MARINE METEOROLOGY − SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
Chapter 2 Weather measuring instruments
Thermometer
In its simplest form, the thermometer is a bulb
containing mercury or coloured alcohol which, as it is
heated, expands and is forced to rise up a graduated
tube. These graduations are made by submerging the
bulb in melting fresh ice to establish 0° Celsius (32°
Fahrenheit) and boiling fresh water to determine 100º
Celsius (212° Fahrenheit). An equal division of the
intermediate space makes the intermediate degrees in
each case, between the freezing and boiling points.
In order to accurately measure air temperature, the
instrument must be mounted out of direct sunlight and
open to a free flow of air. The ideal place is in a
thermometer screen – a louvred box, which is mounted
outside the bridge or wheelhouse. If it must be placed
inside, see that it is near an open doorway and away
from exhaust fans and vents.
Fig. 2.1 Thermometer
Hygrometer
The hygrometer is an instrument for measuring the
moisture content of the air. It allows you, with the aid
of simple tables, to establish the percentage of water
vapour relative to the air temperature (relative
humidity) and the dew point – the temperature at which
the air, with its present moisture content, will become
saturated, if the temperature continues to drop. The
importance of this information in anticipating the
likelihood of fog is of prime importance to the
navigator.
The hygrometer consists of two identical thermometers
mounted together in a frame. The bulb of one of the
instruments is wrapped in a cloth wick, which keeps it
moist from a reservoir of distilled water. The rate of
evaporation of the water in the wick is directly related to
the amount of water vapour in the air. This evaporation
uses up latent heat and cools the bulb; the difference
between the readings of the two thermometers can be
Fig. 2.2 A wet and dry bulb hygrometer calculated to give the relative humidity of the
atmosphere and the dew point, using tables.
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CHAPTER 2 – WEATHER MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Whirling psychrometer
Fig. 2.3 Whirling psychrometer (Bureau of Meteorology, Perth Office)
Sling or whirling psychrometer is an instrument where two thermometers are mounted on a
frame, which is rotated or whirled by hand in order to provide the required ventilation of the
bulbs. The relative humidity or dew point temperature can then be calculated in the same way as
described above under hygrometers.
Barometer
It would be true to say that all weather systems indicate their intensity and their probable future
movement by the level and rate of change of the atmospheric pressure.
An instrument that will measure these will, therefore, be of top priority in any weather
forecasting context. The needs of the average small vessel at sea are for a fairly robust
instrument that is fairly accurate, quick and easy to read and that shows changes in pressure at a
glance. It is the rate of change of pressure over time that is important in weather forecasting.
How fast is the pressure rising or falling? See weather forecasting, Chapter 4.
Fig. 2.4 Aneroid barometer
Aneroid Barometer
The aneroid barometer is operated by the expansion and contraction of a corrugated metal cell,
inside which is a partial vacuum. This is very clearly shown in the picture of the Barograph
below, which operates on the same principle. The movement of the top of the vacuum cell is
transmitted to a pointer on the face of the instrument by a series of levers. In some instruments
the linkage is inclined to stick and may need a light tap on the glass before taking a reading.
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MARINE METEOROLOGY − SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
An aneroid barometer also has a setting marker that can be rotated to align with the present
reading of the instrument and, when compared with a later reading of the barometer, gives an
immediate indication of whether the “glass” is rising or falling.
The hectopascal (hPa) is the standard unit of measure of atmospheric pressure. Atmospheric
pressure falls by 1 hPa per 8 metres of altitude. Therefore, a correction for ‘height’ applies to
the aneroid barometer. If you look on the back of any aneroid barometer you will see a small
screw, usually recessed below the level of the case. This is the adjustment screw and, when
turned with a very small screwdriver, will alter the reading of the pointer on the face.
When you first purchase a new instrument it must be set to a reading corrected mean sea level
pressure obtained from a nearby weather station. Once set, and provided it is going to remain in
that fixed location on your vessel, all its readings will be at approximately mean sea level
pressure. At least once per week or before setting out to sea the barometer should be set against
the standard reading for your area. (Contact your nearest Bureau of Meteorology office for this
information).
The barograph
The great value of the barograph is that it gives a
continuous graph over a 7-day period and a
record of certain barometric tendencies that are
not always apparent from a three hourly reading
of a barometer. Foremost among these is the
diurnal variation – a twice daily rise and fall of
the “glass” that is due to the alternate expansion
and contraction of the atmosphere. This effect is
more noticeable in the tropics, and to a much
lesser degree in temperate zones.
Fig. 2.5 The Barograph
The Barograph operates on the same principle as the aneroid barometer. Instead of the pointer
over a dial face, the linkage activates a moving arm to which a pen is attached. This instrument
records the pressure on graph paper attached to a revolving drum. It is usually run by a 7-day
clockwork mechanism. The instrument is generally more accurate than the aneroid barometer,
but it still needs to be adjusted to standard pressure at least once per week (at the same time as
you change the chart).
Anemometer
An anemometer is an instrument that measures the wind speed. It may be hand held or fitted in a
clear position in the rigging, preferably at mast-head, with a gauge or recording graph installed
on the bridge or at the steering position in sailing vessels.
Fig. 2.6 Rotating cup anemometer and wind vane
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CHAPTER 2 – WEATHER MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
There are two main types of fixed anemometers, the most common being the rotating cup. This
model may also be fitted with a wind vane for wind direction and both readings are transmitted
to the gauge position by electrical impulses.
Another type is the Pitot tube anemometer, which operates on the pressure of air on an open
tube held into the wind by a vane. This type of instrument usually records the speed on a form
of pressure gauge.
Fig. 2.7 Pitot tube anemometer
The hand held instrument, illustrated, is held directly into the wind for a fixed time period – say
ten minutes – and the average speed calculated from the gauge readings. The wind direction is
estimated.
Whichever type of instrument you use, you must always bear in mind that the result obtained is
the apparent wind – the result of the actual (or true) wind and the wind created by your own
speed. This is further affected by the course you are steering. The way to calculate the direction
and speed of the true wind is detailed in Chapter 6.
Most practical mariners assess wind direction and speed by eye, using the direction and state of
the sea and referring it to the Beaufort wind scale. This is also explained in detail in Chapter 6.
Self-Test Questions
1. Which of the following instruments would you use to measure the relative humidity of the
air?
(a) Hydrometer
(b) Barometer
(c) Hygrometer
(d) Anemometer
2. As a weather forecaster, why do you think that the barometer is a valuable instrument?
3. Why would a barograph be a useful instrument at sea?
4. In the absence of an anemometer, what method would you adopt for the estimation of the
wind speed at sea?
5. Suggest a practical but accurate method to measure the air temperature at sea on a sailing
vessel.
6. On a moving vessel, which wind direction and speed would be measured by a masthead
wind sensor?
(a) True
(b) Apparent
(c) Ground wind
7. How can the measurement of the Dewpoint temperature be useful to you at sea?
8. By what other name can an aneroid barometer be referred to?
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MARINE METEOROLOGY − SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
9. Which organisation could you contact for information to help you set your barometer and
obtain other information on weather?
10. What is the unit of pressure?
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