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1.1 CONTROLSYSTEM
Control system theory evolved as an engineering discipline and due to universality of the principles
involved, it is extended to various fields like economy, sociology, biology, medicine, etc. Control theory
has played a vital ‘role in the advance of engineering and science. The automatic control has become an
integral part of modern manufacturing and industrial processes. For example, numerical control of machine
tools in manufacturing industries, controlling pressure, temperature, humidity, viscosity and flow in process
industry.
When a number of elements or components are connected in a sequence to perform a specific
function, the group thus formed is called'a system. Ina system when the output'quantity is controlled by
varying the input quantity, the system is called control system.’ The output quantity is called controlled
variable or response and input quantity is called command signal or excitation.
OPEN LOOP SYSTEM
Any physical system which does not automatically correct the variation in its output, is called an
open loop system, or control system in which the output quantity has no effect upon the input quantity are
called open-loop control system. This means that the output is not fedback to the input for correction.
Input Open loop | Output
7 >} system (Plant) [>
rt) c(t)
Fig 1.1 : Open loop system.
In open loop system the output can be varied by varying the input. But due to external disturbances
the system output may change. When the output changes due to disturbances, it is not followed by
changes in input to correct the output. In open loop systems the changes in output are corrected by
changing the input manually. chapter 1- Mathematical Models of Control Systems iB
(CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM
coo
Es Control systems in which the output has an effect upon the input quantity in order to maintain the
desired output value are called closed loop systems.
Enor
Detector
put
Reference. > Controller a4 Open loop system| ee
Input (Plant) ¥
ae : (t)
Feedback: |y
Fig 1.2 Closed loop system.
The open oo system canbe modified as clased lop system by providings feedback. The provision
of feedback automatically corrects the changes in output due to disturbances, Hence the closed loop
syst i alo ealed automatic control system The general bork diagram of an automatic control
system is shown in fig 1.2. It consists of an error detector, a controller, plant (open loop syst
feedback path elements. tet open ee saan) sot
‘The reference signal ( or input signal ) corresponds to desired output. The feedback path elements
samples the output and converts it toa signal of same type as that of reference signal."The feedback signal
is proportional to output signal and it is fed to the error detector. The error signal generated by the error
detector is the difference between reference signal and feedback signal. The controller modifies and
amplifies the error signal to produce better control action. The modified error signal is fed to the plant to
correct its output. °
‘Advantages of open loop systems
1, The open loop systems are simple and economical .
2. The open loop systems are easier to construct.
3. Generally the open loop systems are stable.
Disadvantage of open loop systems
1. The open loop systems are inaccurate and unreliable.
2. The changes in the output due to external disturbances are not corrected automatically
Advantages of closed loop systems
1. The closed loop systems are accurate.
2. The closed loop systems are accurate even in the presence of non-linearities:
3, The sensitivity of the systems may be made small to make the system more stable. i
4, The closed loop systems are less affected by noise. s i
Disadvantages of closed loop systems
1, The closed loop systems are complex and costly.
2. The feedback in closed loop system may lead to oscillatory response.
3. The feedback reduces the overall gain of the system.
4. Stability is a major problem in closed loop system and more care
closed loop system .
s needed to design a stable 1_ Control Systems
L3
|» 1.2 EXAMPLES OF CONTROL SYSTEMS
EXAMPLE ‘1 : TEMPERATURE CONTROL SYSTEM
OPENLOOP SYSTEM _
: The electric furnace shown in fig 1.3. is an open loop system. The output in the system is the
desired temperature. The temperature of the system is raised by heat generated by the heating element.
The output temperature depends on the time during which the supply to heater remains ON.
| : Sensor
+ -
Electric ¢f > AD i Digital
| Furace Converter interface > Display
}! O04 |
Heating element
Relay [--—°
Control | AC supply
Circuit
[0
Fig 1.3 : Open loop temperature control system.
The ON and OFF of the supply is governed by the time setting of the relay. The temperature is
measured by a sensor, which gives an analog voltage corresponding to the temperature of the furnace.
The analog signal is converted to digital signal by an Analog - to - Digital converter (AD converter). The
| digital signal is given to the digital display device to display the temperature. In this system if there is any
) change in output temperature then the time setting of the relay is not altered automatically. /
cL6seD LOOP SYSTEM 3
\ The electric furnace shown in fig 1.4 isa closed loop system. The output of the system is the desired
temperature and it depends on the time during which the supply to heater remains ON.
Digital control
Sensor
ees ‘ AID Interface Controller{ circuit
a Converter Circuit > (or)
OI Computer/Micro
Heating element processor
|
Relay Wa
Control Aone} Convene Reference input
Circuit (Desired temperature)
ac |
Supply
Fig 1.4 : Closed loop temperature control system. chapter 1- Mathematical Models of Control Systems 4
% ‘The switching ON and OFF of the relay is controlled by a controller which is a digital system or
computer. The desired temperature is input to the system through keyboard or as a signal corresponding
to desired temperature via ports. The actual temperature is sensed by sensor and converted to digital
signal by the A/D converter. The computer reads the actual temperature and compares with desired
temperature. If it finds any difference then it sends signal to switch ON or OFF the relay through D/A
converter ‘and amplifier. Thus the system automatically corrects any changes in output. Hence it is a
closed loop system. Control System,
|
113 . j
EXAMPLES | X09) ang %2) for the system shown in fig I |
Determine the transfer function » “E6). F(S) F(S) * '
Fig I
j—_>*,
+> fit)
SOLUTION ° lene ee
Let, Laplace transform of f(t) = £{f(t)} = F(s) MyM: Fig’
Laplace transform of x, = £{x,} = X,(s) ie fi
eas
Laplace transform of x, = £{x,)_=X,(S) =
The system has two nodes and they are mass M, and M,, The differential equations governing tl
system are the force balance equations at these nodes. The free body diagram of mass M, is shown
fig 2. The opposing forces are marked as f,,, f,, f,,, and f,,.
fav? bas Ao
d
fu =M, 2 ; fu = que) 5 fa = Ken
ae =
By Newton's second law, fy + fur + fy, + fir = £0)
dx, Se, dx,
dt?
M,
On taking Laplace transform of above equation with zero initial conditions we get,
Mjs°X;(s) + Bis X,(s) + Byys [X\(s)-X3(8)} + K,X,(s) = F(s)
X1(8) [M,s" + (B, +B) + K,]~ B,SX, (8) = F(s)
rf re free body diagram of mass M, is shown in fig 3. The opposing forces are marked as f.. |
an 4
Jes,
fa 5 fy = BS? oy IG
dt
: \*———
d M, *
fun oF @—m)s fy =K x, $— fur
By Newton's second lavi, fg + fyy + fxg + fy = 4
Fig 3
2
M, 2% 43, % 4B, sex)
dt 2 at FAK SO sy (2) Chapter 1 - Mathematical Models of Control Systems 144
On taking Laplace transform of equation (2) with zero initial conditions we get,
M,s°X, (8) + BySX2 (s) + Bas [X2(8) ~ X,(8)] + KX, (8) = 0
X,(s) [Mys* +(B, + B,)8+K,]-By sX,(s)=0 |
X,(s) [M,s" +(B, + B,.)8+K J = By s X,(s)
Buys X1(5)
X2(9)= ie? +B, + By)s+ Ky] +3)
Substituting for X2(s) from equation (3) in equation (1) we get,
xs)? Xs)
X,(s) M,s? +B, +B, Kjos ee A
LIM Bis Ba) et Bal Ms +@,+B,)st#K,
X,()[IM,s? + @, +B) s+K,1 Ms? +B, +B,)s+K,]-Bys)*] am
- =F(s)
M,s* +(B, + By)8+K,
. Xi) M,s* +(B, +B,)s+K3
“FO (Ms? +, +B,.)s+K,] [M,s" +(B, +B,)s+K,]- (Bs)?
From equation (3) we get,
(M,8? + (By + By) S+ Ky] X2(8)
B,s (4)
X\(s) =
Substituting for X,(s) from equation (4) in equation (1) we get,
2
Mal ss Be Bale t hal (GezPusthl [M,s? +(B, + By.) +K,]-Bys X,(s) = F(s)
2
x0 [™ +B. + By)s# Ko] [Mh * + (B+ Pst tl Bas| =i
X29) Bus
Fs) [M,s* +(B, + By.) +K,] [M,s° +(B, + By) s+K,]-(B,,s)° coapter1-Mathemattcal Models of Control Systems
152
EXAMPLE 1.134
EXAMPLE 1.134
Wi ferential equations governing the
mechanical rotational system shown in fig 1.
Drawthe torque-voltage and torque-current electrical
analogous circuits and verify by writing mesh and
node equations.
SOLUTION
‘The given mechanical rotational system has three nédes (moment of inertia of masses). The differential
equations governing the mechanical rotational system are given by torque balance equations at these
nodes.
Let the angular displacements of J,, J, and J, be 8,, 0, and 0, respectively. The corresponding
angular velocities be.o,; @, and @,.
The free body diagram of J, is shown in fig 2. The opposing torques are marked as T,,,T,, and T,,.
4(@, -8,) y ya
vp Avr ¥2)- J
Lae de, ewe Le
T 6, Ty, Ty Th
T, =K,@, -8,)
Fig 2
By Newton's second law, T,, +T,, +, =T
4, ~6.
jG BOs G0, Oe RE a)
The fre body diagram of J, is shown in fig 3. The opposing torques are marked as T, Ty, Ty
and 7,
d(@, -8,)
; BT ae a AY
« ee a
d@, ~ 8) 6 Tr Te Th Ter
Ty =K,(0, ~0,); Ty = B, OOD
Fig 3
By Newton's second law, Ty, + Ty + Ty, + Ty, =0
40, | 40,05), 40, -0,)
hog tB So) oe -rt—‘EECS (2)
and 7 Me body diagram of J, is shown in fig 4. The opposing torques are marked as Cie
o
d@,~6. Si +
5 Ty, =B, 88-8), 7, -K,9, Fi Vee | ad ata
dt 6, Ts Ta Tis
By Newton's second law, T,, + T,, + T,,=0
E Fig 4
e
1 Jp 93 4p, MOs- 8) 1 K,9, <0 ee (3)
dt? dt 1.53 Control Syste
On replacing the angular displacements by angular velocity in the differential equations (1) and
governing the mechanical rotational system we get,
ie 28 _ do 40
pea ee d 0 = Jodi
(: a) a 72 Md O=Jodt
dc e
she B,(@, -@))+K,J(@, -@,) dt=T
do,
Ja~Ge * Bi@2- 0) + B,(@, ~ 05) + KJ, ~@,) dt =0
do.
Ja-Ge + Bi(@3 702) +Ksfo,dt=0 ae
TOROTIR-VOI TARE antes Aone — -H,
a
EXAMPLE 1.26
Find the overall gain of the system whose signal flow
graph is shown in fig 1. eo) athematical Hodes of Control Systems ‘ 188.
chapter
ION .
so nbet the nodes as shown in fig 2.
Let us =
1, Fomard Path Gains
There are six forward paths. “.K = 6
Let the forward path gains be Pi, Ps, Ps, Pa, Ps and Ps,
70 08
Fig 3 : Forward path-1. Fig 4 : Forward path-2.
Fig 7 : Forward path-5.
Gain of forward path-1, P, = G2 Gy Gy
Gain of forward path-2, P: = G3 Gs Gy
Gain of forward path-3, P, = G, G; G,
Gain of forward path-4, Py =G; Gs Ge
Gain of forward path-5, Ps =—G,G,G,;GsH,
Gain of forward path-6, Ps=-GiG.G.GsH: 7
Fig 8 : Forward path-6, Il, Individual Loop Gain
‘There are three individual loops. e
Let individual loop gains be Pr, Pa: and Pate
5 8
-H,
) 4
3S tia » : :
ig 10 : Loop-2-
Fig 9: Loop-l. . Fig 10: Loop “aD
Fig 11 : Loop-3.
Loop gain of individual loop-1, Pi: =
Loop gain of individual loop-2, Pat
Loop gain of individual loop-3, Ps; = GiGsHiHe
III, Gain Products of Two Non-touching Loops YG 7
Trigg Pee Gt Meee Hp
i nati -touchin ;
Thereisonly one combination ofto non-touching On of 2 nontouching la
loops. Let gain product of two non-touching loops be Piz. Fig 1.
Ps = PyPy =(-G4H,) (-GsH2) = G,GsH,H,
Gain product of first combination
of two non - touching loops
IV. Calculation of A and A, A
A= 1 (Py +Pa+Py) +P = 1 - (CGH GsH2 #G,GeHiHz) + GiGsHiHa
G,
= 1+ GyH, + GsH,—G,GsH)H, + GyGsH,H2 is
eve,
-H)
The part of the graph non-touching forward path — | is shown in fig 13.
Fig 13
As = 1 ='(CGsHa) = 1+ Goth
The part of the graph non-touching forward path ~2 is shown in fig. 14, “H, 4
36 SN
veda = 1 = (-GyHi) = 1+ GH, Ai
_ Fig!
There is no part of the graph which is non-touching with forward paths 3, 4, 5 and 6.
1A = Ay = As = Ag = 1 Me
V. Transfer Function, T
By Mason's gain formula the transfer function, Tis given by,
1 5
T=-([S RA
re (= " ‘| (Number of forward paths is six and so K = 6)
= FP PA, + Ps +P, + as + Py,y
G2GsG6(1+ G3H2) +656,6,1+6,4,) 46,6.
B ~G,G3G,G,H, -616,6,c, i 7+G,6,G,
14 G4H, + OsH, ~G,G,H,H, +G,G,ii H,
: _
ee EXAMPLE 1.28
i i i 1.
Find the overall gain C(s)/R(s) for the signal flow graph shown in fig —
seat Models of Control Systems 192
pf - Mall
qos Mate
goLuTiON
evar Path Gane th. .K=1
1 eis only one forvard ee
rhe forward path gain be Pr
C 1 G G, Ss S 1
cs)
RG) ; 2 3 4 5 6 7
Fig 2 : Forward path-I.
Gain of forward path-1, P= G,G,G;G,
11, Individual Loop Gain
ee ee
‘There are three individual loops. Let the loop gains be P11, Pai, Pai.
Fig 3: loop-1. Fig 4 : loop-2.
Fig 5 : loop-3.
Loop gain of individual loop-1, P,,
Loop gain of individual loop-2, P,,=-G,G,H,
Loop gain of individual loop-3, P,, =~ G,G,G,G,
Il. Gain Products of Two Non-touching Loops
There are no possible combinations of two non-touching loops, three non-touching loops, ete.
W, Calculation of A and A,
~— Calculation of A and A,
A
~ Py +P + P31)
=1-(-G,G,H, -G,G,H, -G,G,G,G,)
=1+G,G,H, +G,G,H, +G,G,G,G,
Since no part of the graph is non-touching with forward path-1,.A, = 1.
¥. Transfer Function, T
eas
By Mason's gain formula the transfer function, T is given by,
P, A, (Number of forward path is 1 and so K = 1)
= GiG,G3G4
1+G,G,H, + G,G,H, +G,G,G,G, Je
EXAMPLE 1.22
took diagiam ofa closed loop system is shown in fi i
ig |. Using the block dia
gram reduction
the closed loop transfer function C(s)/R(s).
technique determine
RO)
aw eC)
H,6)
SOLUTION
‘Step 1 : Splitting the summinig point.
R(s) i : Cc
ae THQ-ES °
. H, ©}
Step 2 : Eliminating the feedback path.
RG)
oO)
ENG) Contre,
ae
1.77
+ kK.
‘Step 3 : Moving the summing point after the bloc
: " a cs)
G25)
Le TG HO),
OH - a
a ks in cascade
‘Step 4 : interchanging the summing points and combining the bloc!
. ' ee ce
RG) py_,| 2 _- eae
RHR | Fano
RG):
: 146,15) LO)
G(s)
1+G,(s) H,(s)
G(s) Hs) * G(s)
146463) Ha)
G,(s) H,@)
Step 6 : Combining the blocks in cascade
RG)
Lc)
Gus)
G@+i-y} —— Ga)
1 FEOHO+6,06,0
oS). SiGe)
“RG) 1+G,(S) Hi) + 6,9) 6.) H@
RESULT ——F
The transfer function of the system is,
(Ove G2(S) [Gi(s) +1]
RG) 1+G,6) F2@+G,9 6,0, Con
5B POLS,
EXAMPLE 5.
. en loo)
Determine the range of K for stability of unity feedback system whose open loop transfa, tng,
ed kK
5 GO)- TDG) ;
SOLUTION 7
Cs) _ G(s) __ 57) G#2)_ = K
The closed loop transfer function, === K S41) (S42)4K
1+G(s) ——
: RO) 1400). 1 aay
The characteristic equation is, s(S#1)(St2)+K=0
18(8 +38+2)4K=0 => 43s? +2s+K=0 “
The routh array is constructed as shown below.
The highest power of's in the characteristic polynomial is odd number. Hence form the first my,
using the coefficients of odd powers of s and form the second row using the coefficients of even poyen,
of s. . at 3x2-Kx]
gee ak
1 29 3
3
s
i i
ee
s? 33st K
a
'
ge, 1S2Ky : K-08)
ere
os chi CH,
eee SK |
“EE cotumit
For the system to be stable there should not be any sign change in the elements of first column,
Hence choose the. value of K so that the first column elements are Positive. °
From s° row, for the system to be stable, K > 0
6-K
From s! row, for the system to be stable, B00
6-K_
320, the value-of K should be less thah 6.
-, The range of K for the system to be stable is 0
