacitor (as seen in Chapter 5, we open-circuit the capacitor to find
the charge on the capacitor). Thus the voltage across the open-circuit will give us the initial voltage across
the capacitor i.e. Vo.
2. Step-2 : Now draw the circuit for t > 0. For drawing the circuit after t = 0 we place the switch in its
condition mentioned for t > 0. Now open-circuit the capacitor and simply find the Thevenin equivalent of
the circuit across the open-circuit terminals. We will get RTh and VTh.
 EC : THEORY BOOK 7

Now for t > 0 the voltage across the capacitor and current through the capacitor is,
Vc(t) = [VTh – (VTh – Vo)] e–t/RC]
VTh Vo t / RC
ic(t) = e
RTh
These equations are draw in Fig. 6.8.
v C(t ) i C(t )

VTh VTh Vo
RTh

Vo
t t

Fig. 6.8

We can see that the voltage across the capacitor (for t > 0) at steady-state is VTh.
Another way of looking at the complete response is to break into two components – one temporary and the
other permanent, i.e.
Complete response = Transient response + Steady-state response
Temporary part Permanent part

The transient response ‘vt’ is temporary, it is the portion of the complete response that decays to zero as time
approaches infinity. Thus, the transient response is the circuit’s temporary response that will die out with time.
The steady-state response ‘vss’ is the portion of the complete response that remains after the transient response
has died out. Thus, the steady-state response is the behaviour of the circuit a long time after an external excitation is
applied,
t / RC
vc(t) = [VTh (VTh Vo ) e ]

steady-state Transient
response response

Since, VTh is the voltage across capacitor at t = thus, we can also wait above, equation as,
vc(t) = V – (V – Vo) e–t/RC

Note : Any variable (that is current in any branch and voltage across any element for t > 0) in RC circuit can
be written in this form: Value of variable (t) = Value of variable at steady state – (Value of variable at steady
state – Initial value of variable) e–t/RC.

Now lets see the amount of energy supplied by the voltage source, energy dissipated in the resistor and energy
absorbed by the capacitor:
1. Energy absorbed by the capacitor for t > 0 = Final energy in the capacitor – Initial energy in the capacitor
We know that initial voltage across capacitor is Vo and final voltage across capacitor is VTh thus (let Vo is 0).

1 2
Energy absorbed by the capacitor for t > 0 = CVTh .
2

2. Energy dissipated by the resistor for t > 0 = Power absorbed dt

0
Power dissipated by the resistor is = [ic(t)]2 RTh
2
VTh t / RThC
= e RTh
RTh
8 Network Theory

Energy dissipated by the resistor for t > 0

2
VTh t / RThC 1 2
= e RTh dt = CVTh
RTh 2
0

This is a very important point where we can see that energy dissipated in resistor is same as energy stored

in capacitor thus the energy supplied by the battery in sum of these two that is, C V 2 .
Th

Remember :

1. We can see that energy supplied by the battery is C V 2 .

Th

1 2
2. We can see that energy dissipated by the resistor is CVTh .
2

1 2
3. We can see that energy absorbed by the capacitor is CVTh .
2
4. Energy absorbed by the capacitor and energy dissipated in the resistor are independent of the value of the
resistor.

Example 6.1 : The switch in figure has been in position A for a long time. At t = 0, the switch moves to B.
Determine v(t) for t > 0 and calculate its value at t = 1s and 4s.
3k A B 4k

t=0
+
24 V 5k v 0.5 mF 30 V
–

Solution :
For t < 0, the switch is at position A. The capacitor acts like an open-circuit to dc, but ‘v’ is the same as the
voltage across the 5 k resistor. Hence, the voltage across the capacitor just before t = 0 is obtained by voltage
division as,
5
v(0–) = (24) = 15 V
5+3
Using the fact that the capacitor voltage cannot change instantaneously,
v(0) = v(0–) = v(0+) = 15 V
For t > 0, the switch is in position B. The Thevenin resistance connected to the capacitor is RTh = 4 k , and
the time constant is
= RThC = 4 × 103 × 0.5 × 10–3 = 2s
The VTh = 30 V
t / RC
Thus, Vc(t) = [VTh (VTh Vo ) e ]
= 30 + (15 – 30) e–t/2
= (30 – 15e–0.5t) V
At t = 1, v(1) = 30 – 15e–0.5 = 20.9 V
At t = 4, v(4) = 30 – 15e–2 = 29.97 V
 EC : THEORY BOOK 9

Example 6.2 : In figure, the switch has been closed for a long time and is opened at t = 0. Find ‘i’ and ‘v’
for all time.
t=0
10 i

+
30 u(t) V 20 v 1/4 F 10 V
–

Solution :
The resistor current ‘i’ can be discontinuous at t = 0, while the capacitor voltage ‘v’ cannot. Hence, it is
always better to find ‘v’ and then obtain ‘i’ from ‘v’. By definition of the unit step function,
0; t<0
30 u(t ) =
30 , t > 0
For t < 0, the switch is closed and 30u(t) = 0, so that the 30u(t) voltage source is replaced by a short-circuit and
should be regarded as contributing nothing to ‘v’. Since the switch has been closed for a long time, the
capacitor voltage has reached steady state and the capacitor acts like an open-circuit. Hence, the circuit
becomes that shown in Fig. (a) for t < 0. From this circuit we obtain,
10 i 10 i

+ +
20 v 10 V 30 V 20 v 1/4 F
– –

(a) for t < 0 (b) for t > 0

v
v = 10 V, i= = 1A
10
Since the capacitor voltage cannot change instantaneously,
v(0) = v(0–) = 10 V
For t > 0, the switch is opened and the 10 V voltage source is disconnected from the circuit. The 30u(t) voltage
source is now operative, so the circuit becomes that shown in Fig. (b).
We obtain VTh by using voltage division, writing,
20
VTh = (30) = 20 V
20 + 10
The Thevenin resistance at the capacitor terminals is,
10 × 20 20
RTh = 10 20 = =
30 3
20 1 5
and the time constant is, = RTh C = = s
3 4 3
Thus, Vc(t) = [VTh – (VTh – Vo) e–t/RC]
= 20 + (10 – 20) e–(3/5)t
= (20 – 10e–0.6t) V
To obtain ‘i’, we notice from Fig. (b) that ‘i’ is the sum of the currents through the 20 resistor and the
capacitor, that is,
10 Network Theory

v dv
i= +C
20 dt
= 1 – 0.5 e–0.6t + 0.25(–0.6) (–10) e–0.6t
= (1 + e–0.6t) A
Notice from Fig. (b), that v + 10i = 30 = 30 is satisfied, as expected.
10 V ; t<0
Hence, v = 0.6t
(20 10 e )V; t 0

1A; t<0
i= 0.6t
(1 + e ) A; t > 0

Example 6.3 : For the circuit of figure, find the voltage labeled vC for t > 0 if vC(0–) = 2 V.
10

+
20 i1 1.5i1 vC 1 µF
–

Solution :
Since we know the initial voltage across the capacitors, we simply have to find the Thevenin equivalent of
the circuit attached with the capacitor. We simply open-circuit the capacitor and then we will find the
equivalent of the circuit across terminal a-b in the below figure. Now we can see that in the circuit we have
no independent source thus we have VTh = 0 to find RTh . We connect voltage Vo and see the current Io from
the voltage source.
a Io

30 i1 1.5i1 Vo

b
We can see that, Vo = 30i1
and KCL at top node we get,
Io + 1.5i1 = i 1
Io = –0.5i1
Vo
Thus, = RTh = –60
Io
t / RThC
Now, vC(t) = VTh (VTh Vo ) e
Since, VTh = 0

Thus, vC(t) = Vo e t / RThC

t /60 × 10 6
vC(t) = 2 e V
which, interestingly enough is unstable, it grows exponentially with time. This cannot continue indefinitely,
one or more elements in the circuit will eventually fail.
 EC : THEORY BOOK 11

Example 6.4 : Find the capacitor voltage, vC(t) of figure for all time.
t=0
a

b
10
+
60 50 vC(t) 50 mF
200 –
+
120 V +
– 50 V i(t)
–

(a)

t 0

10 60 +
50 vC(t) 50 mF
200
–
+ +
120 V 50 V i(t)
– –

(b)
t 0

60
+
200 50 vC(t) 50 mF
+ –
50 i (t )
–

(c)

Solution :
Now we draw the circuit for t > 0 as shown in Fig. (c). Now we can see that Thevenin equivalent of the circuit
seen across the capacitor, we open-circuit the capacitor and mark the terminals as ‘a’ and ‘b’ figure.
We begin by considering the state of the circuit at t < 0, corresponding to the switch at position ‘a’ as
represented in Fig. (b). As usual, we assume no transients are present, so that only a forced response due to
the 120 V source is relevant to finding vC(0–). Simple voltage division then gives us the initial voltage,
50
vC(0) = (120) = 100 V
50 + 10
Since the capacitor voltage cannot change instantaneously, this voltage is equally valid at t = 0– and t = 0+.
The switch is now thrown to b,
a
We can see that, RTh = 60 200 50 = 24
60
200 50
200 50
and VTh = 50
60 + 200 50 50 V
b
(50) (200)/250
= 50 = 20 V
60 + (50) (200)/250
Thus we can write, vC(t) = VTh – (VTh – Vo) e–t/RC
R = 24 , C = 50 mF, VTh = 20 V, Vo = 100
vC(t) = 20 + 80 e–t/1.2 V
12 Network Theory

Example 6.5 : Determine, initial voltage on capacitor C = 10 V, find vC(t) for t > 0 in circuit of Fig. (a).
10 k 20 k

+ V –
o
t=0
70 V + 4V
– o
+
vC(t) C
–

(a)

Solution :
We already know the initial voltage on the capacitor, now we redraw the circuit for t > 0 as shown in Fig. (b).
10 k 20 k

+ V –
o

+
+ 4V
70 V vC(t) – o
–

(b)
We will find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit across the capacitor. Now we open-circuit the capacitor
and find VTh [(Reference Fig. (c)]. I 10 k 20 k
Thus we get that, Vo = 10,000 I + V –
o
70 = Vo + 20,000 I + 4Vo
+ a
70 = 5Vo + 20,000 I = 70,000 I 70 V VTh + 4V
– o
– b
I = 1 mA
Vo = 10 V
VTh = 60 V (c)

Now to find RTh, we connect a battery of value Vx and assume that the current is Ix this RTh is Vx/Ix [Reference
Fig. (d)]. We remove the independent sources. 20 k
We can see that, Vo = –Vx
Ix
Vx Vx 4Vo
Now, Ix = + +
10 k 20 k 10 k Vo + 4V
– o
– Vx
Vx 5Vx Vx Vx
Ix = + = +
10 k 20 k 10 k 4k
(d)
Vx 40
= (10 4) k = k = 2.85 k
Ix 14
Thus, vC(t) = VTh (VTh Vo ) e t / RC

vC(t) = 60 50 e t /(2850 C ) V

Example 6.6 : The switch in figure has been closed for a long time, and it opens at t = 0. Find v(t) for t 0.
t=0
10 k

+
40 V 2k v(t) 40 µF
–
 EC : THEORY BOOK 13

Solution :
Now we will first of all draw the circuit for t < 0 as shown in Fig. (a), we can easily find the initial voltage
across the capacitor by simply open circuiting the capacitor [Reference Fig. (b)], we get that initial voltage on
capacitor is Vo ,
10 k 10 k

40 V 2k 40 µF 40 V 2k Vo

–
(a) (b)

2
Vo = × 40 = 6.66 V
2 + 10
Now for t > 0 the circuit we draw circuit Fig. (c), we can see that,
VTh = 0 and RTh = 2 k
+
Thus for t > 0; vC(t) = VTh – (VTh – Vo) e–t/RC 2k vC(t) 40 µF
–
t /(2 × 103 × 40 × 15 6 )
vC(t) = 0 (0 6.66) e
2 (c)
= 6.66 e t /(8 × 10 )

Example 6.7 : Find the equation of voltage across the capacitor for t > 0.
C
+ –
v C(t )

10u(–t) 10 10 10u(t )

Solution :
First of all we will solve the circuit for t < 0, for this we will draw the circuit for t < 0 (u(t) = 0 for t < 0 and
u(–t) = 1 for t < 0). Thus the circuit will be as shown below Fig. (a). Now to find the charge on the capacitor
at t = 0–, we will simply open-circuit the capacitor and find the voltage across the open-circuit Fig. (b). Thus
we can get that, Vo = –100 V
C
+ – + Vo –
vC(t)

10 A 10 10 10 A 10 10

(a) (b)

Now for t > 0 (u(t) = 1 for t > 0 and u(–t) = 0 for t > 0)
Thus we will get the circuit as shown in Fig. (c) by source transformation, we can redraw the circuit as
shown in Fig. (d).
14 Network Theory

C C 10
+ – + –
vC (t) vC (t)

10 10 10 A 10 A 100 V

(c) (d)
Thus we get that, VTh = –100 V, RTh = 20
Thus for t > 0; vC(t) = VTh – (VTh – Vo) e–t/RC
= –100 – (–100 – (–100)) e–t/RC
vC(t) = –100

Example 6.8 : Find the voltage across the capacitor for t > 0.

10 k
Vin

+ 10 V
Vin v C( t ) C = 1 µF
–
0 2 ms

Solution :
For t < 0, the input is zero thus the capacitor will be uncharged and thus initial voltage across capacitor is
zero, for time 0 to 2 ms the supply is of 10 V. Thus the circuit will be as shown in Fig. (a). 10 k
Thus for time 0 < t < 2 ms the voltage across capacitor will be
(Here, VTh = 10 V, RTh = 10 k , Vo = 0, C = 1 µF),
+
vC(t) = VTh – (VTh – Vo) e–t/RC 10 V C vC(t)
–t/RC –
= 10 – 10e
2
Thus, vC(t) = 10(1 e t /(1 × 10 ) ) (a)

The capacitor will get charged for 2 ms, at t = 2 ms we can find that the voltage across the capacitor will be
1.812 V. 10 k
Now after 2 ms the battery will be removed and the capacitor will now discharge
through the resistor, for t > 2 ms the circuit will be as shown in Fig. (b).
+
Here, VTh = 0, RTh = 10 k and Vo = 1.812 V, C vC(t)
–
vC(t) = {VTh (VTh Vo ) e (t 0.02)/ RC
} for t > 2 ms
(b)
(t 0.02)/(1 × 10 2 )
= 1.812 e

v C(t )

1.812

t(ms)
2
 EC : THEORY BOOK 15

6.4 Capacitor Circuit without Resistors

The capacitor without resistor means it is an ideal capacitor, this is a very important topic as we see log of
questions in GATE exam from this topic. We will see some examples in this topic to make you understand the
working of ideal capacitor without resistor.

Example 6.9 : Consider the circuit, draw the voltage across the capacitor with time.
B A

t=0

10 V + 5V
vC(t) C
–

Solution :
We can see that the capacitor is initially charged with 5 V and when at t = 0 the switch is moved from node
A to B then for t > 0, the VTh = 10 V, RTh = 0 . Thus now we can see that,
vC(t) = VTh – (VTh – Vo) e–t/RC
Since, R = 0 thus RC = 0.
So, for t > 0 e–t/RC = 0
vC(t) = VTh = 10
Thus here we can see that voltage across the capacitor will change immediately (since this is an ideal case
with R = 0). The plot of vC(t) will be
vC(t)

10 V
5V
t

We can easily find the current in the loop for t > 0;

dVc (t )
iC(t) = C = C [5 (t )] = 5C (t )
dt
The current will be an impulse, thus the capacitor will get charged immediately.

Example 6.10 : Consider a circuit shown in the figure (Let initially the capacitor is uncharged), find the
amount of energy supplied by the battery and energy absorbed in the capacitor.

t=0

VTh +
C v C (t )
–

Solution :
We can see that initially the capacitor is uncharged and when the v C(t )
switch is turned-on at t = 0. Thus the capacitor will charge
immediately to VTh, thus the voltage across the capacitor will the VTh
vC(t). The capacitor will charge immediately as there is no resistance
t
in the circuit.
16 Network Theory

The current in the circuit will be a delta function as,

dVc (t )
iC(t) = C = CVTh (t )
dt
Energy absorbed by the capacitor is = Final energy in capacitor – Initial energy in capacitor
1 2 1 2
= CVTh 0= CVTh
2 2

2
Energy supplied by the battery is = VTh iC (t ) dt = VTh CVTh (t ) dt = CVTh
0 0

2 and capacitor has absorbed energy

1 2
Thus we can see that the battery has provided energy CVTh CVTh ,
2
thus we can finally say that due to delta current (Infinite current) the power is dissipated in the zero
resistance wire. Thus, here also the concept of equal energy dissipated in resistor and energy absorbed in
resistor is valid.

Example 6.11 : Now lets consider a very important question with two capacitor. Consider the circuit
shown in the figure, the capacitor C1 and C2 are charged with voltage V1 and V2. At t = 0 the two capacitors
are connected now find the voltage across the capacitors for t > 0.
t=0 t=0

+ +
C1 v C1 v C2 C2
– –

Solution :
When the capacitors are connected at t = 0, now we will use Laplace transform for solving the question.
i (t ) I (s )
+ +
vC1(s) 1/sC1 1/sC2 vC2(s)
+ +
C1 v C1 v C2 C2
– – V1/s V2/s

– –
(a) (b)

Now for t > 0, the circuit is as shown in Fig. (a) and it is converted to Laplace transform as shown in Fig. (b).
We can see that in Fig. (b) the current is,

V1 V2
s s = C1C 2 (V V )
I(s) = 1 2
1 1 C1 + C 2
+
C1s C 2 s

C1C 2
Thus current, i(t) = (V1 V2 ) (t )
C1 + C 2
The current will be delta function as there is no resistance in the circuit. We can now find the voltage across
the capacitors as follows. Since current is going out of the capacitor thus,
 EC : THEORY BOOK 17

1 C2
vC1 (t ) = V1 i(t ) dt = V1 (V1 V2 )
C1 (C1 + C 2)
V1C1 + V2C 2
=
C1 + C 2
1 C1
Similarly, vC2 (t ) = V2 + i(t ) dt = V2 + (V1 V2 )
C2 (C1 + C 2)
V1C1 + V2C 2
=
C1 + C 2

C1V1 + V2C 2
Thus the both the capacitor will charge to instantaneously.
C1 + C 2

Remember : The above example can also be solved using concept of charge neutrality. Initially charge on
capacitor C1 is Q1 = C1V1 and on capacitor C2 is Q2 = C2V2. When the two capacitors are connected the final
voltage on each will be same let the voltage is ‘V’ thus total final charge is C1V + C2V. Thus from charge
neutrality:
Total initial charge = Total final charge
C1V1 + C2V2 = C1V + C2V
C1V1 + C 2V2
V=
C1 + C 2

Note : Thus we can see that when the capacitor does not have a resistor in the circuit then the capacitor will
get charged instantaneously and the current will be an impulse.

6.5 Behaviour of the Capacitor at Steady-State and at Time of Switching

We know that voltage across capacitor cannot change instantaneously (except when resistance seen by the
capacitor is 0) thus at time of switching that is just after switching (t = 0–) the voltage across the capacitor will remain
same as that of the voltage by which capacitor is charged just before switching that is Vo.
Also at steady state is that time t = , the voltage and current are constant in all the branches thus the current
from the capacitor should be zero, that is capacitor is open circuited at steady state.

Remember : If we want to solve the circuit just after switching i.e. at t = 0, the capacitor will be replaced by
a battery of value equal to initial voltage stored in the capacitor and at steady state. We simply open-circuit
the capacitor.

Example 6.12 : Consider the circuit shown in the figure. If initial voltage across capacitor are V1 and V2.
Find the voltage across the capacitor for t > 0.
t=0 t=0
R

+ +
C1 v C1 v C2 C2
– –
18 Network Theory

Solution :
This question is a simple RC circuit as the two capacitor can be combined as they are in series. Thus, this is
a simple RC circuit without any supply. From the above discussion we can see that if we want to solve
circuit at t = 0+. (That is just after switching) [Refer Fig. (a)] and at steady state the capacitors are open
circuited thus current is zero in the circuit [Refer Fig. (b)].
R R

+ + + +
vC 1 vC2 vC 1 vC 2
– – – –

(a) (b)

V V2
Now by solving this we get that at t = 0+ current is i(0) = 1 and obviously the current at steady state is
R
zero thus we can write the current equation as follows:
i(t) = I – (I – Io) e–t/RC
V1 V2 C C
Here, I = 0; Io = ; C= 1 2
R C1 + C 2

V1 V2 t / RC
Thus, for t > 0; i(t) = e
R
Now to find the voltage across the capacitor we can use the following equations:
t
1
vC1 (t ) = i(t ) dt + Initial voltage
C1
0

(–ve) sign as current leave the capacitor,

t
1
vC(t) = i(t ) dt + Initial voltage
C2
0
(+ve) sign as current enter the capacitor,
t
1 V1 V2 t / RC
Thus, vC1 (t ) = V1 e dt
C1 R
0

C t / RC
= V1 (V1 V2 ) [1 e ]
C1
C
Thus at steady state, vC1 ( ) = V1 (V1 V2 )
C1
C2
= V1 (V1 V2 )
C1 + C 2
C1V1 + C 2V2
vC1 ( ) =
C1 + C 2
t
1 V1 V2 t / RC
Similarly, vC2 (t ) = V2 + e dt
C2 R
0

C
= V2 + (V1 V2 ) [1 e t / RC ]
C2
 EC : THEORY BOOK 19

C
Thus at steady state, vC2 ( ) = V2 + (V 1 V2 )
C2

C1
= V2 + (V1 V2 )
C1 + C 2

C1V1 + C 2V2
vC2 ( ) =
C1 + C 2

Note : Very important observation is from (Example 6.11 and 6.10), in both the cases the final voltage across
capacitor is same. Thus presence of resistor does not effect the voltage gained by the capacitor. The presence
of resistor only make the circuit slow as circuit need more time to reach to the steady state.

6.6 Solving the Circuits with more than One Capacitor

Here we have two cases:
• Case-1 : Where the capacitors can be combined (that is capacitors are in series or parallel) to reduce the
circuit we can simply solve the circuit as RC circuit.
• Case-2 : Where the capacitors cannot be combined then we cannot use the concept of RC circuit, in such
case we will use Laplace transform.

Example 6.13 : Consider the circuit shown below, find the voltage across the capacitors for t > 0
(Assume that the capacitors are initially uncharged).
t=0
R

+
C1 vC1 +
– C3 vC3
VTh –
+
C2 vC2 +
– C4 vC4
–

Solution :
We can see that the capacitors can be easily combined C1, C2 are in series let their equivalent is C5, C3 and C4
are in series let their equivalent is C6.
Ceq = C5 + C6
Thus we can draw the circuit as shown in Fig. (a), thus we can easily write, R
vC = V – (V – Vo) e–t/RC
Here, V = VTh, Vo = 0, Ceq +
vC = VTh – VTh e–t/RCeq) VTh Ceq vC
–t/RC
–
vC = VTh (1 – e eq)

Now we can find, vC1 , vC2 , vC3 , vC 4 by voltage division rule,

C2 C1
vC1 = vC ; vC2 = vC
C1 + C 2 C1 + C 2

C4 C3
vC3 = vC ; vC 4 = vC
C4 + C3 C3 + C 4
20 Network Theory

Note : Now we will see the example of case-2, here we cannot apply normal RC circuit concept as either we
are not able to combine the capacitor or the supply voltages are not constant DC. We will use Laplace
transform for these questions.

Example 6.14 : Find vo(t) in the circuit of figure. Assume vo(0) = 5 V.

10

–t
+
10e u(t) V 10 v o (t ) 0.1 F 2 (t ) A
–

Solution :
We transform the circuit to the s-domain as shown in figure below. The initial condition is included in the
form of the current source Cvo(0) = 0.1(5) = 0.5 A. We apply nodal analysis. At the top node,
10 /(s + 1) Vo V V
+ 2 + 0.5 = o + o
10 10 10 / s

1 2Vo sVo 1
or, + 2.5 = + = Vo (s + 2)
s+1 10 10 10
10 V o (s )

10
10 10/s
s+1 0.5 A 2A

Multiplying through by 10,

10
+ 25 = Vo(s + 2)
s+1
2 s + 35 A B
or, Vo = = +
(s + 1) (s + 2) s + 1 s + 2

25s + 35 10
where, A = (s + 1)Vo (s) s = 1 = = = 10
(s + 2) s = 1
1

25s + 35 15
B = (s + 2)Vo (s) s = 2 = = = 15
(s + 1) s = 2
1

10 15
Thus, Vo(s) = +
s+1 s+2
Taking the Inverse Laplace transform, we obtain,
vo(t) = (10e–t + 15e–2t) u(t) V
 EC : THEORY BOOK 21

6.7 RL Circuits
Consider a circuit with resistors and various sources connected to a inductor at t = 0. Assume that the
inductor is initially charged, the circuit is shown as a black box as shown in Fig. 6.26 (a). We know that this black box
circuit can be represented by a Thevenin equivalent as shown in Fig. 6.26(b).

t=0
t=0 RTh

Linear circuit
with L VTh L
resistors and sources

(b)
(a)

Fig. 6.26

If we have any circuit with a inductor we will first of all find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit across the
terminals of the inductor. Now we will convert the circuit from time domain to Laplace domain.

Steps in Applying The Laplace Transform

1. Transform the circuit from the time domain to the s-domain.
2. Solve the circuit using nodal analysis, mesh analysis, source transformation, super-position, or any
circuit analysis technique with which we are familiar.
3. Take the inverse transform of the solution and thus obtain the solution in the time domain.
Consider a circuit which has resistors, dependent and independent sources with a single inductor, then we
first of all find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit across the terminals of the capacitor. Let the equivalent voltage
is VTh and equivalent resistance is RTh. This is already shown in Fig. 6.26. Now we will solve the circuit using
Laplace transform, we consider that the inductor is initially charged with current Io. Now we will redraw the circuit
as shown in Fig. 6.27.
RTh IL(s)
t=0
i(t) RTh RTh

iL(t ) iL(t ) sL

VTh u(t) VTh/s

VTh L L
I oL

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 6.27

VTh
Thus, I(s) = + Io L
s VTh Io L
= +
RTh + sL s(sL + RTh ) RTh + sL

VTh 1 VTh Io
= +
RTh s R R
RTh s + Th s + Th
L L

VTh VTh tRTh / L tRTh / L

i(t) = u(t ) e u(t ) + I oe u(t )
RTh RTh

VTh VTh tRTh / L

i(t) = Io e
RTh RTh
22 Network Theory

In general we can write the inductor current equation,

i(t) = I – {(I – Io) e–t/ } Here,
1. Io is current by which inductor is initially charge. To find Io, we will follow this procedure. First draw the
circuit before t = 0. For drawing the circuit before t = 0. We place the switch in its condition mentioned for
t < 0 and then we short-circuit the inductor (as seen Chapter-5 we short-circuit the inductor to find the
charge on the inductor). Thus the current through the short-circuit will give the initial current across the
inductor i.e. Io.
2. I is the current by which inductor is charged at steady-state for t > 0, now draw the circuit for t > 0. For
drawing the circuit after t = 0, we place the switch in its condition mentioned for t > 0. Now at steady-state
the inductor is short circuited thus simple short-circuit the inductor and find the current through the
short-circuit this will give the value of I .
3. R is the resistance seen by the inductor in the circuit for t > 0, thus simply remove the inductor and find the
Thevenin resistance seen across the terminals of the inductor, the time constant of RL circuit is = L/RTh.

Note : All the variables (current and voltages) in the RL circuit can be written in the form:
Variable (t) = Value of variable ( ) – (Value of variable ( ) – Value of variable (0) e–t/

Example 6.15 : Find i(t) in the circuit of figure for t > 0. Assume that the switch has been closed for a
long time.
t=0

2 3

10 V 1/3 H

Solution :
When t < 0, the 3 resistor is short circuited, and the inductor acts like a short-circuit. The current through
the inductor at t = 0– (i.e. just before t = 0) is,
10
=5A
i(0–) =
2
Since the inductor current cannot charge instantaneously,
i(0) = i(0+) = i(0–) = 5 A
When t > 0, the switch is open. The 2 and 3 resistors are in series, so that,
10
i( ) = =2A
2+3
The Thevenin resistance across the inductor terminals is,
RTh = 2 + 3 = 5
L 1/3 1
For the time constant, = = = s
RTh 5 15
Thus, i(t) = i( ) + [i(0) – i( )] e–t/
= 2 + (5 – 2) e–15t = 2 + 3e–15t A t>0
 EC : THEORY BOOK 23

Example 6.16 : At t = 0, switch 1 in figure is closed, and switch 2 is closed 4s later. Find i(t) for t > 0.
Calculate ‘i’ for t = 2s and t = 5s.

t=0
4 S1 P 6

S2 i
t=4

40 V 2
5H

10 V

Solution :
We need to consider the three time intervals t 0, 0 t 4, and t 4 separately. For t < 0, switches S1 and S2
are open so that, i = 0. Since the inductor current cannot change instantly,
i(0–) = i(0) = i(0+) = 0
For 0 t, t 4, S1 is closed so that the 4 and 6 resistors are in series. (Remember, at this time, S2 is still
open). Hence, assuming for now that S1 is closed foreover,
40
i( ) = =4A
4+6
RTh = 4 + 6 = 10
L 5 1
= = = s
RTh 10 2
Thus, i(t) = i( ) + [i(0) – i( )] e–t/
= 40 + (0 – 4) e–2t = 4(1 – e–2t) A, 0 t 4
For t 4, S2 is closed, the 10 V voltage source is connected, and the circuit changes. This sudden change does
not affect the inductor current because the current cannot change abruptly. Thus, the initial current is,
i(4) = i(4–) = 4(1 – e–8) 4 A
To find i( ), let ‘v’ be the voltage at node ‘P’ in figure. Using KCL,
40 v 10 v v 180
+ = v= V
4 2 6 11
v 30
i( ) = = = 2.727 A
6 11
The Thevenin resistance at the inductor terminals is,
4×2 22
RTh = 4 2 + 6 = +6 =
6 3
L 5 15
and = = = s
RTh 22 /3 22
Here, i(t) = i( ) + [i(4) – i( )] e–(t – 4)/ ; t 4
We need (t – 4) in the exponential because of the time delay. Thus,
15
i(t) = 2.727 + (4 – 2.727) e–(t – 4)/ ; =
22
= 2.727 + 1.273e–1.4667(t – 4), t 4
24 Network Theory

0; t 0
2t
Putting all this together, i(t) = 4(1 e ); 0 t 4
2.727 + 1.273 e 1.4667(t 4) ; t 4
At t = 2, i(2) = 4(1 – e–4) = 3.93 A
At t = 5, i(5) = 2.727 + 1.273 e–1.4667 = 3.02 A

Example 6.17 : Find the current through the inductor for t > 0.

t=0
6

20 V
2A 12 20 0.5 H

Solution :
First of all we need to find the current through inductor at t = 0–, thus we first of all draw the circuit for t < 0
and short-circuit the inductor and find the current through the inductor, this will give the current by which
inductor is charged. [Refer Fig. (a)].

Vo 5

2A 12 20 20 V
Io

(a)

Now let voltage at top node is Vo thus KCL at node, 5

Vo Vo Vo 20 Vo
+ + = 2+
12 20 6 5 6
Vo = 12 V 20 20 V
Vo 0.5 H i(t)
Now, Io = =2A
6
Now for t > 0, the circuit is [Refer Fig. (b)]. (b)

To find the current through the inductor at steady state we simply short-circuit the inductor and find the
current through the inductor [Refer Fig. (c)].
5 5

6 6
20 20 V 20
a
I
b

(c) (d)
 EC : THEORY BOOK 25

Here we can see that current from 20 V battery is,

20
= 2.08 A
5 + (20 6)

20
I = × 2.08 = 1.6 A
26
To find the resistance seen by the inductor is found by open circuiting the inductor [Refer Fig. (d)],

Rab = 6 + 20 5 = 10
Thus current through inductor is, i(t) = I – (I – Io) e–tR/L
= 1.6 – (1.6 – 2) e–20t
i(t) = 1.6 + 0.4e–20t

Example 6.18 : Find the current through the inductor for t > 0.

24 V i
10 V
t=0 2H

2 3
6

Solution :
First of all we need to find the current through inductor at t = 0–. Thus we first of all draw the circuit for t < 0
and short-circuit the inductor and find the current through the inductor, this will give the current by which
inductor is charged. [Refer Fig. (a)]. We can easily see that, Io = 2 A.
Vo

24 V Io 24 V I
10 V 10 V

2 3 2 3
6 6

(a) (b)
Now we will draw the circuit for t > 0 and to find I . We will use circuit shown in Fig. (b), thus (assume
voltage at top node is Vo),
a
Vo 10 Vo 20 Vo
+ + =0
2 6 3 b
2
Vo = 9 V 3
6
Vo
I = =3A
3 (c)

Now we will draw the circuit for t > 0 and to find R we will remove the sources and see that, R [Refer Fig. (c)],
R = 3 + 6 2 = 3 + 1.5 = 4.5
Thus, i(t) = I – (I – Io) e–tR/L
i(t) = 3 – (3 – 2) e–2.25 t
 26 Network Theory

Example 6.19 : Find the current in the inductor for t > 0.

Io 0.5 H i(t)

t=0

3
8 +
+ 4io v 2
–
–
24 V 20 V

Solution :
First of all we will solve the circuit at t = 0– to get the current by which inductor is initially charged, thus for
this we will short-circuit the inductor and find the current through the inductor [Refer Fig. (a)].

Io 2Io
3
+ 4io 2
–
24 V

(a)

Now we will apply KVL in the loop of circuit of Fig. (a), we will get that,
3Io + 24 – 4Io = 4
Io = 24 A
The inductor is charged with current, 2Io = 48 A
Now for t > 0, the switch will be moved and thus current Io will be zero thus the dependent source will be
short circuited thus the circuit for t > 0 will be Fig. (b). 0.5 H i(t)
Here, we can see that the current through the inductor will be zero at
steady state R = 2 and L = 0.5 H.
2
Thus, i(t) = I – (I – Io) e–tR/L
= 0 – (0 – 48) e–4t
i(t) = 48e–4t (b)

6.8 Inductor Circuit without Resistors

In (Chapter 5) we have seen that inductor do not allow sudden change in current, but this statement is valid
for practical cases. In ideal cases the current through the inductor can change abruptly, lets see few examples
explaining this concept.

Example 6.20 : Consider the circuit as shown in the figure, find the current in the circuit for t > 0. Assume
that the inductor is initially charged with current Io.
t=0

i (t )
+
IN vL(t) L
–
 EC : THEORY BOOK 27

Solution :
It is given that the inductor is initially charged with current Io, we can see that when the switch is turned-on
then the current in the loop has to become equal to IN otherwise the KCL will not be satisfied. Thus in the
cases (where resistance seen by inductor is infinity) the inductor will charge instantaneously as time
constant = L/R is zero. Thus using the equation,
i(t) = I – (I – Io) e–t/t
Here, I = IN and = 0
Thus, i(t) = IN for t > 0
Thus the plot of current will be
i(t)

IN

Io

And the voltage across the inductor will be

di(t )
vL(t) = L
dt
vL(t) = L(IN – Io) (t)
Thus we can see that voltage across the inductor is delta which leads to change of current instantaneously.

Example 6.21 : Consider the circuit shown in the figure below, assume that the inductors L1 and L2 are
initially charged with current I1 and I2. Find out the current in the inductors for t > 0.
t=0 t=0

I1 I2
L1 i1(t) L2 i2(t)

Solution :
We can see that initially the inductors are charged with currents I1 and I2, now for t > 0, the switches are
moved and the circuit for t > 0 will be as shown in Fig. (a) and using Laplace transform we get circuit as
shown in Fig. (b).
i (t ) I (s )

sL1 sL2
L1 i1(t) L2 i2(t )

I1L1 I2L2

(a) (b)

I 2 L2 I1L1
Thus, I(s) =
s(L1 + L2 )

I 2 L2 I 1L1
Thus, i(t) = u(t )
(L1 + L2 )
 28 Network Theory

Thus, we can say that for t > 0,

I 1L1 I 2 L2
i1(t) = i(t ) =
L1 + L2

I L I L
i2(t) = i(t ) = 2 2 1 1
L1 + L2
Thus, we can see that current in the inductors will change instantaneously.

6.9 Behaviour of The Inductor at Steady-State and at Time of Switching

We know that current through inductor cannot change instantaneously (except when resistance seen by the
inductor is infinity where current through inductor change instantaneously) thus at time of switching that is just
after switching (t = 0+). The current through inductor will remain same as that of the current of the current by which
inductor is charged just before switching that is Io. Also at steady state that is time t = , the voltage and current are
constant in all the branches thus the voltage across the inductor should be zero, that is inductor is short circuited at
steady state.

Remember : If we want to solve the circuit just after switching i.e. at t = 0, the inductor will be replaced by
a current source of value equal to initial current stored in the inductor and at steady state we simply short-
circuit the inductor.

Example 6.22 : Find our the current through the inductor for t > 0 in the circuit shown below.
t=0 t=0

I1 R I2
L1 i1(t) L2 i2(t)

Solution :
We can see that initially the inductors are charged with current I1 and I2 and for t > 0 the circuit as shown in
the Fig. (a). For t = 0+, we can will replace the inductors with the current sources and we can find the voltage
across the resistor.

– –
L1 i1(t ) v (t ) R i2(t) L2 I1 v(0) R I2
+ +

(a) (b)

We can see that, v(0) = (I1 + I2) R

As we know that, the inductor will be short-circuited at steady state thus at steady state voltage across will
be zero and the time constant of the circuit will be = Leq/R. Here the two inductors are in parallel thus,

L1L2
Leq = .
L1 + L2

Thus, v(t) = v – (v – Vo) e–t/

v(t) = Vo e–t/ = (I1 + I2) Re–t/
 EC : THEORY BOOK 29

Now using the equation that, current through inductor is,

t
1
i(t) = Initial current + v(t ) dt
L
0

t
1
Thus, i1(t) = I1 v(t ) dt (Polarity of voltage across inductor)
L1
0

t
1 t/
= I1 + ( I1 + I 2 ) Re dt
L1
0

t
t/
= I1 + ( I1 + I 2 ) R ( e 1)
L1
0

Leq L1L2
Since, = =
R (L1 + L2 ) R

L2
i1(t) = I1 ( I 1 + I 2 ) (1 e t / )
L1 + L2
t
1
Similarly, i2(t) = I 2 v(t ) dt (Polarity of voltage across inductor)
L2
0

t
1 t/
= I 2 + L ( I 1 + I 2 )Re dt
2 0

t/
= I2 + ( I 1 + I 2 )R ( e 1)
L2

Leq L1L2
Since, = =
R (L1 + L2 ) R

L1
i2(t) = I 2 ( I1 + I 2 ) (1 e t / )
L1 + L2
Thus, we can get v(t), i1(t) and i2(t) for t > 0.

Example 6.23 : Find v(t) for t > 0.

t=0
10 k 10 k 20 k

+
20 V 10 k v(t) 6 mA
3H –

Solution :
We will use the concept
Variable (t) = Value of variable ( ) – (Value of variable ( ) – Value of variable (0)) e–t/
We will solve the circuit for t < 0 to find the initial charge on inductor (we will short-circuit the inductor in
this circuit),
30 Network Theory

10 k 10 k

20 V 3H 20 V Io

(a) (b)

20
Io = = 2 mA
10 k
Now we will solve the circuit at t = 0+ for this we will draw the circuit for t > 0 and we replace the inductor
by current source of Io. Thus we will get the following circuit at t > 0 [Fig. (c) and t = 0+ Fig. (d)].
10 k 20 k 10 k 20 k

+
3H 10 k 5 mA 2 mA v(0) 10 k 5 mA
–

(c) (d)

From [Fig. (d)] we can get that, v(0) = 3 mA × 10 k = 30 V

and now at t = , the circuit will be at steady state and the inductor will be short circuited [Fig. (e)].
10 k 2.5 mA 20 k

2.5 mA
+
v( ) 10 k 5 mA
–

(e)

By current division rule we can see that,

v( ) = 2.5 mA × 10 k = 25 V
To find the time constant we need to find the resistance seen by the inductor in the circuit of Fig. (c). For this
we remove all the independent sources and see the resistance seen by the inductor, we get 20 k .
L 3
Thus, = =
R 20000
Thus, v(t) = v – (vo – vo) e–t/
v(t) = 25 + 5e–20000t/3

Example 6.23 : Find v(t) for t > 0.

10 k A B B A

–
10 V 10 k v (t ) 3 mA
i1(t ) 2H 3H i2(t)
+
 EC : THEORY BOOK 31

Solution :
First of all we will draw the circuit for t < 0 and see the initial charge of the inductor Fig. (a). Now if we short-
circuit the inductor we can see that inductor of 2 H is charged with 1 mA and inductor of 3 H is charged with
3 mA. Now for t > 0 we draw the circuit for t > 0 in Fig. (b) and for t = 0+ we can replace the inductor with the
current source equal to initial charge on the inductor.
10 k

10 V 1 mA 2H 10 k 2H 3 mA 3 mA

(a)

2 mA
+ +
i1(t) 3H v (t ) 10 k i2(t ) 3H 1 mA v(0) 10 k 3 mA
– –

(b) (c)

Thus we can see that, v(0) = 2 mA × 10 k = 20 V

At t = , the inductors will be short circuited thus, v( ) will be zero, also we can see that, Leq = L1 L2 .

3× 2 6
Thus, Leq = = H
3+2 5
L 6
= =
R 50000
v(t) = v – (v – vo) e–t/
v(t) = 20 e–50000t/6
Now to find the current through the inductors we will use the equations,
t
1
i(t) = Initial current + v(t ) dt
L
0

t
1 50000t /6
i1(t) = I1 + 20 e dt
L1
0

t
3 1 50000t /6
= 1 × 10 + 20 e dt
2
0
i1(t) = [1 + 1.2(1 – e–50000t/6] × 10–3
t t
1 3 1 50000t /6
Similarly, i2(t) = I 2 + v(t ) dt = 3 × 10 + 20 e dt
L2 3
0 0
i2(t) = [–3 + 0.8(1 – e–50000t/6] × 10–3
 32 Network Theory

Practice Questions Q.6 The switch in figure has been closed for a long
time. It opens at t = 0. Find i(t) for t > 0.
Q.1 Find v(t) for t > 0 in the circuit of figure. Assume
i 1.5 H
the switch has been open for a long time and is
closed at t = 0. Calculate v(t) at t = 0.5.
t=0 5 t=0 10 6A
2 6

+
15 V v 1/3 F 7.5 V
– Q.7 Switch S1 in figure is closed at t = 0, and switch S2
is closed at t = 2s. Calculate i(t) for all t. Find i(1)
and i(3).
Q.2 The switch in figure is closed at t = 0. Find i(t) and t=2
v(t) for all time. Note that, u(–t) = 1 for t < 0 and 0
for t > 0. Also, u(–t) = 1 – u(t). S2
t=0
t=0 10
5 i
S1 20 i (t )

+ 6A 15 5H
20u(–t) V v 0.2 F 10 3A
–

Q.3 (a) Regarding the circuit of figure, determine the

voltage vC(t) for t > 0 if vC(0–) = 11 V.
(b) Is the circuit stable? Answers
1
1. (9.375 + 5.625 e–2t) V for all t > 0, 7.63 V
+ +
2 v1 1.5i1 vC 2 mF 0; t<0
– – 2. i (t ) = 1.5t
;
2 (1 + e ) A; t > 0

20 V ; t<0
Q.4 For the circuit of figure, find vC(t) at ‘t’ equal to: v(t ) = 1.5t
10(1 + e ) V; t > 0
(a) 0– (b) 0+ (c) (d) 0.08 s
iR 25 k 20 k
2 × 10 3 t /3
3. (a) vC (t ) = 11e V,

+
(b) Yes, it decays (exponentially) rather than
10u(t) V 5 µF vC(t) 1 mA 80 k grows with time.
–
4. (20 V, 20 V, 28 V, 24.4 V)

5. v(t) = (Vo – IoR) e–t/ + IoR, t > 0, where, = RC

Q.5 The switch in figure has been in position ‘b’ for a
long time. It is moved to position ‘a’ at t = 0. 6. (4 + 2e–10t) A for all t > 0
Determine v(t) for t > 0.
a t=0 0; t<0
7. i(t ) = 2(1 e 9t ) ; 0<t<2
b
5(t 2)
Io + 3.6 1.6 e ; t>2
R C v(t )
Vo i(1) = 1.9997 A, i(3) = 3.589 A
–
 EC : THEORY BOOK 33

Review Questions Q.5 For the circuit in figure, find io for t > 0.
t=0
Q.1 In the circuit shown in figure, 4 4H
v(t) = 56e–200t V, t>0
io
i(t) = 8e–200t mA, t>0
(a) Find the values of R and C. 24 V 4 8

(b) Calculate the time cosntant .

(c) Determine the time required for the voltage to
decay half its initial value at t = 0.
Q.6 In the circuit of figure,
i
10 3 t
v(t ) = 80 e V, t > 0

+ 103 t
R v C i(t ) = 5 e mA, t > 0
–
(a) Find R, L and
(b) Calculate the energy dissipated in the
resistance for 0 < t < 0.5 ms.
Q.2 Determine the time constant for the circuit in i
figure.
10 k 20 k +
R v L
–

100 pF 40 k 30 k
Q.7 Find the time constant for each of the circuits in
figure.
10
Q.3 Assuming that the switch in figure has been in
position ‘A’ for a long time and is moved to 40 48
position ‘B’ at t = 0. Then at t = 1 second, the
40 160
switch moves from B to C. Find vC(t) for t 0.
2 5H
20 mH
10 k A

B C
(a) (b)
2 mF
12 V
500 k 1k Q.8 Consider the circuit of figure. Find vo(t) if i(0) = 6 A
and v(t) = 0.

1
Q.4 The switch in figure opens at t = 0. Find vo for +
t > 0. 3
2k t=0
v(t ) i (t ) v o (t )

+ 1/4 H
6V vo 4k 3 mF
– –
 34 Network Theory

Q.9 In the circuit of figure, find i(t) for t > 0 if i(0) = 6 A. 20 k 10 k

i 6H
+
vs 40 k vo 3 µF
–
10 0.5i 40

Q.14 If the waveform in Fig. (a) is applied to the circuit

Q.10 Consider the circuit in figure. Given that, of Fig. (b), find v(t). Assume v(0) = 0.
vo(0) = 10 V, find vo and vx for t > 0. is(A)

3
2

+ +
1 vx 1/3 H 2 vo
– – t (s )
0 1
(a)

6
Q.11 Calculate the capacitor voltage for t < 0 and t > 0
for each of the circuits in figure.
+
4 is 4 v 0.5 F
–

1
+ (b)
20 V v 2F
– Q.15 Determine the inductor current i(t) for both t < 0
t=0
and t > 0 for each of the circuits in figure.
3 2
(a)
i
2F
25 V t=0 4H
+ v –

12 V t=0 4 2A
(a)

t=0

i
3 (b)
6A 4 2 3H
Q.12 Consider the circuit in figure. Find i(t) for t < 0
and t > 0.
(b)
t=0
40 30
Q.16 Find v(t) for t < 0 and t > 0 in the circuit of figure.
i
io 0.5 H
80 V 3F 0.5i 50 t=0

3
8 +
+ 4io v 2
–
–
Q.13 Find vo in the circuit of figure, when vs = 30u(t) V. 24 V 20 V
(Assume that, vo(0) = 5 V).
 EC : THEORY BOOK 35

Q.17 Find i1(t) and i2(t) for t > 0 in the circuit of figure. Answers :
i1 i2 1. (a) 0.7143 µF (b) 5 ms (c) 3.466 ms

5 20 2. (3.222 µs)
5A 6 t=0
3. (12e–t Volts for 0 < t < 1sec, 4.415 e–2(t – 1) Volts
2.5 H 4H
for 1 sec < t <

4. (4e–t/12 V)
Q.18 In the circuit in figure, is changes from 5 A to 10 A
5. (1.2e–3t A)
at t = 0; that is, is = 5u(–t) + 10 u(t). Find ‘v’ and ‘i’.
6. (a) 16 k , 16 H, 1 ms (b) 126.42 µJ
i
7. (a) 10 , 500 ms (b) 40 , 250 µs
+
is 4 v 0.5 H
8. –6e–16t u(t) V
–
9. 6e–5t u(t) A

10. (10e–4t V, t > 0, 2.5e–4t V, t > 0)

Q.19 Obtain v(t) and i(t) in the circuit of figure.
11. (a) 4 V, t < 0, 20 – 16e–t/8, t > 0
5 i
(b) 4 V, t < 0, 12 – 8e–t/6 V, t > 0

+ 12. 0.8 A, 0.8e–t/480 u(t) A

10u(–t) V 20 v 0.5 H
– 13. [20 – 15e–14.286t ] u(t) V

8(1 e t /5 ) V; 0<t<1
Q.20 If the input pulse in Fig. (a) is applied to the circuit 14.
1.45 e (t 1)/5 V; t>1
in Fig. (b), determine the response i(t).
vs(V) 15. (a) 5 A, 5e–t/2 u(t) A (b) 6 A, 6e–2t/3 u(t) A

16. 96 V, 96e–4t u(t) V

10
17. 2.4e–2t u(t) A, 600e–5t u(t) mA

18. 20e–8t u(t) V, (10 – 5e–8t) u(t) A

t (s )
0 1
(a) 19. 2e–8t u(t) A, –8e–8t u(t) V

5 2t
2(1 e ) A; 0<t<1
i
20. 2( t 1)
1.729 e A; t>1

vs 20 2H

(b)
 8
Chapter
Phasors and Sinusoidal
Steady State Response

8.1 Introduction
Thus far our analysis has been limited for the most part to dc circuits. Those circuits excited by constant or
time-invariant sources. We now begin the analysis of circuits in which the source voltage or current is time varying.
In this chapter, we are particularly interested in sinusoidally time varying excitation, or simply, excitation by a
sinusoid.

Note : A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of the sine or cosine function.

A sinusoidal current is usually referred to as alternating current (AC). Such a current reverses at regular time
intervals and has alternately positive and negative values. Circuits driven by sinusoidal current or voltage sources
are called ac circuits.

8.2 Sinusoids
Consider the sinusoidal voltage,
v(t) = Vm sin t ...(8.1)
where, Vm = the amplitude of the sinusoid
= the angular frequency in radians/sec
t = the argument of the sinusoid
The sinusoid is shown in Fig. 8.1 (a) as a function of its argument and in Fig. 8.1 (b) as a function of time. It is
evident that the sinusoid repeats itself every ‘T’ seconds. Thus, ‘T’ is called the period of the sinusoid. From the two
plots in Fig. 8.1, we observe that, t = 2 ,
2
T= ...(8.2)

v(t )

Vm

0 t
2 3 4
–Vm
(a)

v(t)

Vm

0 t
T/2 T 3T/2 2T
–Vm
(b)

Fig. 8.1 : A sketch of Vm sin t (a) as a function of t (b) as a function of t

 2 Network Theory

A sinusoid can be expressed in either sine or cosine form. When comparing two sinusoids, it is expedient to
express both as either sine or cosine with positive amplitudes. This is achieved by using the following trigonometric
identities:
sin(A ± B) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B
cos(A ± B) = cos A cos B sin A sin B
With these identities, it is easy to show that,
sin( t ± 180°) = – sin t
cos( t ± 180°) = – cos t
sin( t ± 90°) = ± cos t
cos( t ± 90°) = sin t
Using these relationship, we can transform a sinusoid from sine form to cosine form or vice-versa.

8.3 Phasors
Sinusoids are easily expressed in terms of phasors, which are more convenient to work with than sine and
cosine functions. A phasor is a complex number that represents the amplitude and phase of a sinusoid.
Phasors provide a simple means of analyzing linear circuits excited by sinusoidal sources, solutions of such
circuits would be intractable otherwise. A complex number ‘z’ can be written in rectangular form as:
z = x + jy

where, j = 1; x is the real part of z, y is the imaginary part of z. In this context, the variables x and y do not
represent a location as in two-dimensional vector analysis but rather the real and imaginary parts of z in the complex
plane. Nevertheless, we note that there are some resemblances between manipulating complex numbers and
manipulating two-dimensional vectors. The complex number z can also be written in polar or exponential form as:
z=r = r ej
where, r is the magnitude of z, and is the phase of z. We notice that, z can be represented in the three ways:
z = x + jy (Rectangular form)
z=r (Polar form)
z= re j (Exponential form)
The relationship between the rectangular form and the polar form is shown in Fig. 8.2, where the x-axis
represents the real part and the y-axis represents the imaginary part of a complex number. Given x and y, we can get
r and as: Imginary axis
1 y z
r= x2 + y 2 ; = tan
x
2j
On the other hand, if we know r and f, we can obtain x and y as, r y
j
x = r cos ; y = r sin
Thus, z may be written as, z = x + jy = r = r(cos + j sin ) 0 x Real axis

Addition and subtraction of complex numbers are better performed in –j

rectangular form, multiplication and division are better done in polar form. –2j
Given the complex numbers, Fig. 8.2
Representation of a complex number
z = x + jy = r ; z1 = x1 + jy1 = r1 1; z2 = x2 + jy2 = r2 2
z = x + jy = r
The following operations are important:
Addition : z1 + z2 = (x1 + x2) + j(y1 + y2)
Subtraction : z1 – z2 = (x1 – x2) + j(y1 – y2)
 EC : THEORY BOOK 3

Multiplication : z 1z 2 =

z1
Division : =
z2

1 1
Reciprocal : =
z r

Square root : z = r
2
Complex Conjugate : z = x – jy = r – = re–j
1
Note that, = –j
j
While writing any sinusoidal signal in phasor format we always take cosine as reference and thus to get the
phasor corresponding to a sinusoidal, we first express the sinusoid in the cosine format.
The phasor format is as follows:
v(t) = Vm cos( t + t ) V = Vm
(Time domain (Phasor domain
representation) representation)

Sinusoid-Phasor Transformation

Time domain Phasor domain

representation representation
Vm cos( t + ) Vm
Vm sin( t + ) Vm – 90°
Im cos( t + ) Im
Im sin( t + ) Im – 90°

1. 4 cos( t + 50°) : This signal can be written as 4 50°. This can be shown as follows:

Img
4 50°

50°
Re

2. 5 cos(( t – 60°) : This signal can be shown as 5 –60° in phasor format,

Img

Re
–60°

5 –60°

Phasor
Let, v(t) = Vm cos( t + ) Vm

dv(t ) Phasor
Now, = Vm sin( t + ) Vm 90° = j Vm
dt
4 Network Theory

This shows that the derivative v(t) is transformed to the phasor domain as j V,
dv
j V
dt (Phasor domain)
(Time domain)

Similarly, the integral of v(t) is transformed to the phasor domain as V/j ,

v dt V/j
(Time domain) (Phasor domain)

Example 8.1 : Transform these sinusoids to phasors:

(a) i = 6 cos(50t – 40°) A (b) v = –4 sin(30t + 50°) V
Solution :
(a) i = 6 cos(50t – 40°) A has the phasor,
I = 6 –40° A
(b) Since, –sin A = cos(A + 90°)
v = –4 sin(30t + 50°)
= 4 cos(30t + 50° + 90°)
= 4 cos(30t + 140°) V
The phasor form of v is, V = 4 140° V

Example 8.2 : Find the sinusoids represented by these phasors:

(a) I = –3 + j4 A (b) V = j8e–j20° V
Solution :
(a) I = –3 + j4 = 5 126.87°
Transforming this to the time domain gives,
i(t) = 5 cos( t + 126.87°) A
(b) Since, j = 1 90°
V = j8 –20° = (1 90°)8 –20°)
= 8 90° – 20° = 8 70° V
Converting this to the time domain gives,
v(t) = 8 cos( t + 70°) V

Example 8.3 : Given: i1(t) = 4 cos( t + 30°) A and i2(t) = 5 sin( t – 20°) A, find their sum.
Solution :
Here is an important use of phasors for summing sinusoids of the same frequency. Current, i1(t) is in the
standard form.
Its phasor is, I1 = 4 30°
We need to express i2(t) in cosine form. The rule for converting sine to cosine is to subtract 90°.
Hence, i 2 = 5 cos( t – 20° – 90°) = 5 cos( t – 110°)
and its phasor is, I2 = 5 –110°
If we let, i = i1 + i2
then, I = I1 + I2 = 4 30° + 5 –110°
= 3.464 + j2 – 1.71 – j4.698 = 1.754 – j2.698
= 3.218 –56.97° A
Transforming this to the time domain, we get,
i(t) = 3.218 cos( t – 56.97°) A
 EC : THEORY BOOK 5

8.4 Phasor Relationships for Circuit Elements

Now that we know how to represent a voltage or current in the phasor or frequency domain, one may
legitimately ask how we apply this to circuits involving the passive elements R, L and C. What we need to do is to
transform the voltage-current relationship from the time domain to the frequency domain for each element. Again,
we will assume the passive sign convention.

i I
+ +

v R V R

– –
v = iR V = IR
(a) (b)

Fig. 8.3 : Voltage-current relations for a resistor in the

(a) time domain (b) frequency domain

We being with the resistor. If the current through a resistor R is i = Im cos( t + ), the voltage across it is given
by Ohm’s law as,
v = iR = RIm cos( t + ) Img
V
The phasor form of this voltage is,
V = RIm
But the phasor representation of the current is, I

I = Im
Hence, V = RI 0 Re
Showing that the voltage-current relation for the resistor in the phasor Fig. 8.4
Phasor diagram for the resistor
domain continues to be Ohm’s law, as in the time domain.
Fig. 8.3 illustrates the voltage-current relations of a resistor. We should note that voltage and current are in
phase, as illustrated in the phasor diagram in Fig. 8.4.
For the inductor L, assume the current through it is i = Im cos( t + ). The voltage across the inductor is,
di
v = L = L I m sin( t + ) i I
dt + +
We can write the voltage as, v = LIm cos( t + + 90°)
which transforms to the phasor, v L V L
V = L Im e j( + 90°)
= L Im e j e j90°
– –
= LIm + 90° di V = j LI
v=L
But, Im =I dt (b)
(a)
Thus, V = j LI Fig. 8.5
Voltage-current relations for an inductor in the
Showing that the voltage has a magnitude of LIm and a phase of
(a) time domain (b) frequency domain
+ 90°. The voltage and current are 90° out of phase.
Specifically, the current lags the voltage by 90°. Fig. 8.5 shows the voltage-current relations for the inductor.
Fig. 8.6 shows the phasor diagram.
 6 Network Theory

Img

V
I

Re
0
Fig. 8.6 : Phasor diagram for the inductor I lags V

For the capacitor C, assume the voltage across it is v = Vm cos( t + ). The current through the capacitor is,
dv
i = C
dt
By following the same steps as we took for the inductor we obtain,
I
I = j CV V=
j C

i I
+ +

v C V C

– –
dv I = j CV
i=C
dt (b)
(a)

Fig. 8.7 : Voltage-current relations for a capacitor in the

(a) time domain (b) frequency domain

Img

I
V

Re
0
Fig. 8.8 : Phasor diagram for the capacitor I leads V

Showing that the current and voltage are 90° out of phase. To be specific, the current leads the voltage by 90°.
Fig. 8.7 shows the voltage-current relations for the capacitor; Fig. 8.8 gives the phasor diagram.

Note : Summary of voltage-current relationships.

Element Time domain Frequency domain

R v = Ri V = RI

L di V = j LI
v=L
dt

C dv I
i =C V=
dt j C
 EC : THEORY BOOK 7

8.5 Impedance and Admittance

In the preceding section, we obtained the voltage-current relations for the three passive elements as,
I
V = RI, V = j LI, V=
j C
These equations may be written in terms of the ratio of the phasor voltage to the phasor current as,
V V V 1
= R, = j L, =
I I I j C
From these three expressions, we obtain Ohm’s law in phasor form for any type of element as,
V
Z= or V = ZI
I
where Z is a frequency dependent quantity known as impedance, measured in ohms.

Note : The impedance Z of a circuit is the ratio of the phasor voltage V to the phasor current I, measured in
ohms ( ).

Note : Impedances and admittances of passive elements.

Element Impedance Admittance

1
R Z=R Y=
R
1
L Z=j L Y=
j L
1
C Z= Y=j C
j C

As a complex quantity, the impedance may be expressed in rectangular form as,

Z = R + jX
where, R = Re Z is the resistance and X = Im Z is the reactance. The reactance X may be positive or negative.
We say that the impedance is inductive when X is positive or capacitive when X is negative. Thus, impedance
Z = R + jX is said to be inductive or lagging since current lags voltage, while impedance. Z = R – jX is capacitive or
leading because current leads voltage. The impedance, resistance, and reactance are all measured in ohms. The
impedance may also be expressed in polar form as,
Z= Z

Z = R + jX = Z
X
where, Z = R2 + X 2 ; = tan 1
R
and R = Z cos ; X = Z sin
It is sometimes convenient to work with the reciprocal of impedance, known as admittance. The admittance
Y is the reciprocal of impedance, measured in Siemens(S). The admittance Y of an element (or a circuit) is the ratio of
the phasor current through it to the phasor voltage across it, or
1 I
Y= =
Z V
As a complex quantity, we may write Y as,
Y = G + jB
where, G = Re Y is called the conductance and B = Im Y is called the susceptance.
 8 Network Theory

Example 8.4 : Find v(t) and i(t) in the circuit shown in figure.

i 5

+
vs = 10 cos4t 0.1 F v
–

Solution :
From the voltage source 10 cos4t, = 4,
Vs = 10 0° V
1 1
The impedance is, Z = 5+ = 5+ = 5 j 2.5
j C j 4 × 0.1

Vs 10 0° 10(5 + j 2.5)
Hence the current, I= = = 2
Z 5 j 2.5 5 + 2.52
I 1.789 26.57 °
The voltage across the capacitor is, V = IZC = =
j C j 4 × 0.1

1.789 26.57°
= = 4.47 63.43° V
0.4 90°
Converting I and V to the time domain, we get,
i(t) = 1.789 cos(4t + 26.57°) A
v(t) = 4.47 cos(4t + 63.43°) V
Notice that, i(t) leads v(t) by 90° as expected.

8.7 Kirchhoff’s Laws in the Frequency Domain

We cannot do circuit analysis in the frequency domain without Kirchhoff’s current and voltage laws. Therefore,
we need to express them in the frequency domain.
For KVL, let v1, v2,...., vn be the voltages around a closed-loop.
Then, v1 + v2 + ... + vn = 0
V1 + V2 + ... + Vn = 0
Indicating that Kirchhoff’s voltage law holds for phasors.
By following a similar procedure, we can show that Kirchhoff’s current law holds for phasors. If we let
i1, i2, ..., in be the current leaving or entering a closed surface in a network at time t, then,
i1 + i2 + ... + in = 0
If I1, I2, ..., In are the phasor forms of the sinusoids i1, i2, ..., in, then,
I1 + I2 + ... + In = 0
which is Kirchhoff’s current law in the frequency domain.
The KVL is also valid in phasors so sum of all voltage phasors around a closed-loop is zero.

8.8 Impedance Combinations

Consider the N series connected impedances shown in Fig. 8.10. The same current I flows through the
impedances. Applying KVL around the loop gives,
V = V1 + V2 + ... + VN = I(Z1 + Z2 + ... + ZN)
 EC : THEORY BOOK 9

I Z1 Z2 ZN

+ V1 – + V2 – + VN –
+
V
–

Zeq

Fig. 8.10 : N impedance in series

The equivalent impedance at the input terminals is,

V
Zeq = = Z1 + Z2 + ... + ZN
I
or, Zeq = Z1 + Z2 + ... + ZN
If N = 2, as shown in Fig. 8.11, the current through the impedances is, Z1
I
V + V1 –
I=
Z1 + Z2 + +
V Z2 V2
Since, V1 = Z1I and V2 = Z2 I
– –
Z1 Z2
then, V1 = V ; V2 = V
Z1 + Z2 Z1 + Z2 Fig. 8.11 : Voltage division
which is the voltage division relationship.
In the same manner, we can obtain the equivalent impedance or admittance of the N parallel connected
impedances shown in Fig. 8.12. The voltage across each impedance is the same. Applying KCL at the top node,

1 1 1
I = I1 + I 2 + ... + I N = V + + ... +
Z1 Z2 ZN

+ I1 I2 IN

I V Z1 Z2 ZN

Zeq

Fig. 8.12 : N impedances in parallel

The equivalent impedance is,

1
=
Zeq

and the equivalent admittance is,

Yeq = Y1 + Y2 + ... YN
This indicates that the equivalent admittance of a parallel connection of admittances is the sum of the individual
admittances.
 10 Network Theory

When N = 2, as shown in Fig. 8.13, the equivalent impedance becomes,

1 1 1 Z Z
Zeq = = = = 1 2 + I1 I2
Yeq Y1 + Y2 1 1 Z1 + Z2
+
Z1 Z2
I V Z1 Z2
The current in the impedances are,
Z2 Z1 –
I1 = I, I2 = I
Z1 + Z2 Z1 + Z2
Fig. 8.13 : Current division
which is the current division principle.
The delta-to-wye and wye-to-delta transformations that we applied to resistive circuits are also valid for
impedances. With reference to Fig. 8.14, the conversion formulas are as follows:
Z1Z2 + Z2 Z3 + Z3 Z1 Zc
Y- Conversions: Za =
Z1 a b

Z1 Z2
Z1Z2 + Z2 Z3 + Z3 Z1
Zb =
Z2
n
Z1Z2 + Z2 Z3 + Z3 Z1
Zc = Zb Za
Z3
Z3
Zb Zc
-Y Conversions: Z1 = ;
Za + Zb + Zc

Zc Za c
Z2 = ; Fig. 8.14 : Super-imposed Y and networks
Za + Zb + Zc

Za Zb
Z3 =
Za + Zb + Zc

Example 8.5 : Find the input impedance of the circuit in figure. Assume that the circuit operates at
= 50 rad/s.

2 mF 0.2 H

Zin 3
8

10 mF

Solution :
Let, Z 1 = Impedance of the 2 mF capacitor
Z 2 = Impedance of the 3 resistor in series with the 10 mF capacitor
Z 3 = Impedance of the 0.2 H inductor in series with the 8 resistor
1 1
Then, Z1 = = = j 10
j C j 50 × 2 × 10 3

1 1
Z2 = 3 + = 3+ =
j C j 50 × 2 × 10 3
Z 3 = 8 + j L = 8 + j50 × 0.2 = (8 + j10)
 EC : THEORY BOOK 11

The input impedance is,

(3 j 2) (8 + j10)
Zin = Z1 + Z2 Z3 = j 10 +
11 + j 8
(44 + j 14) (11 j 8)
= j 10 + = j 10 + 3.22 j 1.07
112 + 82
Thus, Zin = 3.22 – j11.07

8.8 Phasor Diagrams

The phasor diagram is name given to a sketch in the complex plane showing the relationships of the phasor
voltages and phasor currents throughout a specific circuit. Since phasor voltages and currents are complex numbers,
they may also be identified as points in a complex plane. For example, the phasor voltage, V1 = 6 + j8 = 10 53.1° V
is identified on the complex voltage plane shown in Fig. 8.16. The x-axis is the real voltage axis, and the y-axis is the
imaginary voltage axis, the voltage V1 is located by an arrow drawn from the origin. Since addition and subtraction
are particularly easy to perform and display on a complex plane, phasors may be easily added and subtracted in a
phasor diagram. Multiplication and division result in the addition and subtraction of angles and a change of
amplitude. [Fig. 8.17(a)] shows the sum of V1 and a second phasor voltage, V2 = 3 – j4 = 5 53.1° V and [Fig. 8.17(b)]
shows the current I1, which is the product of V1 and the admittance, Y = 1 + j1 S.
Img axis (V)

j8
V1

10

53.1°
Re axis (V)
6
Fig. 8.16 : A simple phasor diagram shows the single voltage phasor
V1 = 6 + j8 = 10 53.1° V

V1

V1
V1 + V2
I 1 = (1 + j 1) V1 45°
= ( 2 45°) V1

V2 (b)
(a)
Fig. 8.17 : (a) A phasor diagram showing the sum of
V1 = 6 + j8 V and V2 = 3 – j4 V, V1 + V2 = 9 + j4 V = 9.85 24.0° V
(b) The phasor diagram shows V1 and I1, where I1 = YV1 and Y = (1 + j1) S = 2 45° S
The current and voltage amplitude scales are different
 12 Network Theory

8.8.1 Phasor of RC Series Circuit

A circuit that contains pure resistance R ohms connected in series with I R C

a pure capacitor of capacitance C Farads is known as RC series circuit.

A sinusoidal voltage is applied and current I flows through the resistance (R) VR VC
and the capacitance (C) of the circuit. The RC series circuit is shown in the figure
below Fig. 8.18. V
where,
• VR – voltage across the resistance R
v = Vm sin t
• VC – voltage across capacitor C
Fig. 8.18
• V – total voltage across the RC series circuit
In the circuit we can see that impedance of the circuit is,

2
1 1 1
Z = R+ = R2 + tan 1
j C C CR

Z= Z
Thus we can see that since the angle of Z is negative thus the current will lead the voltage. Taking voltage
supply as reference thus voltage, Vm sin t is written as Vm 0° in phasor.
Thus phasor of current will be
V Vm 0° Vm
I= = =
Z Z Z
The impedance triangle and the phasor diagram of the circuit is shown below in the Fig. 8.19.

Img axis
VR

Img axis
I

R Vm 0°
Real axis Real axis
–

–j/ C
Z
(a) VC
(b)

Fig. 8.19 : (a) The impedance triangle (b) The phasor diagram

We can see that the current lead the voltage, the voltage across the resistor will be in phase with the current.
Thus we can see that current I and VR are in the same phase, but the capacitor voltage lag current by 90° thus VC lag
current I and VR by 90°.
By KVL, V = VC + VR
and since VC and VR are perpendicular to each other.

Thus, V = VC2 + VR2 Vm = VC2 + VR2

8.8.2 Phasor of RL Series Circuit

A circuit that contains a pure resistance R (ohms) connected in series with a coil having a pure inductance of
L (Henry) is known as RL series circuit. When an ac supply voltage V is applied, the current I, flows in the circuit.
 EC : THEORY BOOK 13

So, IR and IL will be the current flowing in the resistor and inductor respectively, but the amount of current
flowing through both the elements will be same as they are connected in series with each other. The circuit diagram
of RL series circuit is shown below. I R L
where,
• VR – voltage across the resistor R VR VL
• – voltage across inductor L
• V – total voltage of the circuit V

In the circuit we can see that impedance of the circuit is

2 2 L v = Vm sin t
Z = R + j L = R + ( L) tan 1
R Fig. 8.20

Z=
Thus we can see that, since the angle of Z is positive thus the current will lag the voltage. Taking voltage
supply as reference thus voltage Vm sin t is Vm 0°.
V Vm 0° Vm
Thus, current phasor will be, I= = =
Z Z Z
The impedance triangle and the phasor diagram of the circuit is shown below in the Fig. 8.21.

Img axis
VL

Img axis

j L Z

Vm 0°
Real axis
R –
Real axis

I
(a)
VR
(b)

Fig. 8.21 : (a) the impedance triangle (b) the phasor diagram

We can see that the current lag the voltage, the voltage across the resistor will be in phase with the current.
Thus we can see that current I and VR are in the same phase, but the inductor voltage lead current by 90° thus VL lead
current I and VR by 90°.
By KVL, V = VL + VR
and since VL and VR are perpendicular to each other.

Thus, V = VL2 + VR2 Vm = VL2 + VR2

8.8.3 Phasor of RLC Series Circuit

When a pure resistance of R (ohms), a pure inductance of L (Henry) and a pure capacitance of C (Farads) are
connected together in series combination with each other then RLC series circuit is formed. As all the three elements
are connected in series so, the current flowing through each element of the circuit will be the same as the total
current I flowing in the circuit. Consider the circuit shown in the Fig. 8.22.
 14 Network Theory

I R L C

VR VL VC

v = Vm sin t

Fig. 8.22 : RLC series circuit

1
In the RLC series circuit, XL = 2 fL and XC =
2 fC
When the AC voltage is applied through the RLC series circuit the resulting current I flows through the
circuit, and thus the voltage across the each element will be
• VR = IR that is the voltage across the resistance R and is in phase with the current I.
• VL = IXL that is the voltage across the inductance L and it leads the current I by an angle of 90 degrees.
• VC = IXC that is the voltage across capacitor C and it lags the current I by an angle of 90 degrees.
In the circuit we can see that impedance of the circuit is,
1
Z = R+ j L+
j C

1
Z = R+ j L = R + j( XL XC )
C
The three cases of RLC series circuit:
• When XL > XC , the phase angle is positive. The circuit behaves as RL series circuit in which the current
lags behind the applied voltage and the power factor is lagging.
• When XL < XC, the phase angle is negative, and the circuit acts as a series RC circuit in which the current
leads the voltage by 90 degrees.
• When XL = XC, the phase angle is zero, as a result, the circuit behaves like a purely resistive circuit. In this
type of circuit, the current and voltage are in phase with each other. The value of the power factor is unity.
The impedance triangle of the series RLC circuit is as follows Fig. 8.23.

jXL
Z jXL jXL

R Z=R
– R
R

Z
–jXC –jXC –jXC

(a) (b) (c)

Z = R + j(XL – XC); Z = R – j(XC – XL); Z=R
XL > XC XC > XL Here, XL = XC
Inductor circuit Capacitor circuit Resistive circuit

Fig. 8.23 : Impedance triangle of the series RLC circuit

 EC : THEORY BOOK 15

The phasor of series RLC circuit can have three cases:

Case-1 : When the circuit is inductive then the current will lag the voltage, let the supply voltage is the
reference. The voltage across the resistor VR is in phase with the current, VL will lead current by 90° and VC will lag

current by 90°. Since, XL > XC thus, VL > VC , the phasor is shown in the [Fig. 8.24(a)] and its resultant is shown in
[Fig. 8.24(b)] show the resultant phasor as VC and VL oppose each other. Thus, finally we can say that VR and VL – VC
are perpendicular to each other.

Thus, Vm = VR2 + (VL VC )2

Img axis VL Img axis

VL – VC

Real axis Real axis

– Vm 0° – Vm 0°

VC
I I
VR VR

(a) (b)

Fig. 8.24

Case-2 : When the circuit is capacitive then the current will lead the voltage, let the supply voltage is the
reference. The voltage across the resistor VR is in phase with the current, VL lead current by 90° and VC will lag

current by 90°. Since, XC > XL thus VC > VL the phasor is shown in the [Fig. 8.25(a)] and its resultant is shown in
[Fig. 8.25(b)] show the resultant phasor as VC and VL oppose each other thus finally we can say that, VR and VC – VL
are perpendicular to each other.

Thus, Vm = VR2 + (VC VL )2

Img axis VR Img axis

VR

VL
I

Real axis Real axis

Vm 0° Vm 0°

VC – VL
VC

(a) (b)

Fig. 8.25

Case-3 : When the circuit is resistive then the current will be in phase with the voltage, let the supply voltage
is the reference. The voltage across the resistor VR is in phase with the current, VL will lead current by 90° and VC will

lag current by 90°. Since, XL = XC . Thus, VL = VC , the phasor is shown in the [Fig. 8.26(a)] and its resultant in
shown in [Fig. 8.26(b)] show the resultant phasor as VC and VL oppose each other. Thus finally we can say that,
Vm = VR .
 16 Network Theory

Img axis Img axis

VL

VR = Vm VR = Vm
Real axis Real axis
I Vm 0° I Vm 0°

VC
(a) (b)

Fig. 8.26

8.8.4 RL Parallel Circuit

In RL parallel circuit resistor and inductor are connected in parallel with each other and this combination is
supplied by a current source, Vin. Since, the resistor and inductor are connected in parallel, they have equal voltage
across each other but the currents flowing in resistor and inductor are different.
Let us say:
I1a = the current source IR IL

IR = the current flowing in the resistor branch in amperes Iin Vin R L

IL = the current flowing in the inductor branch in amperes.
= angle between IR and Iin.
2 Fig. 8.27
1 1 1 1 1 R
Here, Y = + = 2
+ tan
R j L R L L
Y = Y
I in
Thus, Vin =
Y
Im
So, Vin =
Y
Thus, voltage lead current, thus the phasor diagram of the circuit with input current as reference:
Img axis

Vin
IR

Real axis
Im 0°

IL

Fig. 8.28

We can see that, KCL is valid in the circuit thus,

Iin = IL + IR
Since, IL and IR are perpendicular thus,

Im = IL2 + I R2
 EC : THEORY BOOK 17

8.8.5 RC Parallel Circuit

In RC parallel circuit resistor and capacitor are connected in parallel with each other and this combination is
supplied by a current source, Vin. Since the resistor and capacitor are connected in parallel, they have equal voltage
across each other, the currents flowing in resistor and inductor are different.
Let us say:
IR IC
I1a = the current source
IR = the current flowing in the resistor branch in amperes Iin Vin R C
IL = the current flowing in the inductor branch in amperes
= angle between IR and Iin

1 1 Fig. 8.29
Here, Y = +j C= 2
+ ( C )2
R R

Y = Y

I in
Thus, Vin =
Y
Im
So, Vin =
Y
Img axis
Thus voltage lag current, thus the phasor diagram of the circuit
with input current as reference: IC

We can see that, KCL is valid in the circuit thus,

Iin = IC + IR
Real axis
Since, IC and IR are perpendicular thus, – Im 0°

Im = IC2 + I R2 IR Vin

8.8.6 RLC Parallel Circuit Fig. 8.30

In the parallel RLC circuit, we can see that the supply current, Is is connected but voltage is same to all three
components. The current flowing through the resistor IR, the current flowing through the inductor IL , and the current
through the capacitor IC . But the current flowing through each branch and therefore each component will be different
to each other and also to the supply current, Is. The total current drawn from the supply will not be the mathematical
sum of the three individual branch currents but their vector sum. The phasor diagram for a parallel RLC circuit is
produced by combining together the three individual phasors for each component and adding the currents vectorially.
Is A
+
IR IL IL

Is Vs R L C

Fig. 8.31

Here, Y=
1
+
1
R j L
1
+j C= +j
R { C
1
L }
18 Network Theory

Now here we have three cases:

1
1. Case-1 : When C> then the circuit is capacitive in nature.
L
1
2. Case-2 : When C< then the circuit is inductive in nature.
L
1
3. Case-3 : When C= then the circuit is resistive in nature.
L
The phasor of the circuit in these three cases are as follows:
1
Case-1 : Here C> thus,
L

2
1 1 1 1 1 1
Y= +j C = 2
+ C tan R C
R L R L L

s
Thus, Vs =
Y
Thus voltage will lag current.
Vs
Since, IC = = Vs C
ZC

Vs V
and IL = = s
ZL L

Vs
and IR =
R
Now taking current as reference we will draw the phasor of the circuit, here the capacitor current will be
greater than the inductor current and voltage will lag current. Thus the phasor will be as follows:

Img axis Img axis

IC IC – IL

Real axis Real axis

Is 0° Is 0°

IL
IR IR
Vs Vs

(a) (b)

Fig. 8.32

Thus we can see that, Is = I R2 + ( IC IL )2

1
Case-2 : Here C< thus,
L
2
1 1 1 1 1 1
Y= j C = 2
+ C tan R C
R L R L L
Is
Thus, Vs =
Y
 EC : THEORY BOOK 19

Thus voltage will lead current.

Vs
Since, IC = = Vs C
ZC

Vs V
and IL = = s
ZL L

Vs
and IR =
R
Now taking current as reference we will draw the phasor of the circuit, here the inductor current will be
greater than the capacitor current and voltage will lead current.
Thus the phasor will be as follows:

Img axis Img axis

Vs VR

IC
IR IR

Real axis Real axis

Is 0° Is 0°

IL – IC
IL

(a) (b)

Fig. 8.33

Thus we can see that, Is = I R2 + ( IL IC )2

1
Case-3 : Here C= thus,
L
1 1 1
Y= j C =
R L R
Is
Thus, Vs =
Y
Thus voltage will be in phase with current.
Vs = Is R
Vs
Since, IC = = Vs C
ZC

Vs V
and IL = = s
ZL L

Vs
and = Is
IR =
R
Now taking current as reference we will draw the phasor of the circuit, here we can see that, the resistor
current is same as the supply current and thus the inductor current and capacitor current will be of equal
magnitude but opposite sign.
20 Network Theory

Thus the phasor will be as follows:

Img axis Img axis

IC

Is = IR Is = IR
Real axis Real axis
Is 0° Vs Is 0° Vs

IL
(a) (b)

Fig. 8.34

Thus we can see that, Is = IR

Example 8.6 : A series RLC circuit is excited with a 50 V, 50 Hz sinusoidal source. The voltages across
the resistance and the capacitance are shown in the figure. The voltage across the inductor (VL) is ____ V.
R L C

VR = 50 V VL = ? VC = 50 V

50 V,
50 Hz

Solution :
We can see that this is the series RLC circuit and here using KVL we get the,
Vsupply = VR + VL + VC

50 = VR2 + (VL VC )2

50 = 502 + (VL VC )2
Thus, VL – VC = 0
Thus magnitude of VL = VC = 50
Also, VL = 50 V

Example 8.7 : For the network shown, if the current i(t ) = 2 sin(ωt - 30°), then what is the value of R?

R j1

i(t)

V 0°
(a) 1 (b) 3
(c) 3Ω (d) 3 3 Ω
 EC : THEORY BOOK 21

Solution :

Here we can see that the supply has zero phase and current is equal to 2 30° , thus we can see that the
impedance angle will be 30°.
1
Thus, Z = R + j 1 = R 2 + 1 tan 1
R
1
Thus, tan 1 = 30°
R
1 1
tan 30° = = R= 3
3 R

Example 8.8 : Three currents i1, i2 and i3 meet a a node as shown in the figure below. If i1 = 3 cos( t) A,
i2 = 4 sin( t) A and i3 = I3 cos( t + ) A, the value of I3 in ampere is _______ .
i1 i2

i3

Solution :
This question can be solved by simply applying KCL, we get that,
i1 + i2 = i 3
But here the addition has to be done in phasor form,
i 1 = 3 cos t 3 0°
i 2 = 4 sin t = 4 cos( t – 90°) 4 –90°
Thus, i 3 = 3 + 4 –90° = 3 – 4i = 5 –53.13
Thus, i 3 = 5 cos( t – 53.13°)

Example 8.9 : For the AC circuit as shown below, if the rms voltage across the resistor is 120 V, what is
the value of the inductor?

1k

v = 150 2 sin 500t V

(a) 0.5 H (b) 0.6 H

(c) 1.0 H (d) 1.5 H

Solution :
This is the RL series circuit, we know that the voltage across inductor and resistor will be perpendicular,
thus we can apply KVL as follows:
Vsupply = VR + VL
Now using the magnitude of VR and VL ,

Vsupply = VR2 + VL2

150 2 = (120 2 )2 + VL2

VL = 127.27
22 Network Theory

Thus magnitude of VR = 120 2 and magnitude of VL = 127.27

Magnitude of VR = I R and Magnitude of VL = I L

Magnitude of VL 127.27
Thus, =
Magnitude of VR 120 2

127.27 L
=
120 2 R
R
=L

1000
× =L L = 1.5 H
500

Example 8.10 : Consider the circuit shown in below figure. If I1 = I2 = 10 A then which of the following
is correct?
I1 I2 8A

120 0° V L R C

Find the magnitude of current through inductor, capacitor and resistor.

Solution :
If we draw the current phasor of the parallel RLC circuit we will get that current in the resistor and capacitor
will be perpendicular to each other.
I1 I2 8A

IR IC

120 0° V L R C

We can see that current in the resistor and capacitor are perpendicular to each other, thus the magnitude I2,

I2 = I R2 + IC2

10 = I R2 + 82 IR = 6

Now we know that, I1 = I R2 + ( IL IC )2

10 = 36 + ( I L IC )2
(IL – IC) = ±8
IL = 16 or IL = 0
Thus, IL = 16 A, IC = 8 A
and IR = 6A
 EC : THEORY BOOK 23

Example 8.11 : The source in the circuit shown in the sinusoidal source. The voltages across various
elements are marked in the figure. The input voltage is
3V 14 V 10 V

Vs

(a) 10 V (b) 5 V
(c) 27 V (d) 24 V

Solution :
We can solve this circuit using KVL, we get that,
Vs = VR + VL + VC

Now for magnitude, Vs = VR2 + (VL VC )2

= 32 + (14 10)2 = 5
Thus magnitude of Vs is 5.

Example 8.12 : For the circuit as shown below, if the current leads the applied voltage by tan–1 2, what is
the resistance value in ohm?

I R L=1H C = 0.05 F

vs = V sin4t V

(a) 0.5 (b) 1.0

(c) 2.0 (d) 9.5

Solution :
This is the series RLC circuit, we can see that impedance of the circuit is,
1
Z = R+ j L+
j C
Here, =4
Thus, Z = R + j4 – j5 = R – j
1
Z= R2 + 1 tan 1
R
Since, current lead voltage by tan–1 2.
1
Thus, tan 1 = tan–1 2
R
R = 0.5
24 Network Theory

Example 8.13 : Determine vo(t) in the circuit of figure.

60

+
20 cos(4t – 15°) 10 mF 5H vo
–

(a)

Solution :
To do the analysis in the frequency domain, we must first transform the time domain circuit in Fig. (a) to the
phasor domain equivalent in Fig. (b). The transformation produces, 60
Vs = 20 cos(4t – 15°)
Vs = 20 –15° V
+
=4 20 –15° –j25 j20 vo
–
1 1
10 mF = 3
= j 25
j C j 4 × 10 × 10
(b)
5 H j L = 4j × 5 = j20
Let, Z1 = Impedance of the 60 resistor.
Z2 = Impedance of the parallel combination of the 10 mF capacitor and the 5 H inductor.
Then, Z 1 = 60
j 25 × j 20
and Z2 = j 25 j 20 = = j 100
j 25 + j 20
Z2 j 100
By the voltage division principle, Vo = Vs = (20 15°)
Z1 + Z2 60 + j 100
= (0.8575 30.96°) (20 –15°) = 17.15 15.96° V
We convert this to the time domain and obtain,
vo(t) = 17.15 cos(4t + 15.96°) V

Example 8.14 : Determine Vo /Vi in the circuit shown below.

–j20 V1 –j20
+ +

Vi 20 20 Vo

– –

Solution :
Using the series parallel combination technique, Z in figure is obtained as,
20(20 j 20)
Z = 20 (20 j 20) = = 12 4 j
40 j 20
Z 12 j 4 2
Using voltage division, V1 = Vi = Vi = 45° Vi ...(i)
Z j 20 12 j 24 3
20 2
and Vo = V1 = 45° V1 ...(ii)
20 j 20 2
 EC : THEORY BOOK 25

Substituting equation (i) into equation (ii) yields,

2
Vo = 45°
2
Thus, the output leads the input by 90° but its magnitude is only about 33 percent of the input.

Example 8.15 : For the RL circuit shown in figure, calculate the amount of phase shift produced at 2 kHz.
150 100

10 mH 5 mH

Solution :
At 2 kHz, we transforms the 10 mH and 5 mH inductances to the corresponding impedances,
10 mH XL = L = 2 × 2 × 103 × 10 × 10–3 = 40 = 125.7
5 mH XL = L = 2 × 2 × 103 × 5 × 10–3 = 20 = 62.83
150 V1 100

+ +

Vi j125.7 j62.83 Vo

– –
(b)
Z

Consider the circuit in figure, the impedance Z is the parallel combination of j125.7 and 100 + j62.83 .

Hence, Z = j125.7 (100 + j 62.83)

j 125.7(100 + j62.83)
= = 69.56 60.1°
100 + j 188.5

Z 69.56 60.1
Using voltage division, V1 = Vi = Vi = 0.3582 42.02° Vi
Z + 150 184.7 + j 60.3

j 62.832
and Vo = V1 = 0.532 57.86°V1
100 + j 62.832
Combining equations, Vo = (0.532 57.86°) (0.3582 42.02°) Vt
= 0.1906 100° Vi
Showing that the output is about 19 percent of the input in magnitude but leading the input by 100°.
If the circuit is terminated by a load, the load will affect the phase shift.
 26 Network Theory

Practice Questions Common Data Questions (5 and 6):

In the circuit shown in figure, magnitude of voltage and
Q.1 Determine the input impedance of the circuit in
current are given as, Vs = 200 V, V1 = 100 V and
figure at = 10 rad/sec.
1 mF 100 8H I = 20 A.

I R V2
Zin
1 mF 200 + –
+
Vs R1 V1
–
Q.2 A sinusoidal voltage is given as,
v1(t) = 4 cos(10t – 40°) V. Match List-I (Voltage
v2(t) with List-II (Angle by which v2(t) leads v1(t)
Q.5 The total impedance of the circuit is
and choose the correct answer using the codes
(a) (10 + j10) (b) (8 + j6)
below.
List-I List-II 1
(c) (8 + j8) (d) (10 + j 10)
A. v2(t) = 4 sin(10t – 40°) V 1. 130° 2
B. v2(t) = –2 cos(10t – 120°) V 2. 100° Q.6 The magnitude of voltage V2 is equal to
C. v2(t) = 6 sin(10t – 180°) V 3. –80° (a) 66 V (b) 224 V
D. v2(t) = 10 cos(10t + 50°) V 4. –90° (c) 100 V (d) 134 V
5. 90°
Q.7 In the circuit shown below, VR = 30 –53.13°,
Codes:
VL = 70 36.87° V. What is the value of voltage VC
A B C D
across capacitor?
(a) 4 3 1 5
R L C
(b) 5 3 1 4
(c) 4 2 1 5 VR VL VC
(d) 5 1 3 4

Q.3 Let I 1 = (4 – j3) A, I 2 = 2 2 45° A and

I3 = 5ej90° A. A current I is given as, I = (I1 – I2)2 I3 in Vs = 50 0° V
rectangular form, I will be expression as, (a) 24 – j18 V (b) –24 + j18 V
(a) (–100 + j105) A (b) (–105 + j100) A (c) –24 – j18 V (d) 24 + j18 V
(c) (100 – j105) A (d) (105 + j100) A
Q.8 What is the current I1 in the figure below?
Q.4 The total impedance ZT of the circuit shown
j10
below at a frequency = 50 rad/sec is

10 0.4 H I1

100 V 10 –j20
ZT 20 1 mF 0.2 H

(a) 20 63.44° A (b) 15 63.44° A

(a) 20 + j10 (b) 20 + j30 (c) 10 60° A (d) none of these
(c) 10 + j20 (d) 10 + j30
EC : THEORY BOOK 27

(a) (2 – j5) V (b) (5 – j2) V

(c) (11 + j11) V (d) (5 + j2) V

Q.13 The Thevenin voltage VTh and impedance ZTh

across the terminal a-b in the following network
are:

20 a b

3 90° A

2 90° A
j40 j20

(a) VTh = j80 V, ZTh = 20 + j20

(b) VTh = 160 V, ZTh = 20 + j60
(c) VTh = –80 V, ZTh = 20 + j60
(d) VTh = –j80 V, ZTh = 20 – j60

Common Data Questions (14 and 15):

Consider the circuit shown in the figure. The voltage V
across the load is measured by taking three different
values of load (ZL) and given in the table below.

+
Circuit at
ZL
= 2 k-rad/s

S.No. Load ( ZL) Voltage (V)

1. 50 , Resistor 50 V

2. 25 mF, Capacitor 200 V

3. 50 mH, Inductor 100 V

Q.14 The Thevenin equivalent impedance for the

circuit shown in the box is equal to
(a) 100 + j50 (b) 175 + j50
(c) 200 + j150 (d) 100 + j150

Q.15 The magnitude of Thevenin voltage for the circuit

shown in the box is equal to
(a) 158 V (b) 291.5 V
(c) 212 V (d) 230.5 V
28 Network Theory

Q.16 The Thevenin impedance seen across terminal a, b

is purely resistive, if
(a) k = 0 (b) k = 2
(c) k = 1 (d) k = –1

Q.17 What will be the value of ‘k’ so that the impedance

across terminal a-b equal to 1000 – j1000 ?
(a) k = 0 (b) k = 2
(c) k = 1 (d) k = –1
 EC : THEORY BOOK 29

Review Questions
Q.1 The voltage Vo across the capacitor in figure is
1

+
10 0° V – j1 Vo
–

(a) 5 0° V (b) 7.071 45° V

(c) 7.071 –45° V (d) 5 –45° V

Q.2 The value of the current Io in the circuit of figure

below is

Io

3 0° A j8 –j2

(a) 4 0° A (b) 2.4 –90° A

(c) 0.6 0° A (d) –1 A

Q.3 Using nodal analysis, the value of Vo in the circuit

of figure below is

Vo

j6 4 90° A –j3

(a) –24 V (b) –8 V

(c) 8 V (d) 24 V

Q.4 In the circuit of figure below, current i(t) is

1H 1F

10 cost V i (t ) 1

(a) 10 cost A (b) 10 sint A

(c) 5 cost A (d) 5 sint A
(e) 4.472 cos(t – 63.43°) A
 9
Chapter
AC Power Analysis

9.1 Instantaneous and Average Power

The instantaneous power p(t) absorbed by an element is the product of the instantaneous voltage v(t)
across the element and the instantaneous current i(t) through it. Assuming the passive sign convention,
p(t) = v(t) i(t)

Note : The instantaneous power (in Watts) is the power at any instant of time.
It is the rate at which an element absorbs energy.
Consider the general case of instantaneous power absorbed by an arbitrary combination of circuit elements
under sinusoidal excitation, as shown in Fig. 9.1. Let the voltage and current at the terminals of the circuit be
v(t) = Vm cos( t + v)
The instantaneous power changes with time and is therefore difficult to measure. The average power is
more convenient to measure. In fact, the wattmeter, the instrument for measuring power, responds to average
power. The average power, (in Watts), is the average of the instantaneous power over one period.
Thus, the average power is given by,
T
1
P = p(t ) dt ...(9.1)
T0
1 1
and Vm I m cos( v
p(t) = i) Vm I m cos(2 t v i)
2 2
This shows us that the instantaneous power has two parts. The first part is constant or time independent.
Its value depends on the phase difference between the voltage and the current. The second part is a sinusoidal
function whose frequency is 2 , which is twice the angular frequency of the voltage or current.
T T
1 1 1 1
Thus, P = Vm I m cos( v i ) dt Vm I m cos(2 t v i) dt
T02 T02
T T
1 1 1 1
= Vm I m cos( v i) dt Vm I m cos(2 t v i ) dt
2 T0 2 T0
The first integrand is constant, and the average of a constant is the same constant. The second integrand
is a sinusoid. We know that the average of a sinusoid over its period is zero because the area under the sinusoid
during a positive half cycle is canceled by the area under it during the following negative half cycle. Thus, the
second term in above equation vanishes and the average power becomes,
1
P =Vm Im cos( v i) ...(9.2)
2
Since cos( v – i) = cos( i – v), what is important is the difference in the phase of the voltage and current.
The phasor forms of v(t) and i(t) are V = Vm v and I = Im i, respectively. P is calculated using equation (9.2)
or using phasors V and I. To use phasors, we notice that,
1 1
VI = Vm I m v i
2 2
1
= Vm Im [cos( v i) j sin( v i )]
2
2 Network Theory KIL L ERG EN IX
We recognize the real part of this expression as the average power P according to equation (9.2).
1 1
Thus, P = Re[VI ] Vm I m cos( v i) ...(9.3)
2 2
Consider two special cases of equation (9.3). When v = i, the voltage and current are in phase. This
implies a purely resistive circuit or resistive load R, and
1 1 2 1 2
P = Vm I m Im R I R ...(9.4)
2 2 2

where I 2 I I , equation (9.4) shows that a purely resistive circuit absorbs power at all times. When

v – i = ±90°, we have a purely reactive circuit, and

1
P = Vm I m cos 90 0
2
showing that a purely reactive circuit absorbs no average power.

Note : A resistive load (R) absorbs power at all times, while a reactive load (L or C) absorbs zero
average power.

Example 9.1 : Given that: v(t) = 120 cos(377t + 45°) V and i(t) = 10 cos(377t – 10°) A find the
instantaneous power and the average power absorbed by the passive linear network.
Solution :
The instantaneous power is given by
p = vi = 1200 cos(377t + 45°) cos(377t – 10°)
Applying the trigonometric identity,
1
cosA cosB = [cos( A B) cos( A B)]
2
Gives, p = 600[cos(754t + 35°) + cos55°]
or, p(t) = 344.2 + 600 cos(754t + 35°) W
1
The average power is, P = Vm Im cos( v i)
2
1
= 120(10)cos[45 ( 10 )] 600 cos 55 344.2 W
2
which is the constant part of p(t) above.

Example 9.2 : Calculate the average power absorbed by an impedance, Z = 30 – j70 when a
voltage, V = 120 0° is applied across it.
Solution :
The current through the impedance is,
V 120 0 120 0
I= = 1.576 66.8° A
Z 30 j70 76.16 66.8
1
The average power is, P = Vm Im cos( v i)
2
1
= (120) (1.576) cos(0 66.8 ) 37.24 W
2
KIL L E R G E N IX EC : THEORY BOOK 3

Example 9.3 : For the circuit shown in figure, find the average power supplied by the source and
the average power absorbed by the resistor.

I 4

5 30° V + – j2
–

Solution :
5 30 5 30
The current I is given by, I= 1.118 56.57 A
4 j2 4.472 26.57
The average power supplied by the voltage source is,
1
P = (5) (1.118) cos(30 56.57 ) 2.5 W
2
The current through the resistor is,
IR = I = 1.118 56.57° A
and the voltage across it is, VR = 4IR = 4.472 56.57° V
The average power absorbed by the resistor is,
1
(4.472) (1.118) 2.5 W
P =
2
which is the same as the average power supplied. Zero average power is absorbed by the capacitor.

9.2 Maximum Average Power Transfer

Consider the circuit in Fig. 9.2, where an ac circuit is connected to a load ZL and is represented by its
Thevenin equivalent. The load is usually represented by an impedance.
Z Th
I

Linear
ZL VTh +
circuit – ZL

(a) (b)
Fig. 9.2 : Finding the maximum average power transfer
(a) circuit with a load (b) the Thevenin equivalent

In rectangular form, the Thevenin impedance ZTh and the load impedance ZL are
ZTh = RTh + jXTh
ZL = RL + jXL
VTh VTh
The current through the load is, I=
ZTh ZL ( RTh jXTh ) ( RL jXL )
From equation (9.4), the average power delivered to the load is,
2
1 2 VTh RL /2
P = I RL ...(9.5)
2 ( RTh RL )2 ( XTh X L )2
Our objective is to adjust the load parameters RL and XL so that, P is maximum.
4 Network Theory KIL L ERG EN IX

To do this we set P / RL and P / XL equal to zero, we obtain,

2
P VTh RL ( XTh XL )
= 2
XL [( RTh RL ) ( X Th XL )2 ]2
2
P VTh [( RTh RL )2 ( XTh XL )2 2 RL ( RTh RL )
=
RL 2[( RTh RL )2 ( XTh XL )2 ]2

Setting P / XL to zero gives, XL = –XTh

and setting P / XL to zero results in,

2
RL = RTh ( XTh XL )2

Thus we can have three cases:

1. Case-1 : If in load ZL only XL is variable then for maximum power transfer we will put, XL = –XTh.
Thus, maximum power can be found by simply putting this condition in equation (9.5).
2. Case-2 : If in load Z L only R L is variable then for maximum power transfer we will put,
2
RL RTh ( XL XTh )2 . Thus maximum power can be found by simply putting this condition in
equation (9.5).
3. Case-3 : If in load ZL both RL and XL is variable then for maximum power transfer we can combine
the above two cases and thus we will get, XL = –XTh and RL = RTh. Thus, ZL RTh jXTh ZTh for
maximum power can be found by simply putting this condition in equation (9.5).

Example 9.4 : In the circuit in figure, find the value of RL that will absorb the maximum average
power, calculate that power.
40 –j30

150 30° V + j20 RL

–

Solution :
We first the Thevenin equivalent at the terminals of RL,
j 20(40 j 30)
ZTh = (40 j 30) j 20 = 9.412 + j22.35
j 20 40 j 30
j 20
By voltage division, VTh = (150 30 ) 72.76 134 V
j 20 40 j 30
The value of RL that will absorb the maximum average power is,

RL = ZTh 9.412 2 22.352 24.25

VTh 72.76 134
The current through the load is, I= 1.8 100.42 A
ZTh RL 33.66 j 22.35
The maximum average power absorbed by RL is,
1 2 1
Pmax = I RL (1.8)2 (24.25) 39.29 W
2 2
KIL L E R G E N IX EC : THEORY BOOK 5

9.3 Effective or RMS Value

The idea of effective value arises from the need to measure the effectiveness of a voltage or current
source in delivering power to a resistive load.

Note : The effective value of a periodic current is the dc current that delivers the same average power
to a resistor as the periodic current.

In Fig. 9.3, the circuit in (a) is ac while that of (b) is dc. Our objective is to find Ieff that will transfer the
same power to resistor R as the sinusoid ‘i’.
i (t ) I eff

+
v ( t) +
– R Veff R
–

(a) (b)

Fig. 9.3 : Finding the effective current (a) ac circuit (b) dc circuit

The average power absorbed by the resistor in the ac circuit is

T T
1 2 R 2
P = i R dt i dt ...(9.6)
T0 T0

while the power absorbed by the resistor in the dc circuit is,

2
P = Ieff R ...(9.7)

Equating the expression in equations (9.6) and (9.7) and solving for Ieff, we obtain,
T
1 2
Ieff = i dt
T0

The effective value of the voltage is found in the same way as current, that is,
T
1 2
Veff = v dt
T0

The indicates that the effective value is the (square) root of the mean (or avearge) of the square of the
periodic signal. Thus, the effective value is often known as the root-mean-square value, or rms value for short
and we write,
Ieff = Irms , Veff = Vrms
For any periodic function x(t) in general, the rms value is given by
T
1 2
Xrms = x dt
T0

Note : The effective value of a periodic signal is its root mean square (rms) value.
6 Network Theory KIL L ERG EN IX

Time Domain Signal Rms Value

v

Vm
2 2
1 1 Vm
Vrms V2d t (Vm sin t )2 d t
2
t 2 0
2 0
2

–Vm

Vm
1 Vm
Vrms (Vm sin t )2 d t
0
2
t
2

Vm 2
1 Vm
Vrms Vm sin t )2 d t 0 d t
2 0
2
t
2

Vm
1
T/2 T Vrms Vm2 d t Vm
t T0

–Vm

T /2 T
1 1 2 T Vm
Vrms Vm2 dt 0 dt Vm
T T 2 2
t 0 T /2
T/2 T

v
( T , Vm )
Vm
T 2
1 Vm t Vm
Vrms dt
T 0
T 3
t
T 2T

Vm
Vm
Vrms
3
t
T 2T
KIL L E R G E N IX EC : THEORY BOOK 7

Example 9.5 : Determine the rms value of the current waveform in figure. If the current is passed
through a 2 resistor, find the average power absorbed by the resistor.

i (t )

10

0 t
2 4 6 8 10

–10

Solution :
The period of the waveform is T = 4. Over a period, we can write the current waveform as,
5t ; 0 t 2
i(t) =
10 ; 2 t 4

T 2 4
1 2 1
The rms value is, Irms = i dt (5t )2 dt ( 10)2 dt
T 0 4 0 2

2 4
1 t3 1 200
= 25 100t 200 8.165 A
4 3 0
4 3
2

The power absorbed by a 2 resistor is,

2 2
P = Irms R (8.165) (2) 133.3 W

Example 9.6 : The waveform shown in figure is a half wave rectified sine wave. Find the rms
value and the amount of average power dissipated in a 10 resistor.

v(t )

10

t
0 2 3

Solution :
The period of the voltage waveform is T = 2
10 sin t ; 0 t
and v(t) =
0; t 2
The rms value is obtained as,
T 2
1 2 1
2
Vrms = v (t ) dt (10 sin t )2 dt 0 2 dt
T0 2 0

1
But, sin2t = (1 cos 2t )
2
8 Network Theory KIL L ERG EN IX

1 100 50 sin 2t
Hence, 2
Vrms = (1 cos 2t ) dt t
2 0
2 2 2
0

50 1
= sin 2 0 25; Vrms 5V
2 2
2
Vrms 52
The average power absorbed is, P = 2.5 W
R 10

Effective Value with Multiple Frequency Circuits

In order to determine the effective value of a periodic or non-periodic waveform which is composed of
the sum of a number of sinusoids of different frequencies consider the current,
i(t) = I1 cos 1t + I2 cos 2t + ... + IN cos Nt
We find the average power delivered to a resistance R,
1 2
P = ( I1 I 22 ... I N2 ) R ( I rms
2
1
2
I rms 2
2 ... I rms N ) R
2
2 2 2
Irms = ( I rms1 I rms 2 ... I rms N)

Using the above relation we can find the rms value of current which is composed of any number of
sinusoidal currents.

Note : Rms value is independent of the position of the waveform and it depends only on the shape of
the waveform. e.g. the rms value of v(t) = Vm sin( t – ) is Vm 2 .

Vm

–Vm

Remember : In terms of rms value of sinusoidal voltage and current, the average power can be written as,
1 Vm Im
Pave = Vm I m cos( v i) cos( v i)
2 2 2
= Vrms Irms cos( v – i)

9.4 Average Value of Periodic Waveform

I irms

C R Vrms R

(a) DC circuit (b ) DC circuit

Fig. 9.5 : Circuit for measurement of average value of periodic waveform

KIL L E R G E N IX EC : THEORY BOOK 9

Average value is defined on the basis of the change transfer in the circuit. The ac voltage, at which the
charge transfer in ac circuit is equal to charge transfer in dc circuit, is called as Vavg provides both ac and dc
circuits are operated for same time period and having equal value of resistance,

V
I
R
v
Q i
I R
t
Qac i t
Qdc I t

As per definition, Qdc = Qac

The average value can be calculated as,
T
1
Vavg = v(t ) dt
T 0

Form Factor : Form factor is the ratio of rms value of the waveform to the average value of the
waveform i.e.,
Vrms I rms
Form factor =
Vavg I avg

Peak Factor : Peak factor is the ratio of maximum value of the waveform to the rms value of the waveform,
Vmax I max
Peak factor =
Vrms I rms

Note : In the practical system shape of the waveform is justified by form factor and peak factor.

9.5 Apparent Power and Power Factor

In Section 9.1, we saw that if the voltage and current at the terminals of a circuit as,
v(t) = Vm cos( t + v) and i(t) = Im cos( t + i)
or in phasor form, V = Vm v and I = Im i

1
The average power is, P = Vm Im cos( v i)
2
In Section 9.3, we saw that, P = Vrms Irms cos( v – i) = S cos( v – i)
We have added a new term to the equation,
S = Vrms Irms
The average power is a product of two terms. The product Vrms Irms is known as the apparent power S.
The factor cos( v – i) is called the power factor (pf).

Note : The apparent power (in VA) is the product of the rms values of voltage and current.

The apparent power is so called because it seems apparent that the power should be the voltage-current
product, by analogy with dc resistive circuits. It is measured in volt-amperes or VA to distinguish it from the
average or real power, which is measured (in Watts). The power factor is dimensionless, since it is the ratio of
the average power to the apparent power,
P
pf = cos( v i) ...(9.8)
S
10 Network Theory KIL L ERG EN IX
The angle, v – i is called the power factor angle, since it is the angle whose cosine is the power factor.
The power factor angle is equal to the angle of the load impedance if V is the voltage across the load and I is the
current through it. This is evident from the fact that,
V Vm v Vm
Z= v i
I Im i Im

Note : The power factor is the cosine of the phase difference between voltage and current. It is also the
cosine of the angle of the laod impedance.

From equation (9.8), the power factor may be seen as that factor by which the apparent power must be
multiplied to obtain the real or average power. The value of power factor ranges between zero and unity. For
a purely resistive load, the voltage and current are in phase, so that, v – i = 0 and power factor = 1. This
implies that the apparent power is equal to the average power. For a purely reactive load, v – i = ±90° and
p.f. = 0. In this, case the average power is zero. In between these two extreme cases, p.f. is said to be leading or
lagging. Leading power factor means that current leads voltage, which implies a capacitive load. Lagging
power factor means that current lags voltage, implying an inductive load.

Example 9.7 : A series connected load draws a current i(t) = 4 cos(100 t + 10°) A when the applied
voltage is v(t) = 120 cos(100 t – 20°) V. Find the apparent power and the power factor of the load.
Determine the element values that form the series connected load.
Solution :
120 4
The apparent power is, S = Vrms I rms 240 VA
2 2
The power factor is, p.f. = cos( v – i) = cos(–20° – 10°) = 0.866 (Leading)
The power factor is leading because the current leads the voltage. The power factor may also be obtained
from the load impedance,
V 120 20
Z= 30 30 25.98 j 15
I 4 10
p.f. = cos(–30°) = 0.866 (Leading)
The load impedance Z can be modeled by a 25.98 resistor in series with a capacitor with
1
XC = 15
C
1 1
or, C= 212.2 F
15 15 100

Example 9.8 : Determine the power factor of the entire circuit of figure as seen by the source.
Calculate the average power delivered by the source.
6

30 0 ° Vrms + – j2 4
–
KIL L E R G E N IX EC : THEORY BOOK 11

Solution :
j2 4
The total impedance is, Z = 6 4 ( j 2) 6 6.8 j1.6 7 13.24
4 j2
The power factor is, p.f. = cos(–13.24) = 0.9734 (Leading)
Since the impedance is capacitive. The rms value of the current is,
Vrms 30 0
Irms = 4.286 13.24 A
Z 7 13.24
The average power supplied by the source is,
P = Vrms Irms p.f.
= (30) (4.286) 0.9734 = 125 W
2
or, P = I rms R (4.286)2 (6.8) 125 W
where, R is the resistive part of Z.

9.6 Complex Power

Consider the ac load in Fig. 9.6. Given the phasor from V = Vm v and I = Im i of voltage v(t) and
current i(t), the complex power S absorbed by the ac load is the product of the voltage and the complex conjugate
of the current, or
1 + I
VI
S=
2
Load
Assuming the passive sign convention (see Fig. 9.6). V
Z
In terms of the rms values,
* –
S = Vrms Irms
Fig. 9.6
V The voltage and current phasors
where, Vrms = Vrms v
2 associated with a load
I
and Irms = I rms i
2
Thus we may write, S = Vrms Irms v – i
= Vrms Irms cos( v – i) + jVrms Irms sin( v – i)
Thus, Vrms = ZIrms
2
2 Vrms
Substituting this gives, S = Irms Z Vrms I rms ...(9.9)
Z
Since, Z = R + jX
2
S = Irms (R jX ) P jQ ...(9.10)
where P and Q are the real and imaginary parts of the complex power, that is,
2
P = Re(S ) I rms R ...(9.11)
2
Q = Im(S) I rms X ...(9.12)
The real power P is the average power in watts delivered to a load, it is the only useful power. It is the
actual power dissipated by the load. The reactive power Q is a measure of the energy exchange between the
source and the reactive part of the load. The unit of Q is the volt-ampere reactive (VAR) to distinguish it from
the real power, whose unit is the watt. In the same way, the reactive power is being transferred back and forth
between the load and the source.
12 Network Theory KIL L ERG EN IX
It represents a lossless interchange between the load and the source. Notice that:
1. Q = 0 for resistive loads (unity p.f.)
2. Q < 0 for capacitive loads (leading p.f.)
3. Q > 0 for inductive loads (lagging in p.f.)

Note : Complex power (in VA) is the product of the rms voltage phasor and the complex conjugate of
the rms current phasor. As a complex quantity, its real part is real power P and its imaginary part is
reactive power Q.

Remember : Complex power = S = P + jQ = Vrms(Irms)

= Vrms I rms v i

Apparent power = S S Vrms I rms P 2 Q2

Real power = P = Re(S) = S cos( v – i)
Reactive power = Q = Im(S) = S sin( v – i)
P
Power factor = cos( v i)
S

Power Triangle
It is a standard practice to represent S, P and Q in the form of triangle, known as the power triangle,
shown in Fig. 9.7 (a). This is similar to the impedance triangle showing the relationship between Z, R and X
illustrated in Fig. 9.7 (b). From the Fig. 9.8, we can analyze that:
1. When S lies in the first quadrant, we have an inductive load and a lagging power factor.
2. When S lies in the fourth quadrant, the load is capacitive and the power factor is leading.
3. When S lies in second and third quadrant then the load impedance has negative resistance and this
is possible only in active circuits.

Im

+Q (lagging p.f.)

v – i
Re
S |Z| – P
Q X v i

P R
(a) (b ) – Q (lagging p.f.)

Fig. 9.7 : (a) Power triangle (b) Impedance triangle Fig. 9.8 : Power triangle

Example 9.9 : The voltage across a load is v(t) = 60 cos( t – 10°) V and the current through the
element in the direction of the voltage drop is i(t) = 1.5 cos( t + 50°) A. Find: (a) The complex and
apparent powers (b) The real and reactive powers and (c) The power factor and the load impedance.
KIL L E R G E N IX EC : THEORY BOOK 13

Solution :
(a) For the rms values of the voltage and current, we write,
60 1.5
Vrms = 10 , I rms 50
2 2

60 1.5
The complex power is, S = Vrms I rms 10 50 45 60 VA
2 2

The apparent power is, S= S 45 VA

(b) We can express the complex power in rectangular form as,

S = 45 –60° = 45[cos(–60°) + j sin(–60°)]
= 22.5 – j38.97
Since, S = P + jQ
The real power is, P = 22.5 W
while the reactive power is, Q = –38.97 VAR
(c) The power factor is, p.f. = cos(–60°) = 0.5 (Leading)
It is leading, because the reactive power is negative. The load impedance is,
V 60 10
Z= 40 60
I 1.5 50
which is a capacitive impedance.

9.8 Conservation of AC Power

The principle of conservation of power applies to ac circuits as well as to dc circuits. To see this, consider
the circuit in Fig. 9.9 (a), where two load impedances Z1 and Z2 are connected in parallel across an ac source V.
KCL gives,
I = I1 + I2
The complex power supplied by the source is (from now on, unless otherwise specified, all values of
voltages and currents will be assumed to be rms values),

S = VI V ( I1 I 2 ) VI 1 VI 2 S1 S2

Z1 Z2
I I
I1 I2 + V1 – + V2 –

V +– Z1 Z2 V +–

(a) (b)
Fig. 9.9

where S1 and S2 denote the complex powers delivered to loads Z1 and Z2, respectively. If the loads are
connected in series with the voltage source, as shown in Fig. 9.9(b). KVL yields,
V = V1 + V2
The complex power supplied by the source is,
S = VI = (V1 + V2)I = V1I + V2I = S1 + S2
14 Network Theory KIL L ERG EN IX
where S1 and S2 denote the complex powers delivered to loads Z1 and Z2, respectively. We conclude
that whether the loads are connected in series or in parallel (or in general), the total power supplied by the
source equals the total power delivered to the load. Thus, in general, for a source connected to N loads,
S = S1 + S2 + ... + SN
This means that the total complex power in a network is the sum of the complex powers of the individual
components. (This is also true of real power and reactive power, but not true of apparent power). This expresses
the principle of conservation of ac power.
The complex, real, and reactive powers of the sources equal the respective sums of the complex, real,
and reactive powers of the individual loads.

Example 9.10 : In the circuit of figure, Z1 = 60 –30° and Z2 = 40 45° . Calculate the total: (a)
apparent power (b) real power (c) reactive power and (d) p.f., supplied by the source and seen by
the source.
It

I1 I2

120 10° Vrms +

– Z1 Z2

Solution :
V 120 10
The current through Z1 is, I1 = 2 40 A rms
Z1 60 30
V 120 10
while the current through Z2 is, I2 = 3 35 A rms
Z2 40 45
The complex powers absorbed by the impedance are
2
Vrms (120)2
S1 = 240 30 207.85 j120 VA
Z1 60 30
2
Vrms (120)2
S2 = 360 45 254.6 j 254.6 VA
Z2 40 45
The total complex power is, St = S1 + S2 = 462.4 + j134.6 VA
(a) The total apparent power is,
St = 462.4 2 134.6 2 481.6 VA
(b) The total real power is, Pt = Re(St) = 462.4 W or Pt = P1 + P2
(c) The total reactive power is, Qt = Im(St) = 134.6 VAR or Qt = Q1 + Q2
Pt 462.4
(d) The power factor = 0.96 (lagging).
St 481.6
We may cross check the result by finding the complex power Ss supplied by the source,
It = I1 + I2 = (1.532 + j1.286) + (2.457 – j1.721) = 4 – j0.435 = 4.024 –6.21° A rms

Ss = VIt (120 10 ) (4.024 6.21 ) = 482.88 16.21° = 463 + j135 VA

which is the same as above.
KIL L E R G E N IX EC : THEORY BOOK 15

Practice Questions Q.7 For a load, Vrms = 110 85° V, Irms = 0.4 15° A.
Determine: (a) the complex and apparent
Q.1 Calculate the instantaneous power and average powers (b) the real and reactive powers, and
power absorbed by the passive linear network (c) the power factor and the load impedance.
if,
v(t) = 330 cos(10t + 20°) V Q.8 The Thevenin impedance of a source is
ZTh = 120 + j60 , while the peak. Thevenin
and i(t) = 33 sin(10t + 60°) A
voltage is V Th = 165 + j0 V. Determine the
Q.2 A current I = 33 30° A flows through an maximum available average power from the
impedance Z = 40 –22° . Find the average source.
power delivered to the impedance.
Q.9 The variable resistor ‘R’ in the circuit of figure
Q.3 In the circuit of figure, calculate the average is adjusted until it absorbs the maximum
power absorbed by the resistor and inductor. average power. Find ‘R’ and the maximum
Find the average power supplied by the voltage average power absorbed.
source.
3 –j2
3

320 45° V + j1 j1 33 0° A 6
– R

Q.4 Find the rms value of the current waveform of

figure. If the current flows through a 9 Q.10 Calculate the rms value of the current
resistor, calculate the average power absorbed waveform of figure.
by the resistor. i( t )

i( t ) 5

16

t
t 0 5 10 15 20 25
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Q.11 Calculate the effective value of the current

Q.5 Find the rms value of the full wave rectified waveform in figure and the average power
sine wave in figure. Calculate the avearge delivered to a 12 resistor when the current
power dissipated in a 6 resistor. runs through the resistor.
v(t ) i( t )

100
30

t
0 2 3
0 t
5 10 15 20 25 30
Q.6 Obtain the power factor and the apparent
power of a load whose impedance is
–30
Z = 60 + j40 when the applied voltage is
v(t) = 320 cos(377t + 10°) V.
16 Network Theory KIL L ERG EN IX
Q.12 Find the rms value of the signal shown in figure. Find:
v(t) (a) The rms values of the voltage and of the
current.
2
(b) The average power dissipated in the load.

0 t Q.17 For each of the following cases, find the

1 2 3 4 5
complex power, the average power, and the
reactive power:

–10
(a) v(t) = 112 cos( t + 10°) V,
i(t) = 4 cos( t – 50°) A
Q.13 Determine the rms value for the waveform in (b) v(t) = 160 cos377t V,
figure. i(t) = 4 cos(377t + 45°) A
i( t ) (c) V = 80 60° V rms, Z = 50 30°
(d) I = 10 60° A rms, Z = 100 45°
5
Q.18 Find the complex power for the following cases:
(a) P = 4 kW, p.f. = 0.86 (lagging)
t (b) S = 2 kVA, P = 1.6 kW (capacitive)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(c) Vrms = 208 20° V, Irms = 6.5 –50° A

Q.14 An ac motor with impedance, ZL = 4.2 + j3.6 (d) Vrms = 120 30° V, Z = 40 + j60
is supplied by a 220 V, 60 Hz source. Find: (a) Q.19 Given the circuit in figure, find Io and the overall
power factor, P and Q (b) Determine the complex power supplied.
capacitor required to be connected in parallel
Io 1.2 kW
with the motor so that the power factor is 0.8 kVAR (cap)
corrected to unity.
2 kVA 4 kW
Q.15 Obtain the power factor for each of the circuits 100 90° V +
– 0.707 pf leading 0.9 pf lagging
in figure. Specify each power factor as leading
or lagging.
4 j5
Q.20 Find Io in the circuit of figure.
Io
–j2 –j2

12 kW 16 kW 20 kVAR
220 0° V +–
0.866 pf leading 0.85 pf lagging 0.6 pf lagging
(a)
– j1 4

Q.21 Refer to the circuit shown in figure.

1 j2 j1

(b) 12 Vrms +
– C Z = 10 + j12
60 Hz
Q.16 The voltage across a load and the current
through it are given by:
v(t) = 20 + 60 cos100t V (a) What is the power factor?
i(t) = 1 – 0.5 sin100t A (b) What is the average power dissipated?
KIL L E R G E N IX EC : THEORY BOOK 17

(c) What is the value of the capacitance that Q.23 Consider the power system shown in figure.
will give a unity power factor when
connected to the load? +
240 Vrms , 50 Hz
Q.22 Three loads are connected in parallel to a –
120 0° Vrms source. Load 1 absorbs 60 kVAR
at p.f. = 0.85 lagging, load 2 absorbs 90 kW and 80 – j50

50 kVAR leading, and load 3 absorbs 100 kW 120 + j70

at p.f. = 1.
6 0 + j0
(a) Find the equivalent impedance.
(b) Calculate the power factor of the parallel Calculate:
combination.
(a) the total complex power.
(c) Determine the current supplied by the
(b) the power factor.
source.

ANSWERS
1. 3.5 + 5.445 cos(20t – 10°) kW, 3.5 kW (b) S = 226.3 – j226.3 VA
Average power = 226.3 W
2. (20.19 kW)
Reactive power = –226.3 VAR
3. (15.361 kW, 0 W, 15.361 kW)
(c) S = 110.85 + j64 VA
4. (9.238 A, 768 W) Average power = 110.85 W

5. (70.71 V, 833.3 W) Reactive power = 64 VAR

(d) S = 7.071 + j7.071 kVA
6. (0.8321 lagging, 710 33.69° VA)
Average power = 7.071 kW
7. (a) 44 70° VA, 44 VA (b) 15.05 , 41.35 VAR Reactive power = 7.071 kVAR
(c) 0.342 lagging, 94.06 + j258.4
18. (a) 4 + j2.373 kVA
8. (28.36 W)
(b) 1.6 – j1.2 kVA
9. (258.5 W) (c) 0.4624 + j1.2705 kVA

10. (2.887 A) (d) 110.77 + j166.16 VA

11. (17.321 A, 3.6 kW) 19. 66.2 92.4° A, 6.62 –2.4° kVA

12. (2.944 V) 20. 221.6 –28.13° A

13. (3.332 A) 21. (a) 0.6402 (lagging) (b) 590.2 W (c) 130.4 F

14. (a) 0.7592, 6.643 kW, 5.695 kVAR (b) 312 F 22. (a) 50.14 + j1.7509 m
(b) 0.9994 (lagging)
15. (a) 0.5547 (leading) (b) 0.9304 (lagging)
(c) 2.392 –2° kA
16. (a) 46.9 V, 1.061 A (b) 20 W
23. (a) 1,835.9 – j114.68 VA
17. (a) S = 112 + j194 VA
(b) 0.998 (leading)
Average power = 112 W
Reactive power = 194 VAR
18 Network Theory KIL L ERG EN IX

Review Questions
Q.1 The average power absorbed by an inductor is
zero.
(a) True (b) False

Q.2 The Thevenin impedance of a network seen

60°
from the load terminals is 80 + j55 . For
500 W
maximum power transfer, the load impedance
must be (a) 1000 VAR leading

(a) –80 + j55 (b) –80 – j55 (b) 1000 VAR lagging

(c) 80 – j55 (d) 80 + j55 (c) 866 VAR leading

(d) 866 VAR lagging
Q.3 The amplitude of the voltage available in the
60 Hz, 120 V power outlet in your home is Q.8 For the power triangle in figure, the apparent
(a) 110 V (b) 120 V power is

(c) 170 V (d) 210 V 30°

1000 VAR
Q.4 If the load impedance is 20 – j20, the power
factor is
(a) –45° (b) 1
(c) 0.7071 (d) none of these (a) 2000 VA (b) 1000 VAR
(c) 866 VAR (d) 500 VAR
Q.5 A quantity that contains all the power
information in a given load is the Q.9 A source is connected to three loads Z1, Z2 and
(a) power factor (b) apparent power Z3 in parallel. Which of these is not true?
(c) average power (d) reactive power (a) P = P1 + P2 + P3
(e) complex power (b) Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
(c) S = S1 + S2 + S3
Q.6 Reactive power is measured in
(d) S = S1 + S2 – S3
(a) Watts (b) VA
(c) VAR (d) None of these Answers :
Q.7 In the power triangle shown in figure, the 1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (e)
reactive power is
6. (c) 7. (d) 8. (a) 9. (c)
10
Chapter
Magnetically Coupled Circuits

10.1 Introduction
Upto this point, we have seen that one way in which the terminal current and voltage of one element can
affect the behaviour of other is through their terminal-to-terminal interconnection using perfectly conducting
wires. The circuit are regarded as conductivity coupled. When two loops with or without contacts between
them affect each other through the magnetic field generated by one of them, they are said to be magnetically
coupled.

10.2 Self Inductance

Let us consider an inductor, with ‘N’ turns in Fig. 10.1. When current ‘i’ flows through the coil a magnetic
flux is produced around it. According to Faraday’s law, the voltage ‘v’ induced in the coil is proportional to
the number of turns ‘N’ and the time rate of change of the magnetic flux , that is,
d
v(t) = N ...(10.1)
dt

i( t ) v( t )

Fig. 10.1 : Magnetic flux produced by a single coil with N turns

But the flux is produced by current ‘i’ so that any change in is caused by a change in the current.
Hence, equation can be written as,
d di
v(t) = N ...(10.2)
dt dt
di(t )
or, v(t) = L ...(10.3)
dt
Which is the voltage-current relationship for the inductor, where the passive sign convention is assumed.
The physical basis for such a current-voltage characteristic rests upon two things:
• The production of magnetic flux by a current, the flux being proportional to the current in linear
inductors.
• The production of a voltage by the time varying magnetic field, the voltage being proportional to
the time rate of change of the magnetic field or the magnetic flux.
• The inductance L of the inductor is thus given by
d
L= N
di(t )
This inductance is commonly called self inductance, because it relates the voltage induced in a coil
by a time varying current in the same coil.
2 Network Theory KIL L E RG E N IX

10.3 Mutual Inductance

When two coils are placed close to each other, a change in current in the first coil produces a change in
magnetic flux, which links not only the coil itself but also the second coils as well. The change in the flux
induces voltage in the second coil. This voltage is called induced voltage and the two coils are said to have a
mutual inductance.
Now consider two coils with self inductances L1 and L2 that are in close proximity with each other as
shown in Fig. 10.2. Coil-1 has N1 turns, while coil-2 has N2 turns. Suppose a current i1(t) is flowing in first coil
and current flowing in coil establishes a flux about itself and also about a second coil nearby. The time varying
flux surrounding the second coil produces a voltage across the terminals of the second coil. This voltage is
proportional to the time rate of change of the current flowing through the first coil. The magnetic flux 1
emanating from coil-1 has two components, one component 11 links only coil-1, and another component 12
links both coils.
Hence, 1 = 11 + 12

L1 L2
+ +
12
11

I 1( t ) v( t) V 2( t )

– –
N1 turns N2 turns

Fig. 10.2 : Mutual inductance M21 of coil-2 with respect to coil-1

Although the two coils are physically separated, they are said to be magnetically coupled. Since the
entire flux 1 links coil-1, the voltage induced in coil-1 is,
d 1 di1 (t )
v1(t) = N 1 L1
dt dt
Only flux 12 links coil-2, so the voltage induced in coil-2 is,
d 12 d 12 di1 (t ) di1 (t )
v2(t) = N 2 N2 M 21
dt di1 (t ) dt dt
d 12
where, M21 = N 2 ...(10.4)
di1 (t )
M21 is known as the mutual inductance of coil-2 with respect to coil-1.
The order of the subscripts on M21 indicates that a voltage response is produced at L2 by a current
source at L1. If the system is reversed, as indicated in Fig. 10.3, then we have
di2 (t )
v1(t) = M12 ...(10.5)
dt
L1 L2
+ +
21
22

V 1(t) v 2(t ) i2 ( t )

– –
N 1 turns N2 turns

Fig. 10.3 : Mutual inductance M12 of coil-1 with respect to coil-2

KIL L E R G E N IX EC : THEORY BOOK 3

Two coefficients of mutual inductance are not necessary. However, we will use energy relationship a
little later to prove that M12 and M21 are equal. Thus, M12 = M21 = M, the existence of mutual coupling between
two coils is indicated by a double headed arrow, as shown in Fig. 10.2 and Fig. 10.3.

Note : It is important to know that mutual coupling exist only when the inductors are placed close
together and input excitation is time varying.

10.3.1 Dot Convention

The inductor is a two terminal element, and we are able to use the passive sign convention in order to
select the correct sign for the voltage Ldi/dt or j LI. If the current enters the terminal at which the positive
voltage reference is located, then the positive sign is used. Mutual inductance, however, cannot be treated in
exactly the same way because four terminals are involved. The choice of a correct sign in established by use of
one of several possibilities that include the ‘Dot convention’. By this convention, a dot is placed in the circuit at
one end of each of the two magnetically coupled coils to indicate the direction of the magnetic flux. The dots
are used along with the dot convention to determine the polarity of the mutual voltage. We determine the sign
of the mutual voltage as follows:
Case-1 :

i1 ( t) i2 ( t) Current i1( t) and i2( t) enter the coils

through the dot terminal thus the
+
mutual induction supports the self
+

inductor.
V1(t ) L1 L2 V2( t )

– –

Case-2 :

Current i1( t) and i2( t) enter the coils

i1 ( t) i2 ( t) through the dot terminal and leave
the coil through the dot terminal
+
res p ec t ively t hu s m u t u a l
+

in d u c t a n ce a p p os e t h e s e lf
inductor.
V1(t ) L1 L2 V2( t )

– –

Case-3 :

Current i1( t) and i2( t) leave the coils

i1 ( t) i2 ( t) through the dot terminal and enters
the coil through the dot terminal
+
res p ec t ively t hu s m u t u a l
+

in d u c t a n ce a p p os e t h e s e lf
inductor.
V1(t ) L1 L2 V2( t )

– –
4 Network Theory KIL L E RG E N IX
Case-4 :

i1 ( t) i2 ( t) Current i1( t ) and i2( t) leave the coils

through the dot terminal thus the
+
mutual induction supports the self
+

inductor.
V1(t ) L1 L2 V 2( t )

– –

Case-5 :

Current i1( t ) and i2( t) leave the coils

+ + through the dot terminal thus the
mutual induction supports the self
inductor.
V1(t ) L1 L2 V 2( t )

– –

i1 ( t) i2 ( t)

Case-6 :

Current i1( t ) and i2( t ) enter the coils

through the dot terminal and leave
+ +
the coil through the dot terminal
res p ect ively t hu s m u t u a l
in d u c t a n c e a p p os e t h e s e lf
V1(t ) L1 L2 V 2( t )
inductor.

– – +

i1 ( t) i2 ( t)
+

Case-7 :

Current i1( t ) and i2( t) leave the coils

through the dot terminal and enter
+ +
the coil through the dot terminal
res p ect ively t hu s m u t u a l
in d u c t a n c e a p p os e t h e s e lf
V1(t ) L1 L2 V 2( t )
inductor.

– –

i1 ( t) i2 ( t)

Case-8 :
Current i1( t ) and i2( t ) enter the coils
+ +
through the dot terminal thus the
mutual induction supports the self
inductor.
V1(t ) L1 L2 V 2( t )

– –

i1 ( t) i2 ( t)
KIL L E R G E N IX EC : THEORY BOOK 5

Analysis of Circuits having Coupled Inductors

Circuits having mutually coupled inductors can be solved with basic circuit analysis techniques and
proper use of dot convention. Following steps are used for solving these circuits:
• Step-1 : Assign mesh currents, for magnetically coupled circuits. It is much easier to write mesh
equations than the nodal equations.
• Step-2 : Obtain mesh equations by applying KVL taking mutual voltage into account. Polarity of
mutual voltage can be find out using dot convention.
• Step-3 : Solve for the mesh currents.
For example consider the circuit shown in Fig. 10.4 below.
R1 M R2

+ +
v 1( t) i1 ( t) L1 L2 i2 ( t ) v 2( t)
– –

Fig. 10.4 : Analysis of circuit containing coupled coils

Writing mesh equations:

di1 (t ) di (t )
Loop-1 : v1(t) = i1 (t ) R1 L1 M 2
dt dt
Since, current i2(t) is entering at the dotted terminal of coil-2, the mutual voltage at coil-1 will be
positive at the dotted terminal of coil-1. Similarly, for the second loop.
di2 (t ) di (t )
Loop-2 : v2(t) = i2 (t ) R2 L2 M 1
dt dt
In the frequency domain the above two mesh equations can be written as,
V1 = (R1 + j L1) I1 + j MI2
V2 = (R2 + j L2) I2 + j MI1

10.3.2 Series and Parallel Connection of Coupled Coils

There are four possible ways of connecting coil in series and parallel. We will analyze each case one by one:
Case-I : Series Aiding Connection
Fig. 10.5 shows the series connection of two coupled inductors with self inductance L1, L2 and mutual
inductance M. The currents in both inductors at any instant of time are in same direction relative to the like
terminals. This is called series aiding connection. To find out a total inductance in this case, consider the circuit
given in the Fig. 10.6. Writing KVL in the loop, by taking mutual voltage into account,

di(t ) di(t ) di(t ) di(t )

v(t ) L1 M L2 M
dt dt dt dt
Mutual voltage at Mutual voltage at
coil-1 due to coil-2 coil-2 due to coil-1
6 Network Theory KIL L E RG E N IX

i( t)
a
M + L1 L2

i (t ) i( t) v( t )

L1 L2
–
Fig. 10.5 : Two series connected linear b
Leq
(Series aiding connection)
Fig. 10.6 : Circuits to obtain equivalent inductance
of series aiding connection

Comparing the relationship with:

di(t )
v(t) = Leq
dt
we have, Leq = L1 + L2 + 2 M ...(10.6)
Case-II : Series Opposing Connection
Fig. 10.7 shows the series connection of two coupled inductors with self inductance L1, L2 and mutual
inductance M. The currents in both inductors at any instant of time are in opposite direction relative to the like
terminals. This is called series opposing connection. To find out a total inductance in this case, consider the
circuit given in the Fig. 10.8. Writing KVL in the loop, by taking mutual voltage into account,

di(t ) di(t ) di(t ) di(t )

v(t ) L1 M L2 M
dt dt dt dt
Mutual voltage at Mutual voltage at
coil-1 due to coil-2 coil-2 due to coil-1

i( t)
a
M + L1 L2

i( t ) i (t ) v( t )

L1 L2
–
Fig. 10.7 : Two series connected inductor b
Leq
(Series opposing connection)
Fig. 10.8 : Circuits to obtain equivalent inductance
of series opposing connection

Comparing the relationship with:

di(t )
v(t) = Leq
dt
we have, Leq = L1 + L2 – 2 M ...(10.7)
Case-III : Parallel Connection of Coupled Coils
Fig. 10.9 shows the parallel connection of two coupled coils L1 and L2 having mutual inductance M. The
equivalent inductance for the circuit shown in Fig. 10.9 is,
L1 L2 M 2
Leq = ...(10.8)
L1 L2 2 M
KIL L E R G E N IX EC : THEORY BOOK 7

L1 L2

Fig. 10.9 : Pair of coupled coils in parallel

Case-IV : Parallel Connection of Coupled Coils

Fig. 10.10 shows the parallel connection of the coupled coils L1 and L2 having mutual inductance M. The
equivalent inductance for the circuit shown in Fig. 10.10 is,
L1 L2 M 2
Leq =
L1 L2 2 M

L1 L2

Fig. 10.10 : Pair of coupled coils in parallel

Note :
• Coefficient of coupling:

M = k L1 L2

where, 0 k 1 or equivalent, 0 M L1 L2 .
• If the entire flux produced by one coil links another coil, then k = 1 and we have 100 percent
coupling, or the coils are said to be perfectly coupled. For k < 0.5, coils are said to be loosely
coupled; and for k > 0.5. They are said to be tightly coupled.

Remember :
• Linear transformer of Fig. (a) can be replaced by a T-equivalent circuit in Fig. (b).

I 1 (t ) M I2 ( t)
I1 La Lb I2
+ +
+ +

V1( t) L1 L2 V2( t) V1 V2
Lc

– –
– –

(a) (b)

La = L1 – M, Lb = L2 – M and Lc = M
8 Network Theory KIL L E RG E N IX
• Linear transformer of Fig. (a) can be replaced by a -equivalent circuit in Fig. (c).
I1 LC I2
+ +

V1 LA LB V2

– –
(c )
2
L1 L2 M L1 L2 M 2 L1 L 2 M 2
LA ; LB and LC
L2 M L1 M M

10.4 The Ideal Transformer

An ideal transformer is one with perfect coupling (k = 1). It consists of two (or more) coils with a large
number of turns wound on a common core of high permeability. Because of this high permeability of the core,
the flux links all the turns of both coils, thereby resulting in a perfect coupling. The coil on the input side is
termed the primary, and that one the output side is secondary. The primary coil is wound so that is has N1
turns, while the secondary has N2 turns. We define the turns ratio ‘n’ as,
N2
n= ...(10.9)
N1

Voltage Ratio
Fig. 10.11 illustrates the convention by which voltages and currents are usually assigned at a transformer.
When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to the primary winding, the same magnetic flux goes through both
windings.
I1 ( t ) N1 : N 2 I 2( t )
+ +

V1( t) L1 L2 V 2( t )

– –

Fig. 10.11 : An ideal transformer

According to Faraday’s law, the voltage across the primary winding is,
d
v1(t) = N 1 ...(10.10)
dt
while that across the secondary winding is,
d
v2(t) = N 2 ...(10.11)
dt
Dividing equation (10.10) by equation (10.11), we get,
v2 ( t ) N2
= n
v1 (t ) N1
when ‘n’ is the turns ratio or transformation ratio as defined by equation (10.9). In terms of phasor
voltages V1 and V2 equation may be written as,
V2 N
= 2 n ..(10.12)
V1 N1
KIL L E R G E N IX EC : THEORY BOOK 9

Equation (10.12), states that the ratio of primary voltage to secondary voltage is equal to the ratio of
primary turns of secondary turns.

Note : If n > 1, the output voltage is greater than the input voltage (V2 > V1) and the transformer is
called a step-up transformer. If n < 1, then the output voltage is less than the input voltage (V2 < V1)
and the transformer is called a step-down transformer.

Current Ratio
For the reason of power conservation, the energy supplied to the primary must equal the energy absorbed
by the secondary, since there are no losses in an ideal transformer. This implies that,
v1(t) i1(t) = v2(t) i2(t) ...(10.13)
In phasor form equation (10.13) in conjunction with equation (10.12) becomes,
I1 V2
= n
I2 V1
showing that the primary and secondary currents are related to the turns ratio in the inverse manner as
the voltages.
I2 N1 1
Thus, = ...(10.14)
I1 N2 n
It is important that we know how to get the proper polarity of the voltages and the direction of the
currents for the transformer in Fig. 10.11. If the polarity of V1 or V2 or the direction of I1 or I2 is changed, ‘n’ in
equation (10.12) to (10.14) may need to be replaced by –n. The two simple rules to follow are:
• If V1 and V2 are both positive or both negative at the dotted terminals, use +n in equation (10.12).
Otherwise, use –n.
• If I1 and I2 both enter into or both leave the dotted terminals, use –n in equation (10.14). Otherwise,
use +n.
The rules are demonstrated with the four circuits in Fig. 10.12.

I1 N 1 : N2 I2 I1 N 1 : N2 I2
+ + + +

V1 L1 L2 V2 V1 L1 L2 V2

– – – –

V2 N2 I2 N1 V2 N2 I2 N1
V1 N1 I1 N2 V1 N1 I1 N2
I1 N 1 : N2 I2 I1 N 1 : N2 I2
+ + + +

V1 L1 L2 V2 V1 L1 L2 V2

– – – –

V2 N2 I2 N1 V2 N2 I2 N1
V1 N1 I1 N2 V1 N1 I1 N2

Fig. 10.12 : Typical circuits illustrating proper voltage polarities

and current directions in an ideal transformer
10 Network Theory KIL L E RG E N IX
Reflected Impedance
I1 I2
1 :n

+ +
V +
– V1 V2 ZL
– –

Fig. 10.13 : Relating primary and secondary quantities in an ideal transformer

The input impedance as seen by the source in Fig. 10.13 is found from equation (10.12) and (10.14) as,
V1 1 V2
Zin =
I1 n2 I2
V2
It is evident from Fig. 10.13, that ZL , so that,
I2
ZL
Zin =
n2
The input impedance is also called the reflected impedance, since it appears as if the load impedance is
reflected to the primary side.

Note : This ability of the transformer to transform a given impedance into another impedance provides
us a means of impedance matching to ensure maximum power transfer.

Eliminating the Transformer by Reflecting Impedances and Sources from one side to other
Consider the circuit of Fig. 10.14. There are two ways of analyzing the circuit. One is, by reflecting the
secondary side impedance and voltages to the primary side and the other is, by reflecting primary side impedance
to the secondary side.
Z1 Z2
I1 1 :n I2
a c

+ +
Vs1 +– V1 V2 +
– Vs2
– –

b d

Fig. 10.14 : Ideal transformer circuit whose equivalent circuits are to be found

Method-1 : Reflecting the Secondary Circuit to the Primary side

The general rule for eliminating the transformer and reflecting the secondary circuit to the primary side
is divide the secondary impedance by n2, divide the secondary voltage by n, and multiply the secondary current
by n, as shown in Fig. 10.15.
2
Z1 Z2/n
a
+

Vs1 +– V1 +
– Vs2/n

+
b
Fig. 10.15 : Equivalent circuit
KIL L E R G E N IX EC : THEORY BOOK 11

Method-2 : Reflecting the Primary Circuit to the Secondary side

The general rule for eliminating the transformer and reflecting the primary circuit to the secondary side
is multiply the primary impedance by n2, multiply the primary voltage by n, and divide the primary current by
n, as shown in Fig. 10.16.
2
n Z1 Z2
c
+

nV s1 +
– V2 +
– Vs2

+
d

Fig. 10.16 : Equivalent circuit

Example 10.1 : Calculate the phasor currents I1 and I2 in the circuit of figure.
j3
–j4

12 0° +
– I1 j5 j6 I2 12

Solution :
For coil KVL gives,
–12 + (–j4 + j5) I1 – j3I2 = 0 or jI1 – j3I2 = 12 ...(i)
For coil 2 KVL gives,
–j3I1 + (12 + j6) I2 = 0
(12 j 6) I 2
or, I1 = (2 j 4) I 2 ...(ii)
j3
Substituting this in equation (i), we get,
(j2 + 4 – j3) I2 = (4 – j) I2 = 12
or I2 = 2.91 14.04° A ...(iii)
From equation (ii) and (iii), I1 = (2 – j4) I2
= (4.472 –63.43°) (2.91 14.04) = 13.01 –49.39° A

Example 10.2 : Consider the circuit in figure. Determine the coupling coefficient, calculate the
energy stored in the coupled inductors at time t = 1s if v = 60 cos(4t + 30°) V.
2.5 H
10

v +
– 5H 4H 1/16 F
12 Network Theory KIL L E RG E N IX
Solution :
M 2.5
The coupling coefficient is, k= 0.56
L1 L2 20
Indicating that the inductors are tightly coupled. To find the energy stored, we need to calculate the
current. To find the current, we need to obtain the frequency domain equivalent of the circuit,
60 cos(4t + 30°) 60 30°, = 4 rad/sec
5H j L1 = j20
2.5 H j M = j10
4H j L2 = j16
1 1
F j4
16 j C
The frequency domain equivalent is shown in figure given below. We now apply mesh analysis.
For mesh-1 :
(10 + j20) I1 + j10I2 = 6 30° ...(i)
For mesh-2 :
j10I1 + (j16 – j4) I2 = 0 or I1 = –1.2I2
Substituting this into equation (i) yields,
I2(–12 – j14) = 60 30°
I2 = 3.254 160.6° A
and I1 = –1.2I2 = 3.905 –19.4° A
In the time-domain, i1 = 3.905 cos(4t – 19.4°)
i2 = 3.254 cos(4t + 160.6°)
At time t = 1s, 4t = 4 rad = 229.2°
and i1 = 3.905 cos(229.2° – 19.4°) = –3.389 A
i2 = 3.254 cos(229.2° + 160.6°) = 2.824 A
The total energy stored in the coupled inductor is,
1 2 1 2
W = L1 i1 L2 i 2 Mi1 i2
2 2
1 1
= (5) ( 3.389)2 (4)(2.824)2 2.5( 3.389) (2.824)
2 4
= 20.73 J

j10
10

60 30° V +– I1 j20 j16 I2 –j4

KIL L E R G E N IX EC : THEORY BOOK 13

Example 10.3 : In the circuit of figure, calculate the input impedance and current I1.
(Take Z1 = 60 – j100 , Z2 = 30 + j40 and ZL = 80 + j60 ).

Z1 j5 Z2

5 0 6 0° V + I1 j20 j40 I2 ZL
–

Solution :

(5)2
Solving the circuit we get, Zin = Z1 j 20
j 40 Z2 ZL

25
= 60 j 100 j 20 60 j80 0.14 51.84
110 j 140
= 60.09 – j80.11 = 100.14 –53.1°
V 50 60
Thus, I1 = 0.5 113.1 A
Zin 100.14 53.1

Example 10.4 : An ideal transformer is rated at 2400/120 V, 9.6 kVA, and has 50 turns on the
secondary side. Calculate (a) the turns ratio (b) the number of turns on the primary side and (c) the
current ratings for the primary and secondary windings.
Solution :
(a) This is a step-down transformer.
Since, V1 = 2400 V > V2 = 120 V
V2 120
n= 0.05
V1 2400
N2 50 50
(b) n= 0.05 or N1 = 1000 turns
N1 N1 0.05
(c) S = V1I1 = V2I2 = 9.6 kVA
9600 9600
Hence, I1 = 4A
V1 2400

9600 9600 I1 4
I2 = 80 A or I2 = 80 A
V2 120 n 0.05

Example 10.5 : For the ideal transformer circuit of figure. (a) The source current I1 (b) The output
voltage Vo and (c) The complex power supplied by the source.

I1 4 – j6 I2
1:2

+ + +
1 20 0° Vrms +
– V1 V2 Vo 20
– – –
14 Network Theory KIL L E RG E N IX
Solution :
(a) The 20 impedance can be reflected to the primary side and we get,
20 20
ZR = 5
n2 4
Thus, Zin = 4 – j6 + ZR = 9 – j6 = 10.82 –33.69°
120 0 120 0
I1 = 11.09 33.69 A
Zin 10.82 33.69
(b) Since both I1 and I2 leave the dotted terminals,
1
I2 = I1 5.545 33.69 A
n
Vo = 20I2 = 110.9 213.69° V
(c) The complex power supplied is,

S = VS I 1 = (120 0°) (11.09 –33.69°) = 1330.8 –33.69° VA

Example 10.6 : Calculate the power supplied to the 10 resistor in the ideal transformer circuit of
figure.
20
2:1
+ +
V1 V2
– –
120 0° Vrms +
– I1 I2 10

30

Solution :
Reflection to the secondary or primary side cannot be done with this circuit, there is direct connection
between the primary and secondary sides due to the 30 resistor. We apply mesh analysis.
For mesh-1 :
–120 + (20 + 30) I1 – 30I2 + Vi = 0 ...(i)
or, 50I1 – 30I2 + V1 = 120
For mesh-2 :
–V2 + (10 + 30) I2 – 30I1 = 0
or, –30I1 + 40I2 – V2 = 0 ...(ii)
1
At the transformer terminals, V1
V2 = ...(iii)
2
I1 = –2I1 ...(iv)
(Note that, n = 1/2) We now have four equations and four unknowns, but our goal to get I2.
So we substitute for V1 and I1 in terms of V2 and I2 in equation (i) and (ii). Equation (i) becomes,
–55I2 – 2V2 = 120 ...(v)
and equation (ii) becomes, 15I2 + 40I2 – V2 = 0
V2 = 55I2 ...(vi)
120
Substituting equation (vi) in (v), –165I2 = 120 I2 0.7272 A
165
The power absorbed by the 10 resistor is, P = (–0.7272)2 (10) = 5.3
KIL L E R G E N IX EC : THEORY BOOK 15

Practice Questions Q.6 For the circuit in the figure, determine the
impedance seen by the source.
Q.1 For the three coupled coils in figure, calculate
j2
the total inductance. 4 4
2H
–j2
4H 5H

1 6 0° V
+
– j5 j5
j2
6H 8H 10 H

Q.2 Determine the inductance of the three series

connected inductors of figure. Q.7 Obtain the Thevenin equivalent circuit for the
circuit in the figure at terminals a-b.
4H
j2
6H 6H
j5 – j3

10 H 12 H 8H j6 j8
10 90 ° V a

4 0° A
Q.3 For the circuit in figure, find Vo. +
– 2
b
j1
2 1 –j1

Q.8 Obtain the Norton equivalent circuit for the

1 2 0° V

+
+
– j6 j4 Vo 1 circuit in the figure at terminals a-b.
–
j
8 –j2
a
Q.4 Find Vx in the network shown in figure.
80 0° V

+
– j4 j6 2
j1
2 2

+ V – b
x
8 30 ° V

2 0° A

+
– j4 j4 – j1 Q.9 Find the Thevenin equivalent to the left of the
load Z in the circuit of figure.

k = 0.5
–j4 j2

Q.5 Find Leq in the network shown in figure.

j5 j20
120 0° V

4H +
2H – Z

4 + j6

L eq
6H 8H 10 H
Q.10 Find I 1 and I 2 in the circuit of the figure.
Calculate the power absorbed by the 4
resistor.
16 Network Theory KIL L E RG E N IX

j1 Q.15 Find the input impedance seen by source and

5 – j4 current I1 in the circuit of the figure.
I1 5 – j2 8 36
1:2 1 :3
j6 j3
36 30° V

24 0° V
+– 4 + j18
–
I1 I2
2

Q.16 Find I1, I2 and I3 in the circuit of the figure.

Q.11 If M = 0.2 H and Vs = 12 cos10t in the circuit of I1 4
1 :4
I2 5
1 :2
I3

figure, find i1 and i2.

120 0° V
+
– 10 40
M

i1 i2

0.5 H 1H Q.17 Consider the circuit shown in figure, the mutual

inductance of the coupled inductors is M. Match
Vs +
– 25 mF 5 List-I (Position of dots) with List-II (Inductor
voltage v2(t)) and choose the correct answer
using the codes below:
i1( t ) M
Q.12 Find the average power delivered to the 50 C
A
resistor in the circuit of figure.

10 v 1 (t ) v2 ( t )

0.5 H B
8 D

List-I List-II
40 cos20 t V

+
– 50 di1 (t )
1H 2H A. {A, C} 1. v2 (t ) M
dt
di1 (t )
B. {A, D} 2. v2 (t ) M
Q.13 Find I1 and I2 in the circuit of figure. dt
j16
C. {A, D}
I1 10 12 I2
1:2 D. {B, D}
–j8
16 60° V

10 30° V

+ + Codes:
– –
A B C D
(a) 2 1 2 1
(b) 1 1 2 2
Q.14 Find v(t) for the circuit in figure.
(c) 2 2 1 1
1/3 F (d) 1 2 2 1

Q.18 For the circuit shown in figure voltage Vo is,

1 2
1 :4 j1
1 1
+
4 cos3t

+
– v (t ) 5
20 0° V

+
– + j1 j2 Vo 1
–
–
KIL L E R G E N IX EC : THEORY BOOK 17

(a) 4.85 14° V (b) 2.6 53° V Q.22 In the ideal transformer circuit shown in figure,
(c) 4.85 76° V (d) 3.20 20° V the phasor voltages V1 and V2 are respectively.
2 + j3
Q.19 What is the voltage Vo in the circuit shown 1:5
below?
+ +

6 0° V
6H

100 – j 75
+– V1 V2
– –
3H
60 cos2t V +
– 18 H v o( t )
(a) 10 –36.86° V, 50 –36.86° V
(b) 3.6 56.3° V, 18 56.3° V
(c) 18 56.3° V, 3.6 56.3° V
(a) 10 cos2t (b) 50 cos2t
(d) 5 –36.86° V, –25 –36.86° V
(c) 40 cos2t (d) 30 cos2t
Q.23 In the ideal transformer circuit shown in figure,
Q.20 Consider the connection of two coupled
current I1 and I2 are respectively equal to
inductor L1 and L2 shown in Fig. (a) and Fig. (b)
I1 1 I2
respectively. The mutual inductance of the 2:1

coupled inductor is M.
40 30 ° V
L1 L2 +
– 1

Leq1 M (a) 32 30° A, 64 –150° A

(b) 8 30° A, 16 –150° A
(c) 32 30° A, 16 30° A
Fig. (a)
(d) 8 30° A, 4 30° A
L1 L2
Q.24 What is the input impedance seen by the source
in the circuit below?
Leq2 M 4 8
1:2
Source

+ j4
Fig. (b ) –

The relation between equivalent inductance of

Fig. (a) and Fig. (b) will be
(a) 36 + j16 (b) 4
(a) Leq1 > Leq2 (b) Leq1 = Leq2
(c) 12 + j4 (d) 6 + j1
(c) Leq1 < Leq2 (d) None of these
Q.25 Consider the circuit shown below:
Q.21 An ideal transformer consists of two coupled –j2 j2
coils. The primary winding and the secondary 2:1 1:4

winding. Let current in primary winding is IP 80

AC +
and in secondary winding is IS, then turns ratio source
–
–j 16
‘n’ is given by
IP IS 5
(a) n (b) n Impedance seen by the ac source is
IS IP
(a) 2.5 (b) 3.1 + 6j
IS2 IS
(c) n (d) n (c) 40 + 2j (d) 20 + 4j
I P2 IP
18 Network Theory KIL L E RG E N IX

ANSWERS
1. (10 H) 2. (22 H) 3. (540.5 144.6° mV)

4. (2.07 21.12° V) 5. (7.11 H) 6. (4.39 + 4.5j )

7. (5.3 34.11° V, 2.33 50° ) 8. (1.62 –12.9° A, 1.89 19.5° ) 9. (61.3 –46.2° V, 2.2 + 29.1j )

10. (4.2 –8.51° A, 1.56 27.5° A, 4.8 W)

11. 5.06 cos(10t + 52.5°) A, 2.71 cos(10t – 100.8°) A

12. (174.05 mW) 13. (1.07 5.8° A, 0.53 185.8° A) 14. 3.93 cos(3t + 59.9°) V

15. (8.0 – 1.5j , 2.95 10.6° A) 16. (1.2 A, 4.8 A, 0.96 A) 17. (d)

18. (a) 19. (b) 20. (a)

21. (a) 22. (d) 23. (b)

24. (d) 25. (c)