CC 9-6 Highway beatification 9-7 Environmental laws 8-8 Environmental effects of highways 9-9 Construction and relation to roadside evelopment 9-10 Vegetation andthe highways 9-11 Parking and rest areas (CHAPTER-10 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING 10-1. Road trafic signs 10-2. Basie principle of road signs 10-3, Warning (Danger) signs 10-4 Invertetion signs 10-5. Prescription sign 10-6 Obligation signs 10-7 End of prescription signs 10-8. iroction signe 10-9 Informative sign 10-10 Traffic signals TO-1T Pavement markings 10-12 Guidepost and markings 3 Guardrail 10-14 Coneretebarier 10-15 Highway and urban steet operations 10-16 Traffic control 10-17 Preeway and expressway operation 1-18 Street ihting 10-19 Sweet parking 10-20 Highway capacity and level of service 37 a8 319 zi 321 m3 325 308 329 34 339 33 Bas 346 309 352 360 an, 37 39 382 385 386 388 390 391 curren 1 THE HIGHWAY AND ITS DEVELOPMENT 1-1 Brief History of Roads arly roads with hard surfaces were found in the lad of Mesopotamia. ‘These roads were construct as early as 3,500 BBC. Another stone surface roads were also found inthe Medi terranean island of Crete, similaly constructed as those inthe Wester Hemisphere by the Mayans, Azies ard the Incas of Central South Arvriea ‘The early roa systoms were constructed primarily forthe following purposes: 1. For the movement of armies in their conquest and for de~ fense against invasion 2, For transport of food and trade of goods between neighboring towns and cities, ‘The Romans, who discovered cement, expanded ther vast. empire through extensive road networks radiating in many di rections from the capital city of Rome. Many ofthe roads built bythe Romans sil exist even ater 2,000 years Characteristcally, Roman Roads were laid on thre courses 1A layer of smal broken stones. 2. Followed by lyerof sill stones mixed with mortar and then compacted firmly 3. Wearing couse of massive stone bloeks properly se and bedded with cement mortar.ments of Roads and Highways Daring the 17° cen, under the rgn of Napoleon the Great, France made a gyeat stide on road bugs. Jerome ‘Tresaguet (1716-1796) the famous French Engincer introduced new methods of construction and maintenance of stone roads. He improved the crown, the drainage, and the grade ofthe road, ‘neluding the stone foundation by rdocing, the depth of broken stones 10 25 centimeters, Tresaguet made it possible for Napo- Jeon to build the massive highways of Francs, He was accred- ited the tile “Kather of modern road building ‘Thuy years later, a Seotsh Bagincer born in Westminster Abbey, Thomas Telford (1757-1838), president and founder of the Institute of Civil Engine, inoxiced some improvements in the consinction methods of Jerome Tresaguct. The road foundation course of Telford was made of ones having 3 inches minimum thickness, $ inches breadth and 7 inches height Smaller stones were driven by mauls on top voids and nied the surfaces by breaking the projecting poins. Telford poe & fa -pade, provng ght own wang ens ‘of varying Sizes England followed the ongoing highway development started by France The’ Macadam road concept named afer John [Louden Mac Adam (1755-1836), another famous Scottish En- tineer road builder and contemporary of Telford, was deve ‘oped and widely accepted. The invention of road building ‘equipment eshances the development of roads in Europe. In 1858, Eli Blake invented the fist stone crusher and atthe same period, a steam road roller weighing 30 tons was introduced in France by ts menor, Aveling and Porter. 1-2 Early Laws that Regulates Roadway ‘The early Saxon Laws imposes three mandatory duties for the people to perform, namely 1 To repair the roads and bridges 2. Torepair the eases ad the garrisons 3. Toad repel invasions. The Highway and is Development ‘After the Norman Conquest of England, it was decread that 1. The king's Highway is sacred, Anybody who occupies any portion thereof, by exceoting the boundaries of is land, i considered to have eneoached on the king him- self. Reads are for public use. All persons who want 10 {se them may do so. 2. Property owners adjoining the roads were required to drain the road, lip any bordering hedges, and refrain from plowing and planting ees, shrubs, or bushes closer ‘than the specified distance from the center ofthe road. 1K yas made clear thatthe goverment concept towards the use of roads includes upholding the right of the public to use them without interference Since the toad is intended for the ‘benefit ofthe people, in rtur, it becomes their duty to protect, and maintain the roadway In the ealy part of 1900, ransportations inthis country de- pended largely on tails, waterway, riltoad, earth roads and partially graveled reads: Highway in the Philipines a that tne {s nothing more than a dream to most Filipinas, The American ‘government iniuated the development of roadways in the Phil= ‘pines, connecting towns, ets and provinces. The popular Macadaen road type was introduced. It gained wide acceptance ‘bause of the abundant supply of stones and gravel ‘After the Second World War, the new independent Pilip- pie government, continued the rehabilitation and construction ‘of roads and bridges, through the reparations and war damages paid by the Japanese government. Other financial grants and fds received fom the U.S, government were used in the con ‘tniction and habitation of rads and bridges. Fifty years later, major highways and expressways were constmeted through the financial assistance and loans fromElements of Ross and Highwa foreign banks. Alongside with the industalization program of the government, vehicles of various types and size. started Aooding the roadways. Recent Land Transportation records te= vealed that, more than 80,000 brand new vehicles were added to their lists every year_At an average of 5.00 mers road ooet praney by these weices, the DPWH must open 40 Tilemotrs new roads every year. Tis data didnot inclade yet the roadway for second hand or surplus assembled cars. With this statistical Feport, solution to traffic problems is nowhere insight. Traffic problems ae expected to worsen year afer yest The year 1960 to ealy pat of 1980 was considered an ‘aulomobile age. Cars were no longer regarded as Tuxry item but a necessity in transporting people and 2oods, a necessity for survival Government new concept of development is to gt the farmers out of the mod. Tt was during this deeade that radeon struction becomes a matter of pronty ofthe government under the logan. * This nation is on Wheels" Development and maintenance of roads and highways is @ continung process alongside with the technological advance rent. New equpment and management techniques tevoution- ‘zed the construction and. maintenance methods. Advance knowledge in the field of soils, highway materials, and designs were adopted for reliability and econcmic considerations. Enginces are conscious ofthe neod for roadways tobe safe, useful, and atractive. This neods include inprovement of the toadsde, erosion control, and poise abatement They are aware ofthe fact that highways are vital vo the county's development Unfortunately, highway’ planners are confonted with problems categorized as follows 1 Financial 2 Political and 3 Techmeal| en ee ‘The Highway and its Development ‘The presen economic condition is related to the govern- ment budgetary expenditures for payment of foreign debt amor tization amounting to billions of pesos a month, Appropriations fof funds for road consirctons and maintenance, ret severe iffcutes that sometimes, highway’ development plans are ‘Shelves temporaniy for lack o nds. Comprehensive road development plans that are carefully studied by technical experts are twisted, or flexed down by po Titical muscles, to suit politcal interests Roads and highways plan were either, defer, amended or realigned for political reasons. AS a consequence, diffrent laws with conflicting ur poses and procedures impeie or obstruct implementations eaus- sng delay of no action tall. Politicians now control DPWH projects as their source of political funds. Highway sri enginoer's qualification 1s imply subservience to the politician "Do what I say oe get ot ‘of my district, Listing of projets given tothe district engine has the corresponding name of favored corractrs- the willing ‘vets giving SOP in cash advances. Rational Planing is no longer the objective proces, basod on vaining, and expertise coneering the actual noods of the people, buts rather, «political decision, Not even the Sscrtary ‘of Public Works and Highways could say no because polities is the power that controls appropriations, budget and. appoint ‘ments ofthe prsidens cabinet members ‘As a consequence, public confidence tremendously een not only in the goverament's ability to abate thee problems, but also in the proficiency of the teehnial men to offer soli tions: Planers are now operating in a world of rapid chan and uncertainty, in the pobtical almosphere where decisions by magic, o oracles, carry more weight than those based on pro: fessional training, expertise and experiences, Indeed, ur pro fessionals more particularly the technical men, seems to have lost confidence im thyself, or even the solutions that they offerements of Roads and Highways ‘There are dre inseparable sets of inputs involved in high ‘way programming, they are 1. Reonomi - Deals with the questions of resources, 2. Financial - The question of who pays and who spends, ‘how much, an shee” ‘and Administration ~ This involves decision ‘making 3. Poli In highway programming, projcts are prioritized. Those that are most economically viable wore selected, they ft smo the financial capability and of course poicalenteria, Projects that failed on either financial or polical criteria ae abandoned, ‘modified for substitute, or an atrative but shall passed rigor. us tests, Highway Programming Approaches 1. Financial resoures are either short or long rang in- plementation by the agencies functions lke constrain, Sperations, and maintenance 2. Recognition of the lgslatve and administrative desire and consti 3, Tentative pres tas on conomic analysis, crcl situations, pesct ad fire expected eel of tai, and slams based on pial sbvsons 4. Prowfing conimsty of rot sytem and coordination swthother transportation mde 5. Selection of projects based on availabilty of Iabor and tei, fcding cima conditions, Schtling the projet implementation in corinton wh other agencies, aequing ight of way and aking Final plan snd peifstions 11. Bieta esr to cover merges ike ods and ber atiraldsasters 7 GC _ ‘The Highway and its Development Direct Effects of Highway Construction and its Use A. Quantfiable market value 1 Cost of highways as to Planning cost, Right of way appropriations. Constracton eos. Maintenance costs Operating costs. 2. Cost benefits ta highway users a. Vehicles operating costs (including congestion cost) net income ar deerease in costs of vehicle operation per year b, ‘Travel savings time (commercial), Net increase ‘or decrease tm eravel time muiplied By dhe peso value of commercial ime & Motorists safety (economic cost accident) Net change in expected number of accidents times the average cost per accident per year. B. Non-Quanifiable Non-Market Value 1. Cost benefits to highway user: Motorists safety» Accident cost of pain suffering and deprivation. Comfort and conversion ~ Discomfort, inconven- ienoe and strain of driving © Aesthetic from driving viewpoint - Benefit of pleasing views and scenery from rad G Quantifiable Non-Sarket Value 1. Cost benefits to highway users ~ "Traveling savings time, (on-commercal) Mines save pcr vehicle mpElements of Roads and Highways 16 The Planner Before any project comes to reality, thas to under rgor- ‘ous and careful studies with participation of several ine agen- ‘ies involved. Where proposals maybe opposed or questioned by other agencies, or inthe politial mill, the planner appoints ‘coordinators or eatalts, ta work out in exchanging information as tothe necds, goals, and allematve solutions ofthose who are affected, and to incorporate them into the planning and decision making ‘Where planers act as coordinators, catalysts of to work as ‘community advocates, should not be either partisan of advocate toa particular solution. Their oes 1. To provide echnical and organizational suppor. 2. Torwctive mput a information onthe needs and goals of affected persons group or agencies 3. Incorporate the above for planing and making decision, The planners role must be of a clarifier, expeiters,con- cilators and impartial negotiators. The myth of rationality must bbe avoided because they might believe that as professionals, they are uniquely super qualified to judge what is best for the society in their field of expertise and competence, They must accept that their personal values and goals are diferent from ‘other participants, “The Funetions ofthe Planners are: 1. To prepare preliminary design, soop of study and ‘he inital work program. Know the basic needs, plan and objectives of affected persons 2. Exploration of alternatives, Data gathering by contacting the representatives of other agencies involved 3. Detailed analysis, Prepare detailed plan for appropriate ‘community interaction Highways and its Development 4. Secure formal ratification from the local officials and have the results documented If nothing goes wrong, this step is considered fina Good cthies demand that planers should understand that their role ist provide knowledge and unbiased information, To be partisan and emocionally involved, wall only jeopardize theit credibility. This might give them the fling of personal defeat and dislusionment with thie profession, if the solutions that ‘they offered are onl thrown into the tas can, In a democratic government, the public has the right to hear and be heard. Much more to participate in public hearing where planning and decision making will be conducted before major Aeesions are made eis a common practice to cll public Rearing afer all mayor decisions were made and approved. lnded, public heating is m0 more than information forum for the publi to know what the Administration wants for tem, rather than, what the people ‘wants from them. Public hearing, should involved the public from the start of planning to give thom achanee to participate in the discussions and involved them in 1. Solicit the cooperation and suppor of public oficial, non-goverament organizations, influeatial persons and conservative group ofthe community. 2. Create special staf to cary out this function 3. Community leedcrhip opportunity t participate conn ‘ously in he planning stage 44 Organize and develop skiled persons to conduct group ‘meeting, workshops, hearing and other related activites, ‘A Country who will not avail of loans or grant fom foreignElements of Roads and Highways financing insutions will not Fel the great impact of their frastrcture projects, if domestic income through taxes alone will be depended on. Financing institution such asthe World Bank asst that projects to which they make grants orleans be justified. primarily on the economic basis According to W Glloepe, professor of Civil Enginsring athe Union Calle: ‘A minimum of expenses sof course, highly desirable: but the ‘road which is truly the cheapest 1s nat the one which har cost the Teast maney, but the one which makes the most profitable returns in proportion tothe amount expended upon i.” ‘Thete are many designs and administrative decjsons that ‘does not involve public policy, but these should be made by selecting the altemative that is cheapest inthe long ran. Mea ing the result from an econonie sty that reazonably inter preted mst prema ‘The intent of expenditures for highways and public transportations are enumerated s follows 1 To augment the county's lve of economy 2. To provide easy acess to working place 3. To facilitate pubic services, police, ite protection et To facilitate medical care, schooling and delivery of re= lated base serves, ‘To give landowner benefits to transportation and increase property assessment. 6, Benefit t motor vehicle users through lower cost of p- cations and maintenance 1. Benet time saving Less road accident. ‘To give maximum comfort and ease of travel Most ofthe country’s expenditures for highways and public transpor facilities are based on the principle of "Pay as you go” Meaning, road appropriations and expenditures depend on tax collections 10 ‘The Highways and its Development Legally, the appropriation and expenditures of taxes being the people's coninbuton to the government must be prorated proportionally to the diferent provinces municipalities and cit ‘es in terms of infrastructure projects and not just be concen- trated in specific place. Under that principle, progress of the conniry wld et very slow considering the Menger amount ach province wil et, and the infrastructure twill accomplish Hence, borrowing from foreign banks is the ulimate solutions of the government to deliver impact infrastructure projects to boost the economy and move quickly forward Arguments of those who Favors Borrowings are: 1. The need is immodite to have instant infrastructures 2. No impact project will be seen because the “pay as you 0" fund is seater through out the entire road system ‘where the sisation is most ert 4. Rorrowings eneaurage investrs because of ist progrost. Counter Arguments of those Against Finan structures through Borrowing: Infrae 1 Borrowing may impair the credit rating of government agencies obstrcting other more important improvements 2. If fatue income is committed to pay past improvements, ‘no more funds available to maintain the existing syst, 3, With much samount avilable temptation i there to over build and recklessly spend extravagantly 44 Interest ofthe loan isa big waste of public fonds 1-9 Computation and Survey Early enginering approach to highway and transportation problems were based on the results of thee computations with the aid of slide rule and replaced by calelator machine This ‘method is time consuming and was totally discarded im the ad- ‘ent of computers and ts appurtenancesements of Roads and Highvenys Today, most of the agencies have their own data processing and reporting is dane through computer networks, Engnoering approach to highway and transportation probleme are done {rough computer outpat from the simple to complex mates, Computers vam do pracessing data fr mony problems lie: 1. Projections and statsucal tudes of traffic and transit passengers. Economic analysis nancial programming Geometric. Bridges Pavement design and maintenance Pavement management Scheduling for design and construction Computation of earthworks and other quantities both for planning and payment of contrast ‘Computers are provided with steoo plotter for map making ‘and location. identification. "The computer base interactive sraphies could present problems ito the screen, focused on technical matters and management decisions making dat, ‘Various computer programs are abundantly available to solve the repetitive highway and transportation problens, ‘The computer graphics display a motorist view ofthe high- way so that the engineer could make appropriate treatment of certain portion as transition from cut 10 fils, route, locaton, alc, and Uanspotaion plain oe aiden analy, ‘The imeractve graphics is used without computer, referred to as environmental simulation. A remote controled (elevision ‘camera passes through small scales physical module ofthe area for route. The passage is recorded inthe tape andthe playback ‘ill show impression similar to that ofthe walker on the rad ot the vehicle diver. 2 ‘The Highways and its Development With the aid of sophisticated computers and its appurte- rnanes, engineering practice today isnot as difficult asthe time fof slide rule era. Computers are less prone 1 computational er= ror if correctly programmed. On the other hand, t00 much reli- lance om thie machine might be a trap forthe uninformed to a5- fume thatthe program inputs are absolutely correct, Decper Analysis and profesional attention to computer program is the key to accurate results that could be the basis for good deci= 1-10 Remote Sensing Remote sensing is otherwise called Photogrammetry. It is the science and at of obtaining measurements by means of pho tography. Photogrammetry is based on aerial photographs for ‘engineers working data on 1, Locations 2. Planning 3. Geometric design 4 Right of way 5. Traffic studies 6. Drainage. 7. Sol classifications and idenicatons, 1% Eaythwork measurements 8. Material location 1. Pavement condition survey 1-11 Photogrammetric Mapping, ‘A vertical aerial photograph taken by a camera pointed al- most straight downward is the most useful mapping for high- ‘way purposes. The area to be covered is photographed in paral- [el runs with the individual pictures lapped in the direction of the Might (end lap) and between suocessive run (side lap). For stereoscopic ues, the following must be considered 1. Ba lap must be greater than one half the picture widthlements of Roads and Highways specified not lss than 55% nor more than 65% in order tht the center of one picture is included in both adjeent photograph 2. ‘Side lap should average at 25% with es than 15, More than 35% is unacceptable 3, For making map parposs, the variable includes the focal length of the anal camera, the desired combination of ‘map scale and contour interval, and the ratio of map scale to photograph scale, Instruments used in converting data from aerial photo- graphs into maps are: 1. The Keteh and Balplex stereoscopic pots. 2. The wild autograph 3. The Kem PG? 4 The Zeiss Stereopanigraph Features that cannot be identified on the photographs are located by ground measurements. May importa pois to be included on the ground surveys are marked for easy ide ton on the photograph, Accuracy ofthe proud conteal tiang= lation necwork is when scald with the aerial photographs, The third order triangulation is acceptable in rural areas, and the second order triangulation for urban locations wherein the maximum errors in distance are 1 to S000 and 1 t0 10,000 re- spectively. An accurate angular triangulation measurements ceasly obtained by the use of Modem Theodolites. The distance ‘measurement 16 cariod out by an eleetronic distant measuring device (EDM) that employ inf rod light besms, microwave of ase ight The Photogrammetric technique coupled with digitizer, pro- duces distal terrain models. The horizontal and vertical posi tions ofthe ground surface, and eter photographic features are diecly wansferred from the matched aerial photograph to a ‘computer data bank The infomation is recalled andthe com- pute is programmed to develop showing the following “ ces ee The Highways and is Development Profiles oss sections Gat and fil earthwork quantities “The motors view ofthe road ‘Wath photographs and computer record data, «Separate map, could be pleted easily ike The highways ‘The drainage Housing Land use and zoning Property assessment ‘The ground field survey is done only as supplemental in completing the details of those that could not be produce inthe Photographs 1-12 Orthophotographs COnhophotographs is an aerial photograph corrected for scale and tit When the center portion are skilfully matched and copied, they appear tobe a single photograph that shows fa more detail than maps. The uncorrected oF patlly corectod photographs are combined to form a mosaic, considered beter for enginceing accuracy and right of way purposes, 1-13 Colored Photographs Aerial colored photograph presents a more detailed and pre- ise information on trafic and parking studies. It gives cleat information of the geological conditions, land use, source of material, surfaces and sub-surface drainage. An oblique phto= raph is used for special studios particulary, where the ground Condition is almost Nat or where cliffs are 29 seep that a black and white photograph could nat give sufficient etsements of Roads and Highways Early roads started from tails. Movements of people and the use of motor vehicles promptod road agencies to mprove road alignment minimizing Sharp curves Road wath vas tae araied an grades wore ittenta ‘New highway locations are blended with curvature grades and other readvay elements to offer, comfortable easy driving, fire flowing wafic artris, comply with the ules on safty standards "To improve the highways, there should be tentative plan as to the control, and minimum design speed, roadway cross see= tions and maximum slope with the following considerations: Reliable cost estimate Character and hourly distribution of tac: Beenomic and community benefit actor Availablity of fds Location surveys inthe rural areas are divided into 4 sages. 1. Reconnaissance survey of th ene area between ‘the terminal points 2 Reconnaissance survey ofall feasible routes. 3. Preliminary survey ofthe best route 4. Location survey staking ofthe right of way, the highway and the structure for construction, Activities Under sage 1 Recomolssance survey ofthe entre area 1. Stereoscopic examination of small scaled aerial photo= _raphs ofthe area supplemented by available maps 2. Determination control of photography and land use 3. Location of feasible routes based on photographs and maps. Under stage I! Reconnaissance survey of feasible route 6 “The Highways and its Development 1. Stereescopic examination of lnge-scae arial photor traps of each rout 2, Determination ofthe deaied consol of photography and Tand use 3, Preparation of route maps by Photogrammetric methods, 44 Lecation and comparison of feasible routs photo sraphs and maps 5, Selection ofthe best route ‘Stage Il Preliminary Survey ofthe Best route 1 Preparation of large scale topographic maps using the foute photograph and Photogrammetric methods or prepa- tation of large sale topographic maps by ground survey tzided by best route location made on phtographs inthe Second stage. 2. Design ofthe preliminary location Sage -IV Location Survey Staking of the ight of way’ and the highway’ and structures for constriction, 1-15 Location of Bridges Highways and Bridges have but one purpose ~ To convey trafic. The location and postion of a bridge is subordinate to the general alignvent and grade But sometimes, favorable alignment has t0 be sacrificed, only to provide right angle tossing to small eeak ately however, the general policy for minor roads isto de- termine the proper highway location, then provide the struc~ tures. A skewed bridge is comparatively more expeasve than the right angle bridge, The horizontal and verueal curvature shape of lage brie presents serious design and constuction problem, but the Finished product may result toa bate road way. Foundation design of piers and abutments has large effect ‘on costs, but costs not always the determining factor design‘The Highways and its Development The cost of bridge and its full approach combined before the crossing site should be determined. Bridge survey report should be accompanied with accurate data om the waterway ad the historical behavior of the water. The bridge survey’ data Shall include the foundation conditions, steam characteristics, and the adjacent structure on the stream more particulary, tht ‘waterway opening. ‘When the location of the bridge is approximately deter ‘mined, the fllowing requirements must be considered LA complete data report and special survey ofthe sit 2. Prepare sketches and fall cae map and profiles 3° The survey report must contain accurate data of the wa- erway for all behavior of water 4. There must be a complete report on the foundation condition and the sueam characterise, 5. A complete data of the adjacent structures particularly the waterway opening 16. Ifpossible, skewed bridge shouldbe avoided. 8 ‘The Highways and its Development Plans and specifications are set of documents of instructions and conditions under which highways and bridges are built. The Plan contains engincering drawings of the projec, whereas, the Ehcificatnos is a wten instructions and conditions consid ed as imegal part of the contract between the contractor and highway agency classified as egal documents “The complete detailed scheme forthe road which are incor- porated in the geometric desins are 1 The upper sheets allocate forthe plan, op view show= ing the horizontal alignment, right of way takings, rain age arrangement and other features. 2. The lower half is alloted to the profile where the original clevation of the ground surface is plotted. The roadway ‘centerline andthe vertical alignment or grade ine for the real is indicated, 3, The vertical seale of the profile is usually exaggeratedly enlarged fom five o ten times for precise detail 4, The profile and other details ofthe drainage, chanels or ‘connecting roads including ramps are also presented 5, The estimated earthwork quantities for every $0 meters station of oher intervals ate indicated along the bottom ‘of each shoot along with the estimated overbead. This ‘wil serve the enpinoer and the contractori i i j he Highways and its Development 6 The mhvay cross sections for every situation in the whole projet strech i indicated on another sheet of the a0, 7. Aner sheet of drassings shoving all structures and rexuvay appurtenances eluded S, Thea js ofthe drawing sheet ie SS em x 90 em, Partial et of sh covered by the standard drawing: 1. Pipe culver 2. Conerte bos eulvens 3. Guard ra sed porpe 4 Carbs 5. Gutters 6 Carbsinctures, 7. Saewal 8. Drainage mls outlet stroctares of merous types o. M 10. Rip-rap and othr devices used for bank protection 11. Fences and right of way 12. Other survey markers. ‘The Specifications Specifications writing is generally diferent and a delicate work requiring Knowledge of the law of contracts as well as highway practies and experiences. Specifications that ae care lessly writen and lonsely worded may result in the use of sub sfandard materials and poor workmanship. Mosty, i invalves ‘extra cost f0 the owner or the contactor and sometimes landed in court litigations. On the other hand, specifietions that are too restrictive are very costly Highway Specifications is Divided into Two: Specifications applies to project implemented tion which trent he subject dat repeatedly agency workElements of Roads and Highways Special Provisions covers eculat item of the project n ‘question that nclode addiuonal modification to standard specifications. This incledes copies ofall documents r= (quired in securing competitive bids and contracts, Speci fications ae also subdivided into two 42), The gona clause hat deals with the bidding proce- dures and award exeeution and contol of work nd ther legal maters 'b). Specifying detail regarding the materials, manner of ‘work execution and how pay quantities are tobe measured > ee ___ CHAPTER 2 DESIGNING THE HIGHWAY 2-1 Consistency Consistency is the most important single rule in highway esign. That 18, by making every element of the roadway con forms tothe expectation of every deve, Drivers expect the highway agency to provide them with: 1. Clear information and guidance through a vane of oad signs 2, Avoiding abrupt changes inthe traffic as well asthe road standards, If these guides and directions could be planned propery to convey one single message a atime, and if these directions will be followed smoothly and easily without undue haste, of cfanges in spoed, then, the roadway facilities are considered satisfactory. Experienced highway Engineers recommended that highway signs and dtectons should be ineprated as carly as the preliminary layout stu 2-2 Definit n of Terms AASTHO is the American Assocation of State Highway and Transportation Officials. In 1914, the American Associa~ tion of State Highway Ofiils (ASSHO) was established as an association of State Tertrial and Distnct of Cousmbia High ‘way Department, and the Federal Highvay Administration. The 2BElements of Roads and Highways ame was expanded in 1973, when the Department of Transpr {ation was integrated int the association renaming AASHO to AASHTO, giving the officials of these agency the power to gover its operation. Engineering activites, were implemented by the standing committee wih the task of preparing specifica- tions manual and standards, representing the current highway engineering practice. [AASHTO publications includes: “Transportation Materials Specifications and Tests Specifications for highway bridges Geometric deign standards Numerous policy satents and guides AASHTO publications are authoritative Referens are rade in these boxks and periodic manuals, The association also publishes the AASHTO quarterly reports on current Highway land Transporations subject including ends n forecast and legislation. Roads and Highways is defied as strips of land that have been cleared and further improved for dhe movement of people and goods. ord, Road has somewhat broader application in usage while generally used to desribe a public thoroughfare. It ean also refer to railways, Highoray. The term was firs used in England to describe a public road built by digging ditches on bedh sides and heaping 1 the earth inthe mide eesting a way higher than the ade fiat and. Highway now connotes, a higher state of develop- ‘ment tha road, but the words ar almost interchangeable Expressway is a divided arterial highway for through traffic with full oF partal contol or access and generally provided ‘with grade separation at major intersections, Freeway isan expressway with fll control of acess a Designing the Highway Control of Access isa condition where the rights of owners ‘or occupants of adjoining land or other persons access to light, fair of view in connection with & highway is fully or partially ‘controled by public authority Fall Control of Accest - The autbrity to control acces is ‘exeresed io give preference to through tafe by proving a> ‘ess connections 10 selected pubic roads only. Crossing at trade or direct private driveway connections is not permited Partial Control of Access The authority to control access exercised to give prefereneé to though traffic. Although in ‘ution to access connections wih selected public oads, there tay be some crossings at grade and some private driveway connections allowed. ‘Through Street or Through Highway — Every Highway ‘or portion thereof on which vebicular traffic is given preferen- {ial right of way, and at the eatrance to which vehicular trafic fiom inesecting highways ss required by law to yield right of ‘vay to vehicles on such trough highway in obedience to ether Stop sign or yield signs erected thereon. Parkway is an arterial hightvay for non-commercial traffic, wth fll or patil control of access usually Ioeatd within park or ribbon park-like development Arterial Stroet i an arterial route that carries trafic tothe nearest access poit or through traffic. It often serves as the ‘most advantageous routes for relatively long distance travel ‘Most arterial streets are existing, highways. of ‘considerable Tength along which cross traffic is regulated by signals or stop sipns. In addition, arterials provide accoss to adjacent property but offen with restrictions on entry and exit poms. Arenal stiet is considered as a “make do” substitute for controled costs facilities whea traffic volume exceeds about 20,000 ve= icles pr da. 2sElements of Roads and Highways Basie Considerations in Planning Arterial Roadways Selection of the routes Studies ofthe taffic volume Origin and destination Accident experienced ‘Wadth should not be less than 15 meters, ‘Mast cary atleast ane lane of traffic in each direction. ‘Should beat least one lilmetrin length ‘Should skit neighborhood areas rather shan penetrate them, 9, On grid design system streets, arterials ae spaced at about 600 to 900 meters apart. 10, Where aeciden hazard i nota factor, the minimum vo ume to justify arterial road is 300 vehicles per average hour daring the day, and 450 vehicles hourly duting peak periods. Sometimes, peak hour traffic volume om designated arterial road exceeds the capacity of two-way streets, and to increase the arterial capacity, the following solutions ae eforeed: 1 Dring peak hours, parking is prohibited on one or both sides ofthe stoxt. 2, Patking is prohibited several meters away from each side ‘ofthe rad intersections or comers 3, Right tum is allowed on red signals anytime with are, 44 Lefttums are eliminated on congested intersotions 5. The direction of trafic is reversed in the center lane to provide more lance in the diestion of heavier traffic flow Collector Street form smaller mesh grid pattem where pase sengors are pick up from service streets and carried tothe arte- rials, Large commercial enterprises or amusement faites like | 3 |» | 8 2-4 Cross Section of Typical Highway “The eros section of typical highway has latiude of vari ables to consider such a: »ements of Roads and Hig “The volume oftratfc. Character of the trac. Speed ofthe traf (Characteristics of motor veices and ofthe driver Highway desian usally adopted cross section that is une form in thickness from end to end of the improvement. This is acceptable on high velume trafic road facilities, Fora low vol ume traffic facilites, modification of the features like the shoulders width in rough areas are usually employed to reduce costs. A erss section design gencrally offers the expected level of service for safety anda recent stud showed that 1. A720 meters wide pavement has 18% less accident compared with pavement narrower than 550m, wade, 2.47.20 meters wide pavement ha 4% fewer accidents tha th 6 00 meters wide roadway’ Accident records showed no difference between the 660 ‘meters andthe 720 meters wide pavement. 4. For the 6.00 m, 6.60 m. and 7.20 meters wide pavement With 270 to 3,00 m, wide shoulder, recorded accident decreases by 30% compared to 0 to 60 m. wide shoul= der. And 20% compared witha 90 to 1.20 meters wide shoulder Te appears that, the above diffrence in accdont potentials ‘may not justify higher standard, particularly, when tac vol tume is low. A driver's instinct ‘when overtaking or allowing ‘ther ears to overtake of meting oncoming vehicles isto lok at She surface wih ofthe hay, and So the Kind of sure ‘where to position his ear Originally, the total surface width of the roadway was only 4.50 meters, but duc to the increased mumber of vehicles using the roadway, the width was adjusted to 4.80 to $40 meters Lately, the width of the road was standardized to 3.00 m. for first class paved one lane highway and now 360 meters wide surf was adopted standard for frenays and other major ra 30 Designing the Highway fic roadways, although thee are strong demand to increase it further fram 3.60 to 4.20 meters For Two Lane Rural Highways, a 7.20 meters wide sur face is required for safe clearance between commercial vehicles and s recommended for main highways For Collector Roadway, 6.00 meters wide surice is ac- ceptable only for low volume trafic including few trucks tray ling thereon For Local Rural Roadway, the minimum surface width is 4.80 meters for a 30k hr. desien speed. For Urbair Roadway, the minimum design width is 3.60 eters although 3.00 meters is allowed where space is Kimited ‘Where there are heavy meetings or overtaking between cars and trucks, air disturbances sometimes cause side collision be- tween passing veicles when swerved within or out of theit Tanes. Motorists are requesting for wider lanes. FIGURE 22 MULTLLANE HOMWAYS AND FREEWAYS (HALF SECTION) FyElements of Roads and Highways 2-8 Road Shoulder Road shoulder or verge is defined as that portion of the roadway between the edge ofthe traffic lane and the ede ofthe ich, gutter, eur or side slope. AASHTO requires that its us~ ble pavement width tall be rrong enough to support vehicle Importance of Road Shoulder 1. Road shoulder serves as a place for vehicles to stop when disabled or for some other purpeses. Road shoulder con= siderably reduces road accidents 2. The road capacity is decreased and accident opportunity Increases if the shoulder is too arrow or ome inthe esi 53. Shoulder should be continuous along the fll length of the sonny Walon ade ert strength to the rad pooner 4. Shoulder increases the horizontal sight distance on curves. It reduces accident potential when vehicle stop uring emergencies ‘Most of the road shoulders in rural areas are unpaved having width of 60 to 120 contimeters wide ether earth fille or graveled surface that during rainy day, divers are hesitant to oocupy. The Uniform Traffic Control Device ‘Manual provides that AIL imertown or city highways shall be provided with edge line and may be used on other clases of roads ‘A continuous narrow white line strip atthe edge of the roadway that separates the shoulder, serves a guide to drivers uring bad weather and poor visibility conditions. The white sitips tend the driver to stayin the traffic lane and the vehicles seldom infringe on the shoulder. Bsr see ees e cscs EEnnnnEnnneeaeaS Designing the Highway Policy on Geometric Design Recommended that 1. Outside shoulder should be paved for at least 3.00 or 3.60 meters wide if truck volume is more than 250 in the ‘sign hour (ADT). 2. The ronammondod width of lft oedian) shoulder ie 1.20 10240 meters with at Kast 1 20 meters paved, 3. If there are 6 or more lanes, the median shoulder should ‘be 3.00 meters wide or 3.60 meters if truck volume inthe < - 3 Inst are the grade ln is st alst paral tothe g — round sure but sufcendy above te. pound for A ees diaimage purporer, z Bl) .) 7 4. Undead native sil shoul! be provided with sue gl [2 oe a cient covering Pies = 5, Grade line elevations along the river or stream, is gov g/z(ja).-.- i ered by he expected eve of wate ood ary ool 211 Vertical Curve Over Crest 7 i 3) a) z i Allverizal cures shuld not be sare ha th exblished Se minimum over crests, This is governed by the sight distance 3 i repiements but sometines a case of ring, may demand 2 Z soe n| Aa lengr curves than th sgt dance 3 7 ay ‘Some designers prefer no vetcal curve tobe shorter than a) a eg | f 210 mati ANSI na tte tans ce ag 3) |g ua {are wth the desig pectin meters istnce els 08 times é i rl, awe] 8B the velocity in kilometers per hour. z\? 22 The vera distance from the resection ofthe stalght ee Aad inet he curves Spel to one eg of he prod of a The agebate aiference in grade end the lenin of teu | Pgles ses ge stations, This 1s called the maximum correction. The rate at EE ‘which the curve depart verily from both tangent rade line st See EE aE EEEBlements of Roads and Highways is proportional tothe squace of the horizontal distance from the fend of the curve, The cortetion at any intemmodite pot ‘obtained by 1. Multiplying the maximum cortetion by the square of the horizontal distance between the near end ofthe curve and tr it, 2. Divide thi product by the square of ane half the kngth ofthe curve 2-12 Right of Way Acquisition of land for the right of way is very costly Based on experience fom the past, highway agency now con- Sider ita good practice to acquire right of way wie enough to suficieny provide for theultimate expected development ‘A sucessful foevay and expressway operations, closes the rwaudway from direct access to ajining property and some lo Cal roads or streets. If local trafic and land se are to be ‘opened, it must be served by service roads originally planed as part of the main fresway. Frontage read shall be permitted to enter connesting cross stoets ony ata distance of atleast 100, ‘meters for rural road and SO meters for urban conditions ‘TADLE2.S MINIMUM RIGHT OF WAY WIDTHS FOR RURAL "AND URBAN FREEWAYS AT GRADE IN METER. ame] wa WAL ‘pana ‘| Fromage] No Fonage| Resid No] Noma wh] Normal No anes | Raat | nent [Renuge £4 | Fovage | Fone Rd a ° : 5 sfe] os a sf] o st » s sisl|@ 2 6 a Designing the Highway 2-13 Stopping Sight Distance ‘The stopping sight distance is defined asthe longest dis- tance that a driver could see the top ofan object 18 centimeters (6°) above the road surface where the design height of the driver's eye above the pavement is 105 centimeters oes ‘Stopping Distance is Made-up of Two Elements ‘The distance traveled after the obstruction oF object is seen and before the driver applies the brakes “The second distance is consumed while the driver applies brakes forthe vehicle to stop, The distance covered could be expressed by the follow ing formula d= unis Breaking distance: d= Gs} amt mis¥ 196 ‘Where: ms = Initial speed, in moter per secand 37BE ements of Roads and Highways 1 = Detection, recognition, decision and response ination rake reaction time ) gm = Acceleration of gravity, 9.80 meters per second squared Coefficient of ficdon between the tre and pavement. ‘The above formula assumes thatthe highway level is fat If the cari traveling uphl, the braking distance is decreased, and for downhil, braking distance is increased, The braking dis- tance on slope is expressed by the following formula: Braking distance (m) d = (mm/s 198 (FE) Where: g * Longitudinal slope ofthe roadway or % Grade 100 phil gages posimve (+) Dovehil grade'is negative (=) ‘TABLE24 MINIMUM STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE WET ROAD Design] Annes [Brak Remon Spin Si De Speed | Spent er Tine] Disne| Cae of| Compute | Rove or inp |Conion| Se | Met” Fcson | mer |Desan (m) 20 25| m2 | ow | aisase | sean s 25| 3133 | 03s | Saasts | eoeo o 25| ou | os | mio | far oo 28| Stas | 029 1s9s 100 25| ain | 020 s207 25| een | oan | issaso| erase no 25| eras | 028 | dopianno| aeons 120 | sso | 2s| nuas | om | massuo| 220 Suc: Polley on Geomete Dein| 3 i ——(‘ ‘ iw Designing the Highway 2-14 The Passing Sight Distance “The passing sight distance is the longest distance that 2 ‘river can see the top of an oncoming vehicle where the driver's ‘eye level is 1.05 meters above the pavement surface. The rela- tionship hereon the passing sight distance, the algebraic df= ference in grades, andthe lg of vertical curve is represented by the following equations L = 28-943. where Sis greater than L a L = AS2_ where Sis ess than L 08 ‘Lis ength in meters length required of vertical curve specified sight distance L s a algebraic difference n grades exprecsed in percent ‘The design of two lane highway of passing over crests is generally practical only cn flat grades because the longer vert- fal curves are required to provide passing sight than stoping Sight distance 9Elements of Roads and Highways Where (mis) = Meter por second Rm = Radi ia meter Se = Supe elevation (slope ratio ise er second ‘The maximum coefficient of side fiction on dry pavement as determined by curve tests ranges betwoen O-4and 0.5 vale With normal pavement and smooth tee is about 035 at 75 Jalometers per hur. ‘TABLE27 AASHTO MINIMUM PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE. Minima Pag Sigh Dizon Mee Commuied | Remied 28. 20 ss 5 6a o 0 70 = = Road alignment should be consistent An abrupt change from flat to sharp curve and long tangents fllowed by sharp ‘curve should be avoided because i will only ereate hazard and “0 eee ee Designing the Highway invite accident. Similarly, designing circular curves of different radius from end to end or compounded curve is nota good prac= tice, unless suitable transitions between them are provided To have a short tangent berween two curves is also poor practice. A Jong flat curve is acceptable at allies. Fis please Ing to look at, with lees probability uf fatuc obsolestence Alignment should be provided with tangent because there are Arvers who hesitate t9 pass om curves. A short curve appears like kinks. A Tong flat curve is prefered for small changes in direction 2:16 Circular Curves A shicle traveling in curved road is subject to centigal force. This fore is balanced by equal and opposite forces de~ veloped through the super elevation and side frictions. Hon fever, neither the side friction on the super elevation, could fovereome nor exceed the maximum control and limit on the sharpness of the curves with a prescribed design speed. The sharpness of a curve is dependent om its radivs. Sharpness is expressed in tenms of the curve depres, and the degrees of ‘curve is inversely proportional with the radius. Formula: D = $729.58 Radius Radius » §.729.58 D Where: D = degre of curve andthe radius Degree of curve SI = 0.328 D Solution using the above formula wil give the fllowing results ‘The degree of curve is expressed either by the Are defini- tions oF the Chord definitions otPESSSSREE EERE SEES SaIeeSSEE eee ESEESEEE EE EE SSE SEE eESE eRe EeReE eee gee ee eTEE REESE SEE eee eee ea eeeea Eee eeeaEeREERE ESTE eee eae eee ees Elements of Roads and Highways ‘TABLE29 DEGREE OF CURVES Tar [Are Definitions ~ The degre of curve is the central angle subtended by a 30 meters are of the cure. ‘Chord Definitions - The depree of curve isthe central an- tle subtended by 50 meters chord Radius = _ 80 Sie xD ‘TABLE2-10 SHARPEST PERMISSIBLE HORIZONTAL CURVES 'FOR GIVEN DESIGN SPEED AND SUPER ELEVATION ‘Masimn Femisible Degree of Curve D,o Mii Radi Desi Sess Kobe 3550659097113 of Sie Fon Sipe] Connor Ble | forse aaf.as{ as {ae [as [a2 [an 1006 Dest for towneseras | plas |19| 30 | 6 [325 an [39 | 92 | 175 | 20 | 456 o10| Maxtornarat |p |e | 25 |132s| n2s| sas | 35 |2as Tiahwoyend | Re 30 [70 [sz | bw | 308 [5] 70 ena rv Sout: A Ply on Gometic Dein “The maximum allowed super elevation rat before was 0.12 bout now it e010 except on low volume gravel rads. The Pol icy on Geometric Desig recommend that o Designing the Highway 1. Fr design speed of 50 kilometers per hour, the normal ros slope is I°= 21” or even later cures 2, For a 120 Hilometers per hour design speed road, the normal cross slope is 0 15° or flater curves without su- per elevation In each of this solution, the total side fiton i less than 0.04 for an adverse eoss slope of 0.02. 2-17 Super Elevation - Runoff Curved sections of roadways are usualy super elevated. Provisions for gradual changes from one point to the other should be considered. The centerline of each individual road ‘way at profile grade is maintained while raising the outer edge and lowering the inner edge to attain the desired super cleva- tion. Its done by raising-up the ouside edge of the pavement ‘with rlaton to the centerine unl the outer Ralf of the erase scction i lat. Then, the outer ede is raised unt the cross ec tion is sight. Finally, che entire cross section is rotated as a ‘whole until fll super clevatin is reached 6