Journal of Positive School Psychology http://journalppw.

com
2022, Vol. 6, No. 9, 4608-4614

Critique Of The Impact Of Positivism On Modern Schooling

*Research Scholar, Department of Education, Panjab University, Chandigarh.

*Corresponding Author: - Ramandeep Singh

Abstract

This article examines the culture of positivism, its features, and its impact on the school curriculum. It examines
the impact of positivism on the whole schooling process, with special reference to ethical and moral education.
Furthermore, the author's presents a critique of the culture of positivism and its rigid adherence to fact-value
distinction based on rationality and objectivity that proved to be status-quoist. The objective of this article is
to demonstrate how positivism supports a form of domination undermining critical consciousness by ignoring
the values-moral dimension of education. Specifically, the author claims in the article that the curriculum can
never be value neutral and that, fundamentally, education is a moral quest. The article concludes by drawing
from some recent critical work on the fallacious notion of ethical neutrality and arguments against positivistic
values. Finally, it concludes that by abandoning the culture of positivism, curricula and textbooks must be re-
examined and redesigned so that addressing values and ethical challenges explicitly in classrooms becomes the
primary purpose of education.

Keywords- Value Education, Moral Education, History of Value Education, Logical Empiricism, Logical
Positivism.

In the enlightenment period, there were paradigm positivism emerged as the dominant voice in the
shifts that took place in the eighteenth century. It discipline.
led to an increase in belief in the scientific method The Culture of Positivism and its Features
of knowledge construction. The emphasis has
shifted to an empirical method for knowing the The Science of Empiricism, the fundamental
truth. This led to great success in the scientific field. paradigm of science, rose to prominence in the 18th
These scientific inventions and discoveries altered century and came to be known as the
the cultural and intellectual landscape of the world. Enlightenment, or the intellectual and
So the world is celebrating a new age of objectivity, philosophical activity of science. It asserts that
reason, and science. This has a huge impact on knowledge can only be acquired through the
every part of life. It was difficult not to be senses. This was appealing. It aimed to grant
influenced by the spectacular success story of "scientific status" to any field based on precision,
science, and thus science became knowledge in objectivity, causation, and value neutrality. This
itself, with the characteristics of being real, achievement has had a profound effect on the social
objective, and foundational. sciences. It is claimed that if the techniques of
Positivism and scientific discoveries have resulted natural research were carefully adhered to, the
in the industrial revolution, increased trade and social sciences could achieve the same remarkable
commerce, an emerging bourgeoisie, and the rise of success as natural science. This application of
colonialism. People saw immense possibilities in natural science methods to the social sciences is
science and were strong adherents of a positivistic known as positivism. Comte was the first to
scientific culture and mode of enquiry. Hence, the advocate this strategy for constructing knowledge
language of science was irresistible. The political- in the social sciences. The Frankfurt School defined
economic establishment was sustaining it. So, with positivism in the broad sense as an amalgam of
increasing economic output due to scientific diverse traditions that included the work of Saint-
discoveries, credit was given to science as a major Simon and Comte; the logical positivism of the
force. As a result, at a certain point in history, Vienna Circle; early Wittgenstein; and the more
recent logical empiricism and pragmatism that
4609 Journal of Positive School Psychology
predominate in the social sciences in the West. one can coherently move from descriptive
Each of these traditions has a complex history, but statements to prescriptive ones. This is called
each has contributed to the development of social Hume's law or Hume's guillotine, and it is the thesis
inquiry methods patterned after the natural sciences that, if a reasoner only has access to non-moral and
and focused on observation and quantitative non-evaluative factual premises, the reasoner
analysis. cannot logically infer the truth of moral statements.
To understand Positivism, we need to understand This is–ought problem is closely related to the fact–
its features, which are as follows: value distinction in epistemology. According to it,
Scientism: Positivism takes empiricism to an moral language does not describe objective facts
extreme by claiming that whatever cannot be but rather expresses subjective preferences. This
verified by sensory experience cannot be thesis started to gain momentum during the
explained, is unknowable or unreliable, and is thus Enlightenment. Instead of seeing morality as
not true knowledge. In summary, scientistic focused on external facts having to do with what is
positivism holds that non-scientific claims to truly and objectively valuable for human beings, it
knowledge are meaningless, deceptive, is claimed that things are morally valuable only
subjectively variable, and thus capricious and insofar as they happen to be valued by us. This is
dubious (Young, 1989). called the Hume guillotine, in which he gives two
Reductionism: Reductionism is represented by laws, one about the distinction between facts and
analytical, atomistic, or mechanical viewpoints. It values and the other about the is-ought gap. Hume‘s
studies wholes by reducing them to their position is clearly that of moral anti-realism. He
constituent parts. Reductionism became the main assumes that moral properties do not have an
method of science because Descartes thought that attitude-independent existence. There are no moral
all problems could be broken down into smaller facts, but merely expressions of personal moral
problems and then solved. On the epistemological feelings.
level, the sources of knowledge are divided into Thus, the central assumption by which the culture
disciplines that operate more or less in watertight of positivism rationalises its position on theory and
compartments. The Enlightenment is also known as knowledge is the notion of objectivity, the
the "age of reason," and other modes of thinking are separation of values from knowledge, and the strict
considered to be either irrational or anti-rational. separation of fact and value distinction.
Objectivity: Descartes’ object division has had far-
reaching consequences. On the epistemological Positivistic Impact on the School
level, it has the implication that authentic Curriculum: Undermining Moral Education
knowledge about man can be obtained by
measurement. Another development emanating Positivism influences all aspects of life and social
from the notion of objective knowledge is the institutions. Consequently, it has an effect on
existence of truths expressed as facts. Scientific education and the educational process. In the
endeavours have to do with the establishment of a entirety of our curriculum and educational
coherent body of facts. Because these facts are practises, positivist ideology is reflected.
supposed to have universal application, only Intentionally or unintentionally, our textbooks
empirical truth warrants attention while the role of reproduce the positivist notion of knowledge
values is relegated to the domain of faith. construction because they are written by subject-
Lukacs (1971) pointed out that technocrats' matter experts who have achieved success in this
principle values are efficiency and order rather than positivistic model of education. Thus, curriculum
spontaneity and variety, and they judge the development and education are caught in a
successes and failures of social institutions in positivist loop. The curriculum is designed by those
impersonal, objective, and quantitative terms rather who achieve success in this model, who then
than in human and qualitative terms. reproduce it by emphasising positivistic values
Standardisation has become a particular feature of even more. Thus, a close examination of the
formal education systems. The core values that can curricula reveals that they are replete with abstract
be identified are control, order, efficiency, and concepts that are far removed from the concrete
standardisation. experiences of students while remaining objective
Responding to the question of ethics, Logical and morally neutral. This is the consequence of
positivists are in favour of fact and value their positivist worldview and values.
distinctions. One of the leading logical positivists, Although all of these are significant values and
Hume, claims that there seems to be a significant characteristics of the positivist culture that guides
difference between positive statements (about what the development of our curriculum, the author will
is) and prescriptive or normative statements (about focus on its objection to ethics and moral or
what ought to be), and that it is not obvious how character education in schools. Since logical
Ramandeep Singh 4610
positivists differentiate between fact and value and cling to empirical research models as a means of
consider values to be subjective, values have no conformation.
place in school curricula. They emphasise that it is
a personal domain that must be fostered by primary False Fact - Value Dichotomy
social institutions such as family, society, and Many scholars critique logical positivist facts and
religion. Thus, education and the curriculum value distinctions. They criticise Hume's is-ought
become neutral phenomena, and knowledge is distinction. One of the fundamental critiques of
presented from a neutral standpoint, ignoring logical positivism is that knowledge comes out of
ethical and normative perspectives. positivism claims with ethical neutrality, as the
Various education scholars have recently critiqued very notion of objectivity is based on the use of
this positivistic philosophical tradition. They assert some normative criteria. Hence, this emphasis on
that positivism employs factual value distinctions objectivity and facts is in itself based on values, and
incorrectly. This is explained in the following it is not itself a fact. So the point is that intellectual
section. inquiry and research free from values and norms
are impossible to achieve. Thus, to separate values
A Critique of the Culture of Positivism from facts and social inquiry from ethical
considerations is pointless. According to the
The legacy of positivistic philosophy is the culture Frankfurt School, the suppression of ethics in
of positivism, which encompasses those positivist rationality precludes the possibility of
convictions, attitudes, procedures, and conceptions self-critique, or more specifically, the questioning
that continue to exert a profound and pervasive of its own normative structure. Facts become
influence on contemporary times. Postmodern separated from values; objectivity undermines
philosophy, in particular the Frankfurt school of critique. By functioning within an operational
thought and feministic researchers, is responsible context free from ethical commitments, positivism
for many of the criticisms that have been levelled wedded itself to the immediate and celebrated the
against positivism. These academics also highlight world of facts. By substituting what is for what
how the positivist culture impairs critical should be, it represses ethics as a category of life
consciousness and promotes a false rationality as a and reproduces the notion that society has a life of
result. In addition to this, they contend that this is its own, independent of the will of human beings.
not an epistemological error but rather has political The neutralisation of ethics effectively underscores
motivations behind it. This section will discuss the value of historical consciousness as well as
each of these arguments in detail. public discourse on important political issues.
Instead, we are left with a mode of reasoning that
Natural and Social Reality are different makes it exceptionally difficult for human beings
Giddens (1998) critiqued the method of positivism to struggle against the limitations of an oppressive
by arguing that what is applicable in the domain of society. Finally, inherent in this perspective is a
nature is not necessarily applicable in the domain passive model of man. The positivist view of
of human society. Because natural and human knowledge, "facts," and ethics has neither use nor
reality are two different realms of enquiry. And room for a historical reality in which man is able to
unlike nature, society consists of self-reflexive constitute his own meanings. Thus, questions
agents who think, argue, contest, and, through their concerning the social construction of knowledge
practises and actions, transform the world. and the constitutive interests behind the selection,
Positivism thus undermines the creativity, organisation, and evaluation of "brute facts" are
reflexivity, and agency of social actors. Positivist buried under the assumption that knowledge is
dualism distinguishes between subject and object, objective and value-free. Information or "data"
fact and value, and knower and known. He called taken from the subjective world of intuition,
this "cold objectivity" and said that this represented insight, philosophy, and non-scientific theoretical
alienation from his or her own self. Moreover, frameworks is not acknowledged as being relevant.
situated within a number of false dualisms (facts vs. Values, then, appear as the nemeses of facts and are
values, scientific knowledge vs. norms, and viewed at best as interesting and at worst as
description vs. prescription), and under the wisdom irrational and subjective emotional responses.
of neutrality, scientific knowledge and all theories
become rational on the grounds of whether they are Education and Curriculum cannot be Value
efficient, economic, or correct. Neutral
Schuck (1987) observed that while natural Apple (2006) claimed that present curricular and
scientists have already agreed that we do not and teaching practises are relatively impotent in
cannot know absolutely, many social scientists still exploring the nature of the social order of which
they are a part. He explained that claims to
4611 Journal of Positive School Psychology
neutrality carry less weight, and it is a mistaken Education is fundamentally a Moral Quest
belief that by not taking a political stance, we are Pathak (2009) contended that defending neutrality
being objective or neutral. He elaborated on this is a form of facist politics because it hides what is
point by reiterating that the neutrality claim ignores behind educational goals, preventing people from
the fact that the knowledge that gets into schools is understanding the ideological role that education
already a choice from a much larger universe of plays in producing specific forms of knowledge,
possible social knowledge and principles. Selected power, social values, agency, and world narratives.
curricula are a form of cultural capital that reflect So we can say it is impossible for education to be
the beliefs of powerful segments of society. So the neutral. And those who argue that education should
choice of content isn't based on what's best for be neutral are really arguing for a version of
everyone, but on the values of powerful groups. So education in which nobody is accountable. The
we cannot claim we are being neutral as social and people who produce that form of education become
economic values are already embedded in all invisible because they are saying it‘s neutral. He
aspects of schooling, like the design of the went on to say that education is fundamentally
institutions we work in, in the "formal corpus of about moral and ethical quests: transforming our
school knowledge" we preserve in our curricula, in consciousness, beliefs, aspirations, and
our modes of teaching, and in our principles, worldviews. So he emphasises the dialogical
standards, and forms of evaluation. He concluded process of learning within the study of academic
that since these values now work through us, often subjects like social sciences or sciences, in which
unconsciously, the issue is not how to stand above we should also reflect on moral and ethical
the choice. So we must understand whose values questions. This is in tune with the ancient Indian
this entire education paradigm is based on, and we tradition of education, which was bigger than just
must be aware of which values one must ultimately intellectual development and knowledge of some
choose. selected subjects alone.
Thus, from the above, it can be concluded that this Pathak (2009) emphasised the distinction between
false notion of neutrality in the curriculum is inner realisation and mere intellectual preparation
serving some elitist interests, which undermines in the Indian philosophical tradition. So, truth is
critical consciousness that questions every form of self-awareness. So education is by no means mere
authority and hegemony. So we need to develop a knowledge of the phenomenal world; instead it is
curriculum that gives students space to reflect on essentially a penetrating journey to the inner world-
ethical issues and the struggles of marginalised an awareness and realisation of inner feelings,
sections of society. emotions, patterns (Pathak, 2009). So our
curriculum should include more humane and
Schooling should be a site of Resistance integral thinking that evolves a mediation between
Kumar (2009) claimed that conflicts are not reason and emotion, objectivity and subjectivity.
allowed to be discussed in school because it is
assumed that children should not be exposed to Positivism legitimises specific interests
traumatic events and that education should not be under the guise of being Value-free
politicised. But for Kumar, however, all Giroux (1997) claimed that it should be realised
educational activity is always already political and that education is never value neutral. Selection of
ideological, while the reluctance to discuss certain knowledge for representation in the
traumatic events with children reveals the isolation curriculum is always based on what values the
of classrooms from children‘s everyday lives and textbook authors give importance. The choice of
the education system‘s lack of understanding curriculum is based on the value they share and the
regarding the socialisation of children. Hence, the desire to propagate and socialise students through
curriculum remains aloof from children's everyday the curriculum of a particular subject.
realities as they skirt the discussion of social He states that "objectified" knowledge as it
conflicts happening in society. operates in the classroom obscures the interplay of
Hence, for schooling to be a site of counter- meaning and intentionality as the foundation for all
socialisation, we should abandon our ethical forms of knowledge. He concludes that it is not
neutral stance. Only then can schools function as a only a conceptual problem but it also plays a
counter-socialisation site. The curriculum should decisive role in shaping classroom experiences.
be designed to provide avenues for challenging the Regardless of how a pedagogy is defined, whether
norms of oppressive social structures. And this is in traditional or progressive terms, if it fails to
only possible if there is room in the curriculum and encourage self-reflection and communicative
textbooks to discuss ethical issues in the teaching interaction, it provides students with the illusion
of school subjects. rather than the substance of choice. Additionally, it
promotes manipulation while denying critical
Ramandeep Singh 4612
reflection. He criticized not only the positivistic safeguard the interests of some special and
celebrated objective feature and its impact on powerful groups. To maintain a form of hegemony
curriculum and textbooks, but he also makes and power and to maintain an exploitative social
arguments against context-free knowledge. Giroux order, some elite social groups with power in
(1997) claimed that when knowledge takes on the educational decision-making attempted to avoid
appearance of being context-free knowledge, it is ethical goals of education in favour of academic
divorced from the political and cultural traditions goals. In the curriculum and textbook, there is
that give it meaning. In this way, knowledge is only insufficient space for students to reflect on their
viewed as technical knowledge rather than experiences, their marginalisation, and the daily
emancipatory. On one level, it means that social injustice they face. Instead, influenced by
classroom knowledge can be used in the interest of positivism, these ethical issues were presented
either emancipation or domination. It can be in an objective, abstract, and context-free
critically used and analysed in order to break manner, which failed to engage students in a
through mystifications and modes of false
meaningful way. The concepts and values of
reasoning, or it can be used unreflectively to
social justice, democracy, and equality, etc., remain
legitimise specific socio-political interests by
concepts to be comprehended rather than values to
appearing to be value-free and beyond criticism. As
be practised daily. Therefore, context-free and
a result, positivistic knowledge in the curriculum
abstract knowledge serve both the function of
and textbooks is only used to legitimise the specific
maintaining hegemony and the function of serving
interests of some groups under the guise of being
elites by justifying the exclusion of values and
value-free and avoiding ethical concerns.
ethical ethical issues from the curriculum. Thus, the
Giroux (1997) made the point that social studies
need of the present education system is to abandon
knowledge does more to provide logical
outdated values of Positivism, so that the
justification of prevailing institutional
curriculum and textbooks should be redesigned in
arrangements, forms of conduct, and beliefs that
a way that students can share their experiences,
eschew social conflict and social injustice. The
discuss and reflect on ethical issues in their
alleged innovative, discipline-centered social
classroom.
studies curriculum has built its reputation on its
claim to promote critical inquiry. Instead, this
Conclusion
approach appears to have created "new forms of
mystification which make the social world seem
The modern curriculum, as discussed in this article,
mechanistic and pre-deterministic" (Giroux, 1997).
undermines discussion of ethical and moral issues.
Giroux (1997) claimed that there is little in the
This is due to positivistic notions of objectivity,
positivist pedagogical model that encourages
reductionism, and value neutrality. Modern
students to generate their own meanings, to
education and schools were seen as neutral
capitalise on their own cultural capital, or to
institutions whose only function was to promote
participate in evaluating their own classroom
intellectual development and subject-based
experiences. The principles of order and control in
knowledge. However, as arguments given by
positivist pedagogy appear inherently opposed to
leading philosophers and sociologists of education
such an approach. He is against the arbitrary
suggest, education can and will never be value
division between objective and subjective
neutral. The broad educational goals, curriculum
knowledge. The behavioural and management
objectives, and textbook development are all based
approaches to such pedagogy, particularly at the
on values adopted by education policymakers and
level of middle and secondary education, reduce
curriculum development educators. So education
learning to a set of practises that neither define nor
under the shield of value neutrality actually
respond critically to the basic normative categories
undermines critical consciousness. Furthermore, as
that shape day-to-day classroom methods and
scholars have argued above, education in its most
evaluation procedures (Giroux, 1997).
fundamental sense is an ethical quest, and thus we
Thus, based on the above detailed examination of
should redesign the curriculum with ethical and
the culture of Positivism and its critique, we need
moral development goals in mind.
to re-examine our curriculum in the context of
value/moral education. For that, we need to re-
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