DEPTH DETERMINATION

INTRODUCTION
Depth determination is a fundamental task for a hydrographer, which requires specific knowledge of the
medium, of underwater acoustics, of the plethora of devices available for depth measurement, of
complementary sensors for attitude and heave measurement and proper procedures to achieve and meet
the internationally recommended standards for accuracy and coverage as articulated in IHO publication
S-44 4th Edition. Lead line and sounding pole were the earliest methods used for directly measuring
water depth. Their easy principles of operation ensured their continued use over many centuries. Single
beam echo sounders, derived from military sonars, were a major development and have been used in
hydrographic surveying since the mid 1900s. During the last decade, hydrographic surveying has
experienced a conceptual change in depth measurement technology and methodology. Multibeam echo
sounders (MBES) and airborne laser sounding systems (ALS) now provide almost total seafloor coverage
and depth measurement. The high data density and high acquisition rates have led to huge bathymetric
data sets and much ancillary data. The state of the art of the depth measurement equipment was
evaluated by the working group of the S-44 [IHO, 1998] as follows:

“Single beam echo sounders have reached a sub-decimetre accuracy in shallow water. The market offers
a variety of equipment with different frequencies, pulse rates etc. and it is possible to satisfy most users'
and, in particular, the hydrographers' needs. (…)
Multibeam echo sounder technology is developing rapidly and offers great potential for accurate and
total seafloor search if used with proper procedures and provided that the resolution of the system is
adequate for proper detection of navigational hazards.
Airborne laser sounding is a new technology which can offer substantial productivity gains
for surveys in shallow, clear water. Airborne laser systems are capable of measuring depths
to 50 m or more.”
Despite these new technologies, single beam echo sounders (SBES) still remain, for the present, the
traditional equipment used on hydrographic surveys worldwide. These echo sounders have also evolved
from analogue to digital recording, with greater precisions and higher accuracies and with specific
features which allow a wider variety of purposes to be met. The use of digital echo sounders along with
motion sensors, satellite positioning systems (such as GPS) and software for data acquisition have
combined to optimize productivity with corresponding reductions in personnel for survey operations.
MBES have become a valuable tool for depth determination when full seafloor ensonification is
required.
An increasing number of National Hydrographic Offices (NHO) has adopted multibeam technology as the
methodology of choice for the collection of bathymetric data for new chart production. The acceptance
ofmultibeam data for use in published nautical charts is a sign of growing confidence in the technology.
Notwithstanding their impressive capabilities, it is vital that planners, operators and checkers have
indepth knowledge of MBES operating principles, as well as practice in data interpretation and
validation.
Airborne laser sounding systems are being used by a few NHOs; these systems have, by far, the highest
data acquisition rates and are particularly suited to near shore and shallow water areas. However, the
high costs for the assets involved in data collection and their operation do not currently allow a more
general use.

ACOUSTIC AND MOTION SENSORS FUNDAMENTALS

Sea water is the medium in which hydrographic measurements normally take place, therefore
knowledge of sea water’s physical properties and of acoustic waves propagation is important for full
comprehension of the contents and aim of this subject.
Sea water acoustic waves and physical characteristics: Despite electromagnetic waves having an
excellent propagation in a vacuum and air, they hardly penetrate nor propagate through liquids.
However, acoustic waves, either sonic or ultra-sonic, achieve good penetration and propagation through
all elastic media once these media can be made to vibrate when exposed to pressure variations. The
majority of the sensors used for depth determination use acoustic waves. The acoustic waves consist of
subtle variations of the pressure field in the water. Sea water particles move longitudinally, back and
forth, in the direction of the propagation of the wave, producing adjacent regions of compression and
expansion, similar to those produced by longitudinal waves in a bar. The intensity of the acoustic wave,
I, is the amount of energy per second crossing a unit area.

Sonar Equation: The sonar equation is used to study and express the detection capability and
performance of echo sounders as a function of operating conditions [Urick, 1975]. The sonar equation
for echo sounders defines the signal or echo detection as the Echo Excess (EE),
EE = SL - 2 TL - (NL-DI) + BS – DT
where SL = source level, TL = transmission loss, NL = noise level, DI = directivity index, BS = bottom
backscattering strength and DT = detection threshold.

The Source Level (SL) gives the acoustic signal intensity level referred to the intensity of a plane wave with root
mean square (rms) pressure 1 μPa, for a point located 1 metre away from the centre of the source (transmitter).

The Transmission Loss (TL) takes into account the losses of acoustic intensity due to geometry, i.e. from spreading
losses, proportional to r2 and the losses due to absorption, proportional to the coefficient of absorption, dependent
on the physical and chemical sea water properties and on the acoustic frequency.

The Noise Level (NL) is dependent on the environmental spectral noise level (N0) and on the transducer bandwidth
during reception..

The seabed Backscattering Strength (BS) is usually described as the logarithmic sum of intrinsic backscattering
strength per unit area or backscatter index (SB), which is dependent on the reflective properties of the seafloor and
the effective instantaneous scattering area A, the area of the seafloor which contributes to the backscattered
signal.

a) Temperature
The temperature at the sea surface varies with the geographic position on the earth, with the season of
the year and the time of the day [Pickard and Emery, 1990]. The temperature field distribution is a
complex one and cannot be predicted with enough accuracy for hydrographic surveys; through the water
column the behaviour of the temperature is also very complex. Such unpredictability necessitates a
comprehensive distribution of sound velocity profile casts, both temporally and spatially, to maintain a
representative currency of the sound velocity profiles for the survey area. The depth measurement is
quite sensitive to variations of the sound velocity profile; a variation of one degree Celsius in temperature
translates to approximately 4.5 m/s in sound velocity variation. The temperature variation is the dominant
factor for sound velocity variation between the surface and the lower limit of the thermocline, thereafter
pressure becomes the principal influence.

b) Salinity
The salinity is a measure of the quantity of dissolved salts and other minerals in sea water. It is normally
defined as the total amount of dissolved solids in sea water in parts per thousand (ppt or ‰) by weight.
In practice, salinity is not determined directly but is computed from chlorinity, electrical conductivity,
refractive index or some other property whose relationship to salinity is well established. As a result of
the Law of Constancy of Proportions, the level of chlorinity in a sea water sample is used to establish the
sample's salinity.
.
The average salinity of sea water is around 35 ‰. The rate of variation of sound velocity is
approximately 1.3 m/s for a 1 ‰ alteration in salinity. Typically the salinity is measured with a CTD cast
(Conductivity, Temperature and Depth) using the observable electrical conductivity.

c) Pressure
The pressure also impacts significantly on the sound velocity variation. Pressure is a function of depth
and the rate of change of sound velocity is approximately 1.6 m/s for every alteration of 10 atmospheres,
i.e. approximately 100 metres of water depth. The pressure has a major influence on the sound velocity in
deep water.

d) Density
Water density is dependent upon the previous parameters, i.e. temperature, salinity and pressure. Fifty
3
percent of the ocean waters have a density between 1027.7 and 1027.9 kg/m . The largest influence on
3
density is compressibility with depth. Water with a density of 1028 kg/m at the surface would have a
density of 1051 kg/m3 at a depth of 5000 metres.

Salinity, Temperature, and Sound Velocity Determination

Instrumentation used for salinity, temperature and sound velocity determination as well as their operating
principles and the calculation for mean sound velocity.

Sound Velocity Profiler: is the most common instrument used to measure the sound velocity profile
through the water column. This instrument has one pressure sensor to measure depth, a transducer and
a reflector a certain distance, d, apart. The sound velocity is calculated by the equation c = 2d/Δt, where
Δt is the two-way travel time of the acoustic signal between the transducer and the reflector (similar to the
depth measurement performed by echo sounders).

CTD: is an electronic instrument with sensors for conductivity, temperature and depth. This instrument
records the salinity by directly measuring the electrical conductivity of the sea water. Sound velocity in
the water varies with the medium’s elasticity and density, which are dependent upon the salinity,
temperature and pressure. With the information from the CTD (salinity, temperature and pressure) it is
possible to calculate the sound velocity in the water based on empirical equations. One simple equation
with adequate accuracy was presented by Coppens [Kinsler et al., 1982]:
C (Z, T, S) = 1449.05 + T[4.57 - T(0.0521 - 0.00023⋅T)] + [1.333 - T(0.0126 - 0.00009⋅T)](S - 35) + Δ(Z)
where T is the temperature in degrees Celsius (ºC), S is the salinity in parts per thousand (ppt), Z
2
is the depth in km, and Δ(Z) ≈ 16.3⋅Z + 0.18⋅Z
This equation is valid for a latitude of 45º. For other latitudes, Z should be replaced by
Z[1 - 0.0026⋅cos (2ϕ)], being ϕ the latitude.

Thermistors: are elements whose electrical resistance depends on their temperature, which depends on
the amount of heat radiation falling on it from the sea. Thermistor chains are used to measure the water
temperature at several depths through the water column. These chains, usually moored, consist of
several thermistor elements, regularly spaced along a cable. A data logger samples each element
sequentially and records the temperatures as a function of time.

Instrument operation: Important for successful operation of a sound velocity profiler, before deployment,
the profiler should have the correct parameters entered with the required recording settings and be
calibrated with the correct atmospheric offset in order to generate reliable depth measurements. It should
be stressed that, during the atmospheric offset calibration, a sound velocity profiler should not be in a
pressurised compartment or the calibration will produce biased offsets and thus erroneous depth
measurements.Before deployment, the profiler should be in the water for approximately 15 minutes for
thermal stabilisation and during a sound velocity cast, it is recommended a constant deployment speed is
maintained.

Data recording and processing: Sound velocity profiles should be edited and carefully checked for
anomalous depths and sound velocity readings. In general, velocity profilers record both depth and
sound velocity, both downwards and upwards. The two profiles should be compared to confirm they are
similar after which the profiles are often meaned to create the final profile, although this not necessarily
required, in any event the readings should be compared and additional information removed to allow
sorting into ascending or descending order.

Sound velocity computation: After the sound velocity profile has been validated, it can be applied to the
survey file. The computation is used to correct depth measurements with sound velocity profile data.
For beams near the vertical, specific case of single beam echo sounders, it is accurate enough to use the
average sound velocity in the water column. However, away from nadir, it is necessary to perform ray
tracing to take account of the beam curvature due to any refraction phenomenon encountered; this is the
procedure used in MBES.

Sea water sound propagation: This section focuses on sound propagation namely attenuation,
reflection, and refraction.
Attenuation: is the loss in energy of a propagating wave due to absorption, spherical spreading and
scattering by particles in the water column. The absorption is the result of dissociation and association of
some molecules in the water column. The spherical spreading is dependent on the geometry; for a solid
angle the acoustic energy spreads over a larger area as the distance from the source increases. Both
losses by absorption and spherical spreading are taken into account in the sonar equation. However,
losses from scattering depend upon particles or bodies present in the water column; scattering is chiefly
due to marine organisms, a major source of which is the deep scattering layer (DSL) which consists of a
layer of plankton whose depth varies throughout the day.

Refraction and Reflection: Refraction is the process in which the direction of propagation of the acoustic
wave is altered due to a change in sound velocity within the propagating medium or as the energy passes
through an interface, representing a sound velocity discontinuity between two media. For general
conditions, the ratio of acoustic intensity reflected and transmitted depends mainly on:
• Contrast between the acoustic impedances of the media;
• Seafloor roughness;
• Acoustical frequency

Acoustic parameters
The characteristics of an echo sounder are determined by the transducers, namely the directivity, beam
width, beam steering and side lobes level.

Frequency: The echo sounder’s acoustic frequency is the parameter which determines the range and the
sound penetration of sediments. The attenuation of the acoustic signal in the water is proportional to the
frequency. The higher the frequency is, the higher the attenuation will be and, consequently, the lower
the range and the penetration into the seafloor.
The beam width is dependent on the acoustic wave length and on the size of the transducer. For the
same beam width a lower frequency will require a larger transducer.
The frequencies of bathymetric echo sounders are typically:
• Waters shallower than 100 metres: frequencies higher than 200 kHz;
• Waters shallower than 1500 metres: frequencies from 50 to 200 kHz;
• Waters deeper than 1500 metres: frequencies from 12 to 50 kHz;
The frequencies for sediment echo sounders are below 8 kHz.

Pulse length: the pulse length, the higher the energy put into the water will be and thus the greater the
range that can be achieved with the echo sounder. To take advantage of the transducer resonant
frequency, the pulse duration should be at least half its natural period. The drawback of longer pulses is
the decrease in vertical resolution of two adjacent features (figure below).
Resolution as a function of pulse length

MOTION SENSORS
Being able to correct the observed depths and their positioning for vessel motion, i.e. attitude (roll, pitch,
and heading) and heave was a considerable achievement and advance in hydrographic surveying quality
and accuracy. For this purpose inertial sensors with a heading sensor (usually a gyro or fluxgate
compass) or inertial sensors with the integration of GPS information are used to measure the attitude and
heave of the survey vessel.

TRANSDUCERS
The transducers are one of the echo sounders’ components; it is transducer characteristics which dictate
some of the operating features of an echo sounder. For this reason it is particularly important to study
their operating principles, characteristics and related issues such as: beam width, directivity, beam
steering, installation and coverage. The transducers are the devices used for transmission and reception
of the acoustic pulses. They operate by converting electrical energy into mechanical energy, i.e.
transducers convert electrical pulses from a signal generator to longitudinal vibrations which propagate
into the water column as a pressure wave [Seippel, 1983]. During the reception, reciprocally, the
pressure waves are converted into electrical signals. This section describes transducer classifications
with regard to: operating principles, beam, beam width, and installation, at the end of the section the
assessment of the ensonification is presented.
Classification with Regard to Operation: Transducers are classified with regard to their operating
principle, i.e. magnetostrictive, piezoelectric, and electrostrictive.

ECHO SOUNDER - Classification with Regard to Beam

Echo sounders can be divided into single beam and multibeam. SBES may have transducers either with
a single transducer piece or an array. MBES have transducer arrays built up from several elements. As
mentioned before, this is a result of the need for beam forming in multiple directions and, sometimes,
beam steering to compensate for platform attitude.
Single beam: Single beams require only a transducer, for both transmission and reception, but a
transducer array may be used particularly when stabilization is required. Knowledge of roll and pitch
angles are needed for beam stabilization. Beam width is a function of the transducer dimensions and
acoustic wave length. The higher the frequency and the larger the transducer is, the narrower the beam
will be. Thus to have a narrow beam in low frequencies, a large transducer is required. The transducer
selected for SBES may have a narrow beam when high directivity is required or a wide beam when
directivity is not the main concern but the detection of minimum depths or obstacles on the seafloor is the
priority. Wide beams have the capacity to detect echoes within a large solid angle, which is useful for the
detection of hazards to navigation requiring further investigation. These beams are usually not stabilized,
for common sea conditions the attitude of the transducer does not impact on the measurements. On the
other hand, narrow beams, typically 2º to 5º, are usually required for high resolution mapping (Figure
below). These beams might be stabilized in order to measure the depth vertically below the transducer.

Illustration of depth measurement using a single narrow- and wide-beam

Multibeam: MBES usually have separated transducer arrays for transmission and reception, i.e. one
projector and one hydrophone, where the first is oriented longitudinally and the second is oriented
transversally to the vessel’s bow. The most common is to have only one transmitted beam with a fan
shape, narrow along track and broad across track. The reception transducer forms several beams, in
predefined directions, narrow across track and broad along track, guaranteeing, regardless of the attitude
of the surveying platform, intersection between the transmission and the reception beams.

Classification with Regard to Installation: The installation of the transducers on board the survey
vessel can be undertaken in several ways. The decision on the way in which the transducer should be
installed depends on system portability, keeping it free from vessel noise sources, including turbulent
water flow under the keel, and the need to lower it close to the sea floor. The transducer installation can
be keel mounted, towed or portable. Each of these is described in the following paragraphs.

Keel mounted: This is the common installation for single beam and multibeam transducers in large
vessels, particularly for those designed for deep water surveys. The installation on the keel can be
optionally chosen from:
 Flush mounted – the transducer is mounted with the face in the hull plane. This option is used
either in single beam or multibeam transducers. The advantage is that it does not require a
special structure for the installation; the disadvantage may be the vessel noise.

Blister – the transducer is mounted in a structure with a small hull shape. This option is used for
both single and multibeam transducers. The advantage is the reduction in hull water flow effect
at the transducers face; the disadvantage is the need for a special structure for the installation.

Gondola - the transducer is mounted in a special gondola shaped structure. This option is used
for multibeam transducers, particularly for deep water operation. The advantages are the
reduction of vessel noise and the elimination of hull water flow noise at the transducer face as it
passes in between the hull and the gondola (figure below); the disadvantages are the need for a
special structure for the installation and consequently an increase in the vessel’s draught of the
order of a metre.

Towed: The transducer installation in a towed fish is used for side scan sonars when it is essential to
have good stability of the transducer, reduction of vessel noise and the ability to lower the transducer
close to the seabed.

Portable:This method of installation is commonly used either on single beam and multibeam transducers
in small vessels, specifically aimed at shallow water surveys. This installation can be achieved either on
the side or over the bow (Figure below) of the vessel. The support structure for the transducer should be
rigid and resistant to torque.
Transducer installation over the bow

4.5 Coverage
The seafloor coverage, i.e. the ensonified area by SBES, is the area within the beam, where the footprint
size is given by (Figure 3.20):

Single beam coverage

 Single Beam Echo Sounders
Introduction
These echo sounders are devices for depth determination by measuring the time interval between the
emission of a sonic or ultrasonic pulse and the return of its echo from the seabed. Traditionally, the main
purpose of the echo sounder is to produce a consistent and high resolution vertical seabed profile on
echo trace. The echo trace, after a cautious interpretation, is sampled and digitized manually to produce
soundings. During the last decade, the technology applied in SBES has progressively improved with
automatic digitisers, recorders without moving parts and annotation of positions on the echo trace.
Recently, builtin computers and signal processors have allowed more sophisticated real time signal
processing and data presentation on graphical colour displays, rather than a paper recorder.

Principles of operation
An echo sounder works by converting electrical energy, from the pulse generator, into acoustic energy.
As the transducers do not transmit in all directions, the acoustic energy is projected into the water in the
form of a vertically oriented beam. The acoustic pulse travels through the water column and hits the
seabed. The interaction with the sea floor results in reflection, transmission and scattering. The reflected
energy which returns to the transducer, the echo, is sensed by the transducer. The strength of the echo
decreases rapidly with time, for that reason the echo is automatically adjusted in accordance with its
energy level using the Automatic Gain Control (AGC) set in the factory and the Time Variable Gain (TVG)
to compensate for the echo’s decrease as a function of time. After amplification the electric signal is
passed to an envelope detector and compared to the threshold setting to filter the noise from the signal.
The output signal is then visualized or recorded. The resultant observable is the time interval between
pulse transmission and echo reception, t, being the measured depth given by:

zm=1/2.t.c, where c is the mean sound velocity in the water column

Echo sounder parameters need to be set correctly in order to obtain high accuracy and a clear record of
the seabed. The most important parameters are:
a) Power – The operating range of the echo sounder depends on pulse length, frequency and
transmitted power. To optimize the use of the echo sounder, the transmitted power should be kept at the
lowest values consummate with adequate detection. Increases in power will result in high levels of
echoes but also in higher reverberation levels, creating a poor record. The power is limited by cavitation
phenomenon and by the braking stress of the transducer material.
b) Gain – The gain entails signal amplification. The amplification of the signal also amplifies the noise
and consequently the data record may be confused. It is recommended that the gain is adjusted
according to the seabed type and to the transmission power.
c) Register intensity – This parameter is used in analogue echo sounders to adjust the recording
intensity.
d) Pulse length – The pulse length is usually selected automatically as a function of the operating range.
The pulse length is responsible for the vertical resolution of the echo sounder, short pulses are necessary
for a better resolution. It may be necessary to increase the pulse length in areas with poor reflectivity or
with steep slopes. In shallow waters, where resolution is more important, short pulses must be used. This
will reduce the probability of false echoes due to strong reverberation.
e) Scale – Corresponds to the depth scale of the echo sounder recording window. The width of the
recording paper is fixed; therefore at small scales one will have a low vertical resolution. Phase scale –
The phase scale is one way to overcome limitations of the recording resolution imposed by the echo trace
scale. The phase scale consists of recording just one depth window which should be changed, either
manually or automatically, to maintain the seabed recording with a satisfactory vertical resolution no
matter the water depth.
g) Draught – This parameter corresponds to the immersion of the transducer; in order to record the
depth with reference to the instantaneous water level, the draught should be set and verified before
survey operations commence and regularly thereafter.
h) Paper’s speed – This speed is particularly important and should be selected to ensure good
horizontal resolution from depth measurements.
 i) Sound velocity – This is the nominal value of sound velocity that should correspond to the mean sound
velocity in the area of operation. In surveys with more demanding accuracies, the sound velocity may be
set to the sound velocity at the transducer face or to 1500 m/s and then during data processing, the depth
must be corrected by applying the actual sound velocity profile. In classical analogue echo sounders, this
parameter does not correspond to the sound velocity but to the value that calibrates the mechanical and
electrical echo sounder components to measure the correct water depth.

The general working principles of SBES were referred to above. However, it is possible to identify two
types of echo sounders, digital or analogue. The traditional analogue echo sounder, whose diagram is
presented in Figure below, begins the cycle with the generation of an electrical pulse and the
transmission of a burst of energy into the water. After the echo reception and conversion into electrical
energy, the low voltage signal is pre-amplified and passed to a recording amplifier, in order to be
recorded on an echo trace, which is a graphic record of depth measurements obtained by an echo
sounder with adequate vertical and horizontal resolutions. After the recording phase is completed, it is
possible to initiate another cycle.

Hydrographic echo sounders for shallow waters are usually built with two channels (low and high
frequency). The simultaneous recording of two frequencies allows the separation of the seabed return
from the soft surface sediments and the underlying rock due to their different acoustic impedances.

"Analogue echo sounder – block diagram

The digital echo sounder, see Figure below, works in a similar manner to the analogue echo sounder for
the signal transmission. However, during the echo reception, the received signal is amplified as a
function of time (time varying gain) and passed through an envelope detector where it is finally converted
to digital format, which is the signal that is processed to determine the depth. This allows the information
to be stored and displayed in several formats.

Accuracy: in the depth measurement is a function of several factors, the echo sounder itself and the
medium. Usually, it is necessary to calculate the error budget based on those factors (see 5.1.4).
Resolution: is the ability to separate returns from two or more objects close together; it is generally
expressed as the minimum distance between two objects that can be separated. In depth measurement,
a major concern is the vertical resolution of the echo sounder which is dependent on:

a) pulse length - larger pulses have smaller resolution (see 2.4.3). Two objects inside a narrow
beam will be recorded as a signal target if they are less than half a pulse length apart; they
will be resolved as two separate echoes if they are more than half a pulse length apart;
b) sensitivity and resolution of the recording medium;
c) transmit beam width.

Digital echo sounder – block diagram

Frequency: of an echo sounder is selected based on the intended use of the equipment, i.e. the depth
ranges. In some cases it is desirable to use the same device in several depths, for that purpose echo
sounders may have more than one frequency and transducer in order to improve the data acquisition and
data quality. The frequencies are often allocated to channels. The echo sounders with two channels are
mainly used in shallow and coastal waters; for deep waters, it is usual to use a single low frequency.

Installation and calibration

The transducer may be fixed under the hull or mounted on the side or over the bow. The relevant
considerations are that the transducer should be placed, as far as possible, away from the vessel’s own
sources of noise, deep enough to avoid the surface noise and to stay submerged even in rough seas. It
is also very important that the transducer is securely fixed and vertically orientated. It is desirable for the
heave compensator and the positioning antenna to be located in the same vertical axis as the transducer.
Echo sounder calibration is a routine task which consists of adjusting the equipment to ensure correct
depth measurement. The calibration can be conducted with a bar check or with a special transducer.
The purpose is to set the sound velocity parameter so as to adjust the mechanical and electrical
components. It may also be possible to correct the measured depths during post processing with the
application of the sound velocity profile. In shallow waters, echo sounder calibration for the average
sound velocity in the water column may be performed in the following ways:
 a) Bar check consists of lowering a bar or plate underneath the transducer at several depths (for
instance, every two metres) either recording the depth error to apply afterwards during the data
processing or forcing the echo sounder to record the correct depth from the bar or plate through the
adjustment of the sound velocity parameter (Figure below). In such cases the value adopted for
calibration is the mean value of the observations. This method should be used down to 20-30 metres.

b) Calibration transducer is an apparatus designed to perform the calibration knowing an exact path
length. The calibration procedure consists of making the echo sounder record the correct two-way path
inside the calibration transducer by the adjustment of the sound velocity parameter. The calibration
transducer is lowered to several depths, each adjustment of the echo sounder, due to the performed
measurement, is only valid for the corresponding depth. The calibration value used should be the mean of
all the observations. This method should be used down to 20-30 metres.

Bar check
illustration

c) A combined method may also be used with a calibration transducer and a sound velocity profiler. This
method is usually used for depths greater than those detailed above. With a sound velocity profile and
the adjustment of the true sound velocity at the transducer draft, a similar procedure to that described in
b) above is followed. In more modern echo sounders, the sound velocity parameter is set to the actual
sound velocity. The depth correction is computed during data processing, with the assumption that data
was collected using the true sound velocity at the transducer draft. The depth correction is based on the
difference between the sound velocity used during data collection and the harmonic mean sound velocity
computed from the sound velocity profile. For depths greater than 200 metres, it is not required to correct
the measured depths for sound velocity, a standard sound velocity of 1500 m/s is usually used.

Operation and data recording

Operation of individual echo sounders should be referred to their operator’s manual. Nevertheless, it is
important to stress the following aspects:
• Prior to the start of the survey it is necessary to calibrate the echo sounder for the actual
sound velocity;
• A general scale, adequate for the expected depths, should be selected;
 • The frequency channel should be chosen according to their range capability;
• When using an analogue echo sounder, it is essential to set the gain and the recording
intensity to produce a legible trace.

Sources of errors and quality control techniques

Errors in depth determination can be divided into three categories: large errors (blunders), systematic
errors and random errors. Blunder is the terminology used to define errors made by machines; these are
caused by defective mechanical or electronic components. Systematic errors are mainly the result of the
offsets (fixed errors) or biases (errors that vary under different conditions) in motion sensing of the survey
vessel, misalignment of the transducer and other sensor mounting angles. These errors can be easily
corrected if the sign and size of the systematic error can be identified. This category of errors can be
determined and removed during calibration of the system. After removing blunders and systematic errors
in the depth data, random errors will remain and these can be analysed using statistical techniques.
Hydrographers should be aware of the sources which contribute to the depth error and their individual
impact. This section identifies several sources of errors and presents the usual techniques used for
quality control.
a) Due to bottom slope - Taking into consideration the different seafloor slopes, the error on the depth
measurement, depends on both beam width and slope. If no correction is applied, an error in depth will
be inherent in the acquired data.

b) Due to sound velocity. Sound velocity variation is difficult to monitor and produces, in single beam
echo sounders, errors in the depth measurement (dzm), proportional to the mean sound velocity error or
variation (dc) and to the depth. The magnitude of the sound velocity error varies with:
a) accuracy of sound velocity determination;
b) temporal variation of sound velocity;
c) spatial variation of sound velocity.
Sound velocity variation, temporal and spatial, is a major external contribution to depth measurement
errors. It is important, that during survey planning or at the beginning of the survey, to carry out a number
of sound velocity measurements or sound velocity profiles across the survey area distributed throughout
the day to assist the hydrographer in deciding on the frequency and location of profiles to be conducted
within the survey area during data gathering operations.

c) Due to time measurement. An echo sounder effectively measures time, converting the measurement
to depth. The error in time measurement, dt, relates directly to depth error, dzt
In modern echo sounders, time measurement error is usually small and constant. This error is also
taken into consideration during calibration.

d) Due to roll, pitch, and heave. Roll and pitch contribute to the error in depth measurement when the
magnitude of those angles is greater than one half the beam widths. The Figure below depicts the error in
depth measurement and in positioning due to roll, θR; this figure can be adapted for pitch changing θR by
θP.

Effect of beam width

and seafloor slope on depth measurement and positioning

e) Due to draught, settlement, squat and relative position of transducer. The accurate measurement
of the transducer draught is fundamental to the accuracy of the total depth. Even so it is generally
necessary to update that value during the survey. The reasons for the draught variation are mainly due to
the fuel and water consumption. The draught variation, for the same displacement, increases with the
decrease of the float area at the sea surface. The draught error propagates directly as a depth error,
dzdraught
Settlement is the general lowering in level of a moving vessel, relative to its motionless state
level. This effect, particularly noticeable in shallow waters, is due to the regional depression of
the surface of the water in which the vessel moves. The depth error due to settlement is referred
to dzsettlement.
 Squat is another effect that takes place under dynamic conditions, the change in level of the bow
and stern from the rest condition in response to the elevation and depression of the water level
about the hull resulting from the bow and stern wave systems. In surveying vessels where the
change in squat is significant, it is usually computed in a table of squat versus vessel speed. The
depth error due to squat is referred to dzsquat
.
The relative position of the transducer from the motion sensor or heave compensator needs to
be taken into consideration to correct the measured depth for induced heave.

Record reading and resolution

The record reading and resolution for depth measurement is dependent on the operating principles of the
echo sounder. In the case of analogue recording, the operator should select appropriate echo sounder
parameters during survey operations in order to have, as far as possible, a clean echo trace and
adequate resolution. On the other hand, the digital record no longer has such a degree of dependence
on the operator during the survey but supervision is required during data acquisition. When the data is
recorded on paper, it is necessary to select the gain and intensity for a legible record; it is also necessary
to have a vertical scale with sufficient discrimination. It is common to use scale phases for that reason.
The echo trace should be prepared for reading; this task consists of identifying the points on the
seabed that will be selected for depth reading. This is usually performed with the aid of a digitising table.
The error associated with record reading depends on the experience and care of the hydrographer.
Consider a paper record width of 20 centimetres and scale 0-200 metres, an error reading of 0.5mm will
produce an error in the depth of 0.5 metres. Therefore, this scale is not adequate for depth recording in
2
shallow waters. The reading error is referred to dzread, with varianceσr
.
Interpretation of the echo trace is a hydrographer’s responsibility.
The interpretation requires experience to identify particular shapes, multiple echoes and false echoes. a)
a) False echoes – are caused by foreign matter such as kelp or fish in the water column (Figure 3.29), by
layers of water separated by sudden changes of temperature or salinity or both. False echoes are
occasionally recorded by echo sounders and might be interpreted erroneously as correct depths. In
cases of doubt over the validity of measured depths, an investigation of that sounding should be
performed and the particular part of the survey line re-run if necessary.

False echoes
b) Multiple echoes – are echoes received subsequent to the very first one due to a multiplicity
of reflections back and forth between the seafloor and the surface. These reflections are often
recorded as multiples of the first depth

Multiple
echoes record.

c) Heave - the oscillatory rise and fall of a vessel due to the entire hull being lifted by the force of the sea,
may be compensated during acquisition by a heave sensor or may be filtered manually afterwards. The
hydrographer’s experience is the tool used for that purpose, even though; it is sometimes difficult to
differentiate the heave in an irregular seabed.
d) Side echoes – are also false echoes but they are the result of echo detection in the side lobes
which results in errors in depth measurement and positioning.

e) Unconsolidated sediments – are usually detected by high frequency echo sounders. In shallow
waters, it is recommended that two frequencies are used at the same time to differentiate soft sediments
from the bed rock.

Depth reduction
The measured depths, corrected for the attitude of the surveying vessel, are reduced to the vertical
datum by the application of the tide. The depth error due to tide error measurement is referred to dztide.
In addition to the error in tide measurement, sometimes a more significant error is the co-tidal correction
which results from the difference of the actual tide in the survey area and in the tide gauge. The depth
error from co-tidal error is dzco-tidal. This may be quite significant several miles away from the tide gauge.
A co-tidal model or weighted averages from two or more tide gauges may be required.
 Dual
channel recording

The tide determination using GPS-RTK (Real Time Kinematic) will provide accurate local tide
determination, however, the tidal computation requires a model of the differences between the
reference ellipsoid, the WGS84, and the vertical datum.
The quality control is performed by statistical calculations based on the comparison of soundings
from the check lines against neighbouring soundings from the survey lines. The statistical results
of the comparison should comply with the accuracy recommendations in the S-44.
According to the errors presented above, the estimated reduced depth variance is written as

The estimated error on the reduced depth, at the 68

percent (or 1σ) confidence level, is obtained by the square-root of the above equation. Assuming that the
component errors follow approximately a normal distribution, the estimated error on the reduced depth, at
the 95 percent (or 2σ) confidence level, is obtained by substituting each varianceσ2 with (2σ) 2
 Minimum
depth accuracy requirements for Special Order, Order 1 and Order 2 (S-44).
 Depth error
estimation

Reference:
http://www.fig.net/commission4/iho/M-13_Chapter_3.pdf