FORM 1& 2 NOTES

TERM1
2018
Mr wunganai

WHAT IS A COMPUTER
An electronic device, operating under the control of instructions stored in its own memory that
can:
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–Accept data (input)

–Process the data according to specified rules (process)

–Produce results (output)

–Store the results for future use (storage)

What are the five basic components of a computer?

 The six primary components of a computer are input devices, the processor (control unit
and arithmetic/logic unit), memory, output devices, storage devices, and communications
devices

 The processor, memory, and storage devices are housed in a box-like case called the
system unit (CPU)

THE BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

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INPUT DEVICES

An input device is any hardware component that allows you to enter data, programs, commands,
and user responses into a computer

SYSTEM UNIT (CPU)

The system unit is a case that contains electronic components of the computer used to process
data

 The processor (CPU) interprets and carries out the basic instructions that operate a
computer Arithmetic/logic unit
 Memory (RAM) consists of electronic components that temporarily stores instructions
waiting to be executed by the processor, data needed by those instructions, and the results
of processed data
OUTPUT DEVICES
Output devices make the information resulting from processing available for use e.g. speakers,
printers, earphones etc

STORAGE DEVICES
Storage device is used to store instructions, data, and information when they are not being used in
memory e.g. flashy, CD, DVD etc

COMMUNICATION DEVICES

A communications device is a hardware component that enables a computer to send and receive
data, instructions, and information to and from one or more computers.
TYPES OF COMPUTERS

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II, Computer sizes and power
Computers can be generally classified by size and power as follows, though there is considerable
overlap:
 Personal computer: A small, single-user computer based on a microprocessor.
 Workstation: A powerful, single-user computer. A workstation is like a personal
computer, but it has amore powerful microprocessor and, in general, a higher-quality
monitor.
 Minicomputer: A multi-user computer capable of supporting up to hundreds of users
simultaneously.
 Mainframe: A powerful multi-user computer capable of supporting many hundreds or
thousands of users simultaneously.
 Supercomputer: An extremely fast computer that can perform hundreds of millions of
instructions per second.
Minicomputer Supercomputers Personal Computers Workstations Mainframes
Least powerful Most powerful
Supercomputer and Mainframe
Supercomputer is a broad term for one of the fastest computers currently available.
Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require
immense amounts of mathematical calculations (number crunching). For example, weather
forecasting requires a supercomputer. Other uses of supercomputers scientific simulations,
(animated) graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and
analysis of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting). Perhaps the best known
supercomputer manufacturer is Cray Research.
Mainframe was a term originally referring to the cabinet containing the central processor unit or
"mainframe" of a room-filling Stone Age batch machine. After the emergence of smaller
"minicomputer" designs in the early 1970s, the traditional big iron machines were described as
"mainframe computers" and eventually just as mainframes. Nowadays a Mainframe is a very
large and expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds, or even thousands, of users
simultaneously. The chief difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a
supercomputer channels all its power into executing a few programs as fast as possible, whereas
a mainframe uses its power to execute many programs concurrently. In some ways, mainframes
are more powerful than supercomputers because they support more simultaneous programs. But
supercomputers can execute a single program faster than a mainframe. The distinction between
small mainframes and minicomputers is vague, depending really on how the manufacturer wants
to market its machines.
Minicomputer
It is a midsize computer. In the past decade, the distinction between large minicomputers and
small mainframes has blurred, however, as has the distinction between small minicomputers and
workstations. But in general, a minicomputer is a multiprocessing system capable of supporting
from up to 200 users simultaneously.
Workstation
It is a type of computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop publishing,
software development, and other types of applications that require a moderate amount of
computing power and relatively high quality graphics capabilities. Workstations generally come
with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, at large amount of RAM, built-in network support,
and a graphical user interface. Most workstations also have a mass storage device such as a disk

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drive, but a special type of workstation, called a diskless workstation, comes without a disk
drive. The most common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. Like
personal computers, most workstations are single-user computers. However, workstations are
typically linked together to form a local-area network, although they can also be used as stand-
alone systems. N.B.: In networking, workstation refers to any computer connected to a local-area
network. It could be a workstation or a personal computer.
Personal computer:
It can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user. In
price, personal computers range anywhere from a few hundred pounds to over five thousand
pounds. All are based on the microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put an
entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use personal computers for word processing, accounting,
desktop publishing, and for running spreadsheet and database management applications. At
home, the most popular use for personal computers is for playing games and recently for surfing
the Internet. Personal computers first appeared in the late 1970s. One of the first and most
popular personal computers was the Apple II, introduced in 1977 by Apple Computer. During
the late 1970s and early 1980s, new models and competing operating systems seemed to appear
daily. Then, in 1981, IBM entered the fray with its first personal computer, known as the IBM

Personal Computer Types

Actual personal computers can be generally classified by size and chassis / case. The chassis or
case is the metal frame that serves as the structural support for electronic components. You will
need an expansion chassis, which provides additional slots. Then come the portable computers
that are computers small enough to carry. Portable computers include notebook and subnotebook
computers, hand-held computers, palmtops, and PDAs.

Tower model
The term refers to a computer in which the power supply, motherboard, and mass storage devices
are stacked on top of each other in a cabinet. This is in contrast to desktop models, in which
these components are housed in a more compact box. The main advantage of tower models is
that there are fewer space constraints, which makes installation of additional storage devices
easier.
Desktop model
A computer designed to fit comfortably on top of a desk, typically with the monitor sitting on top
of the computer. Desktop model computers are broad and low, whereas tower model computers
are narrow and tall. Because of their shape, desktop model computers are generally limited to
three internal mass storage devices. Desktop models designed to be very small are sometimes
referred to as slim line models.

Notebook computer
An extremely light weight personal computer. Notebook computers typically weigh less than 6
pounds and are small enough to fit easily in a briefcase. Aside from size, the principal difference
between a notebook computer and a personal computer is the display screen. Notebook
computers use a variety of techniques, known as flat-panel technologies, to produce a
lightweight and non-bulky display screen. The quality of notebook display screens varies

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considerably. In terms of computing power, modern notebook computers are nearly equivalent to
personal computers. They have the same CPUs, memory capacity, and disk drives. However, all
this power in a small package is expensive. Notebook computers cost about twice as much as
equivalent regular-sized computers. Notebook computers come with battery packs that enable
you to run them without plugging them in. However, the batteries need to be recharged every
few hours.

Laptop computer
A small, portable computer -- small enough that it can sit on your lap. Nowadays, laptop
computers are more frequently called notebook computers.

Subnotebook computer
A portable computer that is slightly lighter and smaller than a full-sized notebook computer.
Typically, subnotebook computers have a smaller keyboard and screen, but are otherwise
equivalent to notebook computers.

Hand-held computer
A portable computer that is small enough to be held in one’s hand. Although extremely
convenient to carry, handheld computers have not replaced notebook computers because of their
small keyboards and screens. The most popular hand-held computers are those that are
specifically designed to provide PIM (personal information manager) functions, such as a
calendar and address book. Some manufacturers are trying to solve the small keyboard problem
by replacing the keyboard with an electronic pen. However, these pen based devices rely on
handwriting recognition technologies, which are still in their infancy. Hand-held computers are
also called PDAs, palmtops and pocket computers.

Palmtop
A small computer that literally fits in your palm. Compared to full-size computers, palmtops are
severely limited, but they are practical for certain functions such as phone books and calendars.
Palmtops that use a pen rather than a keyboard for input are often called hand-held computers or
PDAs. Because of their small size, most palmtop computers do not include disk drives. However,
many contain PCMCIA slots in which you can insert disk drives, modems, memory, and other
devices. Palmtops are also called PDAs, hand-held computers and pocket computers.

PDA
Short for personal digital assistant, a handheld device that combines computing, telephone/fax,
and networking features. A typical PDA can function as a cellular phone, fax sender, and
personal organizer. Unlike portable computers, most PDAs are pen-based, using a stylus rather
than a keyboard for input. This means that they also incorporate handwriting recognition
features. Some PDAs can also react to voice input by using voice recognition technologies. The
field of PDA was pioneered by Apple Computer, which introduced the Newton Message Pad in
1993. Shortly thereafter, several other manufacturers offered similar products. To date, PDAs
have had only modest success in the marketplace, due to their high price tags and limited
applications. However, many experts believe that PDAs will eventually become common
gadgets. PDAs are also called palmtops, hand-held computers and pocket computers.

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HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

A computer system consists of two major elements: hardware and software.

 Computer hardware is the collection of all the parts you can physically touch.
 Computer software, on the other hand, is not something you can touch. Software is a set
of instructions for a computer to perform specific operations.
 You need both hardware and software for a computer system to work.

Some hardware components are easy to recognize, such as the computer case, keyboard, and
monitor. However, there are many different types of hardware components. In this lesson, you
will learn how to recognize the different components and what they do.

INPUT DEVICES

 An input device is any hardware component that allows you to enter data, programs,
commands, and user responses into a computer eg keyboard, mouse trackball etc
KEYBOARD
• A keyboard consists of a series of keys that can be pressed to input commands or letters.
These are used to write documents but can be used to navigate user interfaces in lieu of a
mouse.

MOUSE

 A mouse consists of a ball or laser that tracks the movement of the device. The computer
is able to register the movement of the mouse and translate it as movement of the cursor
on the screen

TRACK BALL

 These devices work like a standard mouse except the users rolls a ball inside a base rather
than moving the device across the table top. Many users prefer a trackball to a mouse,
because it involves less wrist movement, reducing repetitive-motion issues

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TOUCH PAD

• This is a device typically found on laptop computers. It works like a mouse or trackball,
except it's a flat panel you move your finger across. The motion of your finger registers
as cursor movement on the screen. Many touchpad now enable gestures to scroll through
documents or zoom in on a photo. Buttons are typically below the touchpad.

JOYSTICKS

• These devices are primarily used for computer gaming. They consist of a stick on a base
with various buttons that all have different functions. It operates similar to a yoke on an
aircraft, making them suitable for flight simulators

SCANNER

 These devices allow a user to input a photograph or document into the computer. By
placing a piece of media in a scanner, you can create an image file that can be opened and
manipulated on the computer.

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OUTPUT DEVICES
An output device is any device used to send data from a computer to another device or user.
Most computer data output that is meant for humans is in the form of audio or video. Thus, most
output devices used by humans are in these categories. Examples include monitors, projectors,
speakers, headphones and printers.
PRINTER
Printers are used to create a tangible product to look at away from a monitor. For consumer use
there are two kinds to choose from: the inkjet and the laser printer.
MONITOR
We use this to view the work we're doing at the time or to view a finished product. We may also
use it to view videos or photos we've taken or found online.
Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a
computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form.
The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels.

There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.

 Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

 Flat-Panel Display

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the
better the image clarity or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form a whole
character, such as the letter ‘e’ in the word help.

A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be divided
into a series of character boxes - fixed location on the screen where a standard character can be

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placed. Most screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines
vertically.

There are some disadvantages of CRT −

 Large in Size
 High power consumption

Flat-Panel Display Monitor

The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and
power requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on your
wrists. Current uses of flat-panel displays include calculators, video games, monitors, laptop
computer, and graphics display.

The flat-panel display is divided into two categories −

 Emissive Displays − Emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into
light. For example, plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).
 Non-Emissive Displays − Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight
or light from some other source into graphics patterns. For example, LCD (Liquid-Crystal
Device).

PRINTER
Printers are used to create a tangible product to look at away from a monitor. For consumer use
there are two kinds to choose from: the inkjet and the laser printer.

Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.

There are two types of printers −

 Impact Printers

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  Non-Impact Printers

Impact Printers

Impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon, which is then pressed on the
paper.

Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following −

 Very low consumable costs

 Very noisy
 Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
 There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image

These printers are of two types −

 Character printers
 Line printers

Character Printers

Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.

These are further divided into two types:

 Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)

 Daisy Wheel

Dot Matrix Printer

In the market, one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are popular
because of their ease of printing and economical price. Each character printed is in the form of
pattern of dots and head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which come
out to form a character which is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.

Advantages

 Inexpensive

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  Widely Used
 Other language characters can be printed

Disadvantages

 Slow Speed
 Poor Quality

Daisy Wheel

Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy (flower)
which is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally used for word-
processing in offices that require a few letters to be sent here and there with very nice quality.

Advantages

 More reliable than DMP

 Better quality
 Fonts of character can be easily changed

Disadvantages

 Slower than DMP

 Noisy
 More expensive than DMP

Line Printers

Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.

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These are of two types −

 Drum Printer
 Chain Printer

Drum Printer

This printer is like a drum in shape hence it is called drum printer. The surface of the drum is
divided into a number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to the size of the paper, i.e. for a paper
width of 132 characters, drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on the track.
Different character sets available in the market are 48 character set, 64 and 96 characters set. One
rotation of drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast in speed and can print 300 to 2000 lines
per minute.

Advantages

 Very high speed

Disadvantages

 Very expensive
 Characters fonts cannot be changed

Chain Printer

In this printer, a chain of character sets is used, hence it is called Chain Printer. A standard
character set may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.

Advantages

 Character fonts can easily be changed.

 Different languages can be used with the same printer.

Disadvantages

 Noisy

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Non-impact Printers

Non-impact printers print the characters without using the ribbon. These printers print a complete
page at a time, thus they are also called as Page Printers.

These printers are of two types −

 Laser Printers
 Inkjet Printers

Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

 Faster than impact printers

 They are not noisy
 High quality
 Supports many fonts and different character size

Laser Printers

These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to form the
characters to be printed on a page.

Advantages

 Very high speed

 Very high quality output
 Good graphics quality
 Supports many fonts and different character size

Disadvantages

 Expensive
 Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing

Inkjet Printers

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Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They print
characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality output
with presentable features.

They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing
modes available. Color printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can produce
multiple copies of printing also.

Advantages

 High quality printing

 More reliable

Disadvantages

 Expensive as the cost per page is high

 Slow as compared to laser printer

STORAGE DEVICE

A storage device refers to a computing hardware used to store information permanently or

temporarily. The device can be external or internal to a computer, server, and other computing
systems. Storage devices are also known as storage medias or storage medium. There are two
types of storage device: secondary storage device and primary storage device.

Types of Storage
There are four types of storage:
 Primary Storage
 Secondary Storage
 Tertiary Storage
 Off-line Storage

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Primary Storage
 Also known as main memory.
 Main memory is directly or indirectly connected to the central processing unit via a
memory bus.
 The CPU continuously reads instructions stored there and executes the mass required.

Example:
 RAM
 ROM
 Cache

RAM
 It is called Random Access Memory because any of the data in RAM can be accessed just
as fast as any of the other data.

There are two types of RAM:

 DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory)
 SRAM (Static Random Access Memory)

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 Static RAM Dynamic RAM

 Faster  Slower
 More expensive  Less expensive
 More power consumption  Less power consumption
 does not need to be refreshed  needs to be refreshed thousands of times per
second

ROM
 This memory is used as the computer begins to boot up.
 Small programs called firmware are often stored in ROM chips on hardware devices (like
a BIOS chip), and they contain instructions the computer can use in performing some of
the most basic operations required to operate hardware devices.
 ROM memory can not be easily or quickly over written or modified

CACHE
 Cache is a high-speed access area that can be either a reserved section of main memory
or a storage device.
 Most computers today come with L3 cache or L2 cache, while older computers included
onlyL1 cache

SECONDARYSTORAGE
 It is not directly accessible by the CPU.
 Computer usually uses its input/output channels to access secondary storage and transfers
the desired data using intermediate area in primary storage.

Example:

• Hard disk

Hard Disk
 The hard disk drive is the main, and usually largest, data storage device in a computer.
 Itcanstoreanywherefrom160gigabytesto2terabytes
 Hard disk speed is the speed at which content can be read and written on a hard disk.

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  A hard disk unit comes with a set rotation speed varyingfrom4500to7200rpm.
 Disk access time is measured in milliseconds

Internal hard disk External hard disk

Internal hard drive External hard drive

portability No yes
price Less expensive More expensive
speed Fast slow
size Big small

TERTIARY STORAGE
 Typically it involves a robotic mechanism which will mount (insert) and dismount
removable mass storage media into a storage device.
 It is a comprehensive computer storage system that is usually very slow, so it is usually
used to archive data that is not accessed frequently.
 This is primarily useful for extraordinarily large data stores, accessed without human
operators
Examples:
 Magnetic Tape
 Optical Disk

MAGNETIC TAPE
 A magnetically coated strip of plastic on which data can been coded.
 Tapes for computers are similar to tapes used to store music.
 Tape is much less expensive than other storage mediums but commonly a much slower
solution that is commonly used for backup

OPTICAL DISC
 Optical disc is any storage media that holds content in digital format and is read using a
laser assembly is considered optical media.

The most common types of optical media are

 Blue-ray (BD)
 Compact Disc (CD)

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  Digital Versatile Disc (DVD)

CD DVD BD
Capacity 700MB 4.7GB –17GB 50GB
Wavelength 780nm 650nm 405nm
Read/Write Speed 1200KB/s 10.5MB/s 36MB/s
Example
•CD-ROM, •DVD-ROM •BD-R
•CD-R •DVD+R/RW •BD-RE
•CD-RW •DVD-R/RW
•DVD-RAM

OFF-LINE STORAGE
 Also known as disconnected storage.
 Is computer data storage on a medium or a device that is not under the control of a
processing unit?
 It must be inserted or connected by a human operator before a computer can access it
again
Examples:
 Floppy Disk
 Zip diskette
 USB Flash drive
 Memory card
FLOPPY DISK
 As of t magnetic disk.
 Floppy disks are portable.
 Floppy disks are slower to access than hard disks and have less storage capacity, but they
are much less expensive.
 Can store data up to1.44MB.
 Two common sizes: 5¼” and 3½”.

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Zip Diskette
 Hardware data storage device developed by Iomega that functions like a Standard 1.44"
floppy drive.
 Capable to hold up to100MB of data or 250MB of data on new drives.
 Now it less popular as users needed larger storage capabilities

USB Flash Drive

 A small, portable flash memory card that plugs into a computer’s USB port and functions
as a portable hard drive.
 Flash drives are available in sizes such as 256MB, 512MB, 1GB, 5GB, and 16GB and
are an easy way to transfer and store information

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MEMORY CARD
 An electronic flash memory storage disk commonly used in consumer electronic devices
such as digital cameras,mp3 players ,mobile phones, and other small portable devices.
 Memory cards are usually read by connecting the device containing the card to your
computer, or by using a USB card reader

STORAGE DEVICE FEATURES

 Volatility
 Accessibility
 Mutability
 Addressability

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SOFTWARE

 Computer software, as mentioned earlier before, is not something you can touch.
Software is a set of instructions for a computer to perform specific operations.

TYPES OF SOFTWARE
There are two main categories of software namely
 System software
 Application software

SYSTEMS SOFTWARE

 System software is computer software which is used to control and coordinate the
computer hardware and to provide an environment for executing application software.
 Various examples of system software are operating system(OS), device firmware, certain
system utility software which helps to configure, optimize and maintain the computer,
programming software such as assemblers, compilers and debuggers etc.

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OPERATING SYSTEM
 An operating system (OS) is system software that manages computer hardware and
software resources and provides common services for computer programs.
 Can be seen as a software abstraction over hardware. If applications such as Office tools,
games, utilities were to run directly on a computer (without an operating system), its
design and coding should be very extensive so that it can handle all
components/functionality in hardware such as

 keeping track of time

 accepting user inputs via keyboard/mouse
 Interact with hard-disk or any other storage medium
 show output via a monitor or some kind of display
 Print documents etc.
 communicate with other users/computers across a network

Some of the most used Operating systems in today’s market are listed below:

Linux / Ubuntu, MacOS, MS-DOS, IBM OS/2 Warp, Unix / Variants, Windows CE, Windows
3.x, Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows 98 SE, Windows ME, Windows NT, Windows 2000,
Windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows

UTILITY PROGRAM

Performs a specific useful function to maintain, or augment the efficiency of a computer system.
Utilities range from the small and simple to the large and complex, and from being marginally
useful to being indispensable. Functions performed by utilities include data compression, data
recovery, disk defragmentation, management of computer resources and files, system diagnosis,
virus detection, and numerous others.

Utility software is system software designed to help analyze, configure, optimize or maintain a
computer. It is a type of system software used to support the computer infrastructure,
distinguishing it from application software which is aimed at directly performing tasks that
benefit ordinary users.

TYPES OF UTILITIES

 Anti-virus utilities scan for computer viruses.

 Archive output a stream or a single file when provided with a directory or a set of files.
Archive suites may include compression and encryption capabilities. Some archive
utilities have a separate un-archive utility for the reverse operation.
 Backup software makes copies of all information stored on a disk and restore either the
entire disk (e.g. in an event of disk failure) or selected files (e.g. in an event of accidental
deletion).
 Clipboard managers expand the clipboard functionality of an operating system .
 Cryptographic utilities encrypt and decrypt streams and files.

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  Data compression utilities output a shorter stream or a smaller file when provided with a
stream or file.
 Data synchronization utilities establish consistency among data from a source to a target
data storage and vice versa. There are several branches of this type of utility:
 File synchronization utilities maintain consistency between two sources. They may be
used to create redundancy or backup copies but are also used to help users carry their
digital music, photos and video in their mobile devices.
 Revision control utilities deal with situations where more than one user attempts to
simultaneously modify the same file.
 Debuggers are used to test and "debug" other programs, mainly to solve programming
errors. They are also utilized for reverse engineering of software or systems.
 Disk checkers scan an operating hard drive and check for logical (filesystem) or physical
errors.
 Disk cleaners find files that are unnecessary to computer operation, or take up
considerable amounts of space. Disk cleaner helps the user to decide what to delete when
their hard disk is full.
 Disk compression utilities transparently compress/uncompress the contents of a disk,
increasing the capacity of the disk.
 Disk defragmenters detect computer files whose contents are scattered across several
locations on the hard disk, and move the fragments to one location to increase efficiency.
 Disk partition editors divide an individual drive into multiple logical drives, each with its
own file system which can be mounted by the operating system and treated as an
individual drive.
 Disk space analyzers provide a visualization of disk space usage by getting the size for
each folder (including sub folders) & files in folder or drive. showing the distribution of
the used space.
 File manager provide a convenient method of performing routine data management,
email recovery and management tasks, such as deleting, renaming, cataloging, un
cataloging, moving, copying, merging, generating and modifying folders and data sets.
 Hex editors directly modify the text or data of a file. These files could be data or an
actual program.
 Memory testers check for memory failures.
 Network utilities analyze the computer's network connectivity, configure network
settings, check data transfer or log events.
 Package managers are used to configure, install or keep up to date other software on a
computer.
 Registry cleaners clean and optimize the Windows Registry by removing old registry
keys that are no longer in use.
 Screensavers were desired to prevent phosphor burn-in on CRT and plasma computer
monitors by blanking the screen or filling it with moving images or patterns when the
computer is not in use. Contemporary screensavers are used primarily for entertainment
or security.
 System monitors monitor resources and performance in a computer system.
 System profilers provide detailed information about the software installed and hardware
attached to the computer.

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PROGRAMMING SOFTWARE

Programming software is a software which helps the programmer in developing other software.
Compilers, assemblers, debuggers, interpreters etc. are examples of programming software.
Integrated development environments (IDEs) are combinations of all these software.

COMPLIERS

 A compiler is computer software that transforms computer code written in one

programming language (the source language) into another programming language (the
target language). ... A program that translates between high-level languages is usually
called a source-to-source compiler or transpiler.
 Compilers are used to convert high level languages (like C, C++) into machine code.

ASSEMBLERS

 An assembler is a program that converts assembly language into machine code. It takes
the basic commands and operations from assembly code and converts them into binary
code that can be recognized by a specific type of processor.
 An assembler is a program that takes basic computer instructions and converts them
into a pattern of bits that the computer's processor can use to perform its basic
operations. Some people call these instructions assembler language and others use the
term assembly language.
25
 DEBUGGERS

 In software development, debugging involves locating and correcting code errors in a

computer program. Debugging is part of the software testing process and is an integral
part of the entire software development lifecycle. The debugging process starts as soon as
code is written and continues in successive stages as code is combined with other units of
programming to form a software product.

INTERPRETERS

 In computer science, an interpreter is a computer program that directly executes, i.e.

performs, instructions written in a programming or scripting language, without requiring
them previously to have been compiled into a machine language program. An interpreter
generally uses one of the following strategies for program execution:

 parse the source code and perform its behavior directly;

 translate source code into some efficient intermediate representation and
immediately execute this;
 explicitly execute stored precompiled code made by a compiler which is part of
the interpreter system

26
APPLICATION SOFTWARE

 An application program is a computer program designed to perform a group of coordinated

functions, tasks, or activities for the benefit of the user. ... This contrasts with system
software, which is mainly involved with running the computer.
 The primary function of application software is to apply the power of the computer to give
users the ability to solve business and scientific problems.

THE DIAGRAM BELOW SHOWS THE TYPES OF SOFTWARE

27
Categories of Application Software

To solve a particular business requirement, a company can either develop its own software or
purchase off-the-shelf software. It is also possible to modify some off-the-shelf software, to
tailor it such that it satisfies business of the company.

Proprietary Application Software

 Software that solves a unique or specific business problem of a company is called proprietary
application software. This type of software is either built in-house using programmers or it
can be contracted to an outside software development company. There can not be any
duplication of this type of software.

Off-the-Shelf Application Software

 Made according to a standardized format; not developed for specialized or individual needs;
ready-made.
 A software package is a pre-written, recoded, commercially available set of programs that
eliminates the need for individuals or organizations to write their own software programs for
certain functions.

ADVANTAGES

 Development cost is shared

 Wide support from large user base
 Can be customised
 Fully tested by thousands of users
 Available immediately
 Lots of choice available
 upgrades and compatibility
 Less training required

DISADVANTAGES

 May have annual cost

 No access to original developers
 May not meet all client needs
 Large memory footprint
 Lots of ‘unneeded’ features

CUSTOMISED SOFTWARE

Software that is made just for an individual or business that performs tasks specific to their needs
is called custom software. For example, if you had a home business, you may hire someone to
create a custom software program to help print and view invoices.

ADVANTAGES

28
  Custom software will generally produce the most efficient system as it is can provide
support for the specific needs of the business, which might not be available in an off-the-
shelf solution and will provide greater efficiency or better customer service.

 Custom software will also produce the best or most well-targeted service improvement.
Businesses can tailor the software to what their customers want instead of having to
choose a package that caters for a generic market.

 Although not always the most suitable for larger or more complex projects, a spreadsheet
allows less technical staff at a business to modify the software directly and get results
faster. Custom software can be even more flexible than spreadsheets as it is constructed
by software professionals that can implement functionality for a wide range of business
needs.

DISADVANTAGES
 The main disadvantages of custom software are development time and cost.
 With custom software, a business needs to go through a Software development process
that may take weeks, months, or with bigger projects, years.
 Custom software is often several times the cost of the other two options, and will
normally include an ongoing maintenance cost. This will often make custom software
infeasible for smaller businesses.

OPEN SOURCE SOFTWARE

Open source software is software with source code that anyone can inspect, modify, and
enhance.
Some software has source code that only the person, team, or organization that created it—and
maintains exclusive control over it—can modify. People call this kind of software "proprietary"
or "closed source" software.

ADVANTAGES OF OPEN SOURCE SOFTWARE

The main advantage of Open Source is that it is generally free and you do not have to pay for
using it. This saves a lot of money for big corporations and even for ordinary users. Most
licenses of the proprietary software systems are expensive and should be renewed every year. As
we know it is really important for any big company to reduce the expenses as much as possible.
When Corporations are happy with the used software they donate money to the communities in
order to be able to continue their work and developing new versions.

Most open source applications have their own communities which are constantly evolving the
software thus improving its quality and security. If a user finds a bug, he reports it to the
community and they release a patch as soon as possible.

Open Source software can be adapt for your own business demands which can not be done with
proprietary systems. In addition, it can also be modified for using with various systems. It does
not obligate you to run it on a determined platform like some proprietary software. I personally

29
love to choose my own direction and not to be forced by anyone. So far it all sounds like a clear
choice, right? Well…not entirely.

DISADVANTAGES

One disadvantage of Open Source software is that most interfaces are not so user-friendly and
easy to use. More attention tends to be paid to the functionality than the user interface, making
some of the scripts a real pain for the novice. If you plan to incorporate such software in your
company, keep in mind that your employees may need to be especially trained in order to operate
it properly.

It is also very difficult to find drivers for some devices. This can turn into a problem because
when you buy a new hardware with much functionality, if drivers are not available for the
current Operating System you cannot take advantage of these functionalities.

Another disadvantage of Open Source is the support service. In most cases you should rely on
the corresponding community or pay for external supporting service, which is quite ok if you are
using popular software with lots of followers, but can be a heavy burden for less caught on
applications. The visibility and easy access to the source code, which I mentioned earlier, can
also be a double-edged sword as bad-intentioned people can find vulnerabilities and leave
backdoors for future exploits. Some cross-site-scripting attacks are possible when the attacker
finds a weak spot in your source code and they can even leave the malicious code dormant for a
long time before executing it. A way to prevent that is regular updates and only downloads
software, themes and plugs form reliable sources.

30
APPLICATION OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

1. IN SCHOOLS 6. ECOCASH
2. BANKS 7. MINES
3. IN OFFICESS 8. HOTELS
4. HOMES 9. AIRPORT
5. SHOPS

APPLICATION OF COMPUTER SCICE IN:

HEALTH
 Buy medicine online
 Monitoring
 Research
 Diagnosis
 Easy access to a patient's full medical history
 Increased capacity for record keeping
 Reduced paper usage and financial costs
X-RAYS AND CT SCANS

 X-rays and CT scans use radiation to produce images of a patient's internal structure to
search for abnormalities. X-rays allow for viewing of the internal structure of the patient
from one perspective. CT scanning on the other hand uses computer technology to take
several X-ray images that are two-dimensional cross-sections and turn them into a
multidimensional picture that doctors use to make a diagnosis. These single X-rays are
combined using computer programs that precisely reconstruct the internal structure of the
patient.

MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING

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  Magnetic Resonance Imagining, more commonly known as MRI, is the process of using
powerful magnetic fields to map the patient's internal structure and activity. According to
Radiologyinfo.org, MRI is used to produce detailed images of soft tissue in the body
without using radiation. The bio-electrical activity in the body is detected by the MRI
machine and fed to a computer that interprets the structure of the area being scanned and
presents a three-dimensional presentation of electrical activity in the region. This allows
doctors to search for physical and operational defects in patients without invasive
surgery.
SPECTROSCOPY

 Spectroscopy is the process of irradiating a substance, such as biopsy tissue or suspected

dangerous substances, and examining the reflected or transmitted radiation patterns. A
number of different spectroscopy methods have been developed to measure different
energy characteristics. All substances absorb and reflect only specific wavelengths of
electromagnetic radiation. The reflected or transmitted radiation is analyzed by a

32
 computer that determines which wavelengths are present or missing. This pattern, called
a spectrum, is then compared to a database of known substances to find a match. This
allows doctors to quickly determine if a poisonous substance is involved and decide
appropriate treatment actions.

PATIENT MONITORING

 Patients admitted to a hospital are connected to machines that use vital statistics
monitoring software to record blood pressure, pulse, and oxygen levels. These computers
monitor a patient and are programmed to notify the staff in the event any of these
statistics move outside of acceptable ranges.

SURGERY

 Computerized robotics allows doctors to perform surgery on patients without even being
in the same room. These computer-controlled surgeries allow doctors to save the lives of
patients many miles away which may not have been possible otherwise. Video
networking and real-time vital statistics monitoring allow for safe, precise surgeries that
are observed by on-staff doctors or students.

SECURE DATA STORAGE

33
Prior to the use of computers, sensitive patient data was kept in filing cabinets that were bulky
and easily broken into. Today, computer database technology allows medical professionals to
maintain thorough patient files secured with encryption routines and even stored off site for extra
security and backup capabilities.

INTERNET CONNECTIVITY

Doctors and researchers commonly use personal computers for real-time consults and second
opinions. This allows for the diagnosis procedure to take less time, which can equate to increased
lab results or a life-saving treatment. Furthermore, the use of small computing devices, such as
PDAs and smart phones, allow doctors to perform their work in less technologically advanced
areas that do not have landline Internet connects.

DIAGNOSTIC DATABASES

 Medicine encompasses a vast field of knowledge that is expanding every day. Computer
databases allow doctors to store diagnostic information and make that information
searchable. This allows medical information from previous cases and peer-reviewed
journals to be instantly available to medical professionals at any time and place.

MEDICAL RESEARCH

 Currently, distributed computing platforms are used to run medical simulations in search
of cures to diseases such as cancer, AIDS, and Alzheimer's disease. This computerized

34
 software lets millions of computers join together in a manner that exponentially increases
the speed at which potential cures may be found.

MEDICAL PRACTICE SOFTWARE

 Computer software is used to track and project virtually all aspects of a medical practice.
Patient files, profit and loss statements, and billing and insurance forms are all handled
using computer software that streamlines the office work of a medical practice and allows
doctors more time to spend with their patients.

AGRICULTURE
USES INCLUDE:
 Computers are used for keeping records such as budget information ,farm equipment
inventories and animal health forms .Like many small business owners farmers also use
basic computer programs for this.
 arm implements such as tractors, fertilizers sprayers have computers that farmers can
program to automatically adjust the amount of fertilizers according to the requirements of
soil and crops which helps in improving soil and higher crop yield
 According to the September 2008 issue of “Farm Industry News,” farmers can use
computer systems to guide the steering on their farm equipment during planting or
harvesting; if the system experiences problems, technicians can diagnose and fix the
issues remotely from another computer.
 Farmers often use global positioning system (GPS) receivers to electronically map factors
and areas that might affect crop yield, such as wet spots and weed patches, according to
Virginia Cooperative Extension.
 With regard to livestock farming, ready-made computer applications are available to
track individual animals, storing and evaluating information such as age, health records,
milk production, offspring productivity, and reproductive cycle status. This is often called
herd recording.
 Through internet forums, social networking sites and online knowledge bases farmers get
lot of information. With these they contact with other farmers and experts and exchange

35
 know-how. There are many online databases,articles,newspapers in which there is lot of
information available for farmers which help them in increasing productivity
 Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are being used for developing ranking systems
that evaluate land and provide a site assessment to aid what is now known as precision
agriculture. These hi-tech, interactive systems provide information based on a variety of
factors such as soil conditions, drainage and slope conditions, soil pH and nutrient status,
etc.Precision agriculture provides farmers with control by predicting vital information
including fertilizer application and problems with drainage, insects, and weeds. Most
government websites provide this kind of information free of cost, covering agricultural
land masses across the United States. Global Positioning System (GPS) based
technologies also help to monitor irrigation, field mapping, soil sampling, tractor
guidance and crop scouting. This kind of technology equips farmers with enough
information to increase crop yield in a manner that is consistent with the best
environmental practices for sustainable agriculture

TRANSPORT MANAGEMENT
Computers are very useful in transportation today. It is useful in both land and air transportation.
Following are the main uses of computers
CAR NAVIGATION

 One important use of computer in transportation is Global Positing System, or GPS.These

features a screen that shows a map which tracks your vehicle's movement through
satellites signals. These pinpoint your location between 100 feet.
POSITIVE TRAIN CONTROL
 Positive Train Control by Federal Railroad Administration is the computer system that
tracks the movement of trains on various railways around the country.PTC technology is
capable of preventing train to train collisions, derailments caused by excessive speed and
the associated death or injuries.

MAPPING
 Mapping system through computers is very useful now .We can find the route of any
location where we want to go through this. We input our address and destination address
then computer will give us visual map, distance, total driving time, traffic jams etc.
ONLINE BOOKING
 We can book our tickets of bus, train, airplanes online. This saves our time. Websites
give us all information regarding tickets in few seconds.

WEATHER FORECAST
 We can get weather forecast information through computers which is very useful for
transportation especially air transportation. We can travel according to the weather
forecast given by computers.


36
 COMPUTERS IN SCHOOLS
RESEARCH

 This is the most common use for students. When students have to write research papers
on a specific topic, the computer provides the most easily accessible sources.

DATA ENTRY

 Basic keyboarding and word processing skills are taught on the computer. Knowledge of
these is essential for school, college and career.

INTERVENTION

 Computers are also being used to help learning disabled students. There are many
interactive and tutorial programs online or available as software that help the challenged
student with reading, math or other areas of weakness.

VIRTUAL

 The use of computers has changed the face of distance education. Students can now be
logged in at the same time, post assignments, and talk to each other on message boards
while working on their college degrees.

TEACHER RESOURCE

 The Internet provides a wealth of resources for teachers like lesson plans, pre-made tests,
study guides, worksheets, and other activities that only have to be downloaded and
printed. There are also grade book programs and class record-keeping templates that are
time-savers.

Some of the Advantages of Computer in Education are:

1. Computer helps in storage of information in schools and colleges.

2. Quick data processing is possible with the help of computer which plays an important
role in education.
3. Better presentation of information in schools and colleges is possible using computer to
improve education.
4. Computer also helps to access Internet to get more knowledge from the world.
5. Now a day’s Quick communication is possible between parents, teachers and students
with the help of computer.
6. Computer allows students to learn advanced concept easily and effectively.
7. Audio - Visual aids. Easy and effective way to gain knowledge with the help of
computers.
8. With the recent advancement in the education industry, schools and colleges started using
computer technology for effective learning.

37
 9. Computer also allows teachers to share ideas as well resources online using computer
network.
10. Online learning is now possible with the help of internet & computer, which improves
education in the world.
11. Desktop computer can be seen in schools and colleges which help students and teachers
to improve education.
12. Computer enhances classroom experiences by incorporating audio visual media.

Some of the Disadvantages of Computer in Education are:

1. Some children spend more and more time in playing computer games which may affect
education.
2. They also waste their time in watching movies or videos on computer.
3. With the excessive use of computer, Students lacks the verbal as well as non verbal skills
which is very important for the development of social and emotional skills.
4. Sitting in front of a computer for a long time may affect the eyes and health of a student
which may indirectly affect education.
5. High infrastructure cost, electricity cost and other additional cost may increase by
purchasing computer.
6. Exposure to inappropriate content is possible on social sites which may have negative
impact on students as well as education.

COMPUTERS IN ROBOTICS

 Robotics is the use of computer-controlled robots to perform manual tasks. Robots are
commonly used by the military and businesses to complete tasks that are dangerous for
people, such as defusing bombs, exploring shipwrecks, and mines. They are also used to
perform monotonous jobs, such as on an assembly line.

38
DATA REPRESENTATION
BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM

 Binary is the simplest king of a number system that uses only two digits of 0 and 1
 It is also known as the base 2 number system
 Number system that uses only two values (0,1; on, off) to represent codes and data. Since
zeros and ones can be easily represented by two voltages, the binary system is the
foundation on which digital technology is built. Every digital computer whether a pocket
calculator or a mainframe uses the same binary notation.

DENARY NUMBER SYSTEM

It is the most commonly used and is also known as decimal or base 10 numbering system as it is
based on 10 following symbols; 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 & 9
Converting numbers from binary to denary and vice versa
Denary Binary Conversion Chart table

Denary / decimal Binary

0 0000
1 0001
2 0010
3 0011
4 0100
5 0101
6 0110
7 0111
8 1000
9 1001
10 1010

Binary to denary conversion

1. 100112
= (1*24) + (1*23) + (0*22) + (1*21) + (1*20)
=16+0+0+2+1
=19
2. 110112
= (1*24) + (1*23) +(0*22)+ (1*21) + (1*20)
= 16+8+0+0+0+2+1
=28
WORKING EXAMPLES
a) 10111
b) 00111

39
 c) 11111
d) 1001001
DENARY TO BINARY CONVERSION
The division reminder technique is the easiest and simple method used to convert denary into
binary numbers
Denary to binary conversion
The division remainder technique is the easiest and simple method used to convert denary into
binary numbers
Step1
 Divide the denary number to be converted by the value of the new base. In this case
divide by two
Step2
 Record the remainder from step 1 as the right most digit
Step 3
 Divide the quotient of the previous by the new base
Step4
 Record the remainder from step 3 as the next digit (to the left) of the new base number
Step 5
 Bottom to top sequence to the remainder will be the required converted number
Example
2 28
2 14 r0
2 7 r0
2 3 r1
2 1 r1
0 r1 = 11100
ADDING BINARY NUMBERS
Binary numbers can be added the same way we add denary numbers
For simplicity note that:

40
 a) 0=0
b) 1= 1
c) 2= 10
d) 3 = 11
Binary addition rules
a) 0+0=0
b) 0 +1 = 1
c) 1+ 0 = 1
d) 1+1 = 10( which is 0cary 1)
Example
a) 111
+ 110
1101
b) 0111
1011
10010
Subtracting binary numbers
Binary subtracting rules
a) 0–0=0
b) 1–0=1
c) 1-1 =0
d) 0 -1=1 (with a borrow of 1)
Example
001
-101
100

41
COMMUNICATION NETWORKS AND INTERNET TECHNOLOGIES
Definition of terms
Communication refers to:

 The imparting or exchanging of information by speaking, writing, or using some other

medium.
 The transmission of data from one computer to another, or from one device to another. A
communications device, therefore, is any machine that assists data transmission. For example,
modems, cables, and ports are all communications devices.

A computer network

 A computer network, also called a data network, is a series of points, or nodes,

interconnected by communication paths for the purpose of transmitting, receiving and
exchanging data, voice and video traffic.
Internet

 A global computer network providing a variety of information and communication

facilities, consisting of interconnected networks using standardized communication
protocols.
The concept of networking

 A network can be defined as a group of computers and other devices connected in some
ways so as to be able to exchange data.
 Each of the devices on the network can be thought of as a node; each node has a unique
address

Types of Networks

There are several different types of computer networks. Computer networks can be characterized
by their size as well as their purpose.

The size of a network can be expressed by the geographic area they occupy and the number of
computers that are part of the network. Networks can cover anything from a handful of devices
within a single room to millions of devices spread across the entire globe.

Some of the different networks based on size are:

 Personal area network, or PAN

 Local area network, or LAN
 Metropolitan area network, or MAN
 Wide area network, or WAN

42
In terms of purpose, many networks can be considered general purpose, which means they are
used for everything from sending files to a printer to accessing the Internet. Some types of
networks, however, serve a very particular purpose. Some of the different networks based on
their main purpose are:

 Storage area network, or SAN

 Enterprise private network, or EPN
 Virtual private network, or VPN

LOCAL AREA NETWORK

LAN’s can be either wired or wireless. Twisted pair coax or fiber optic cable can be used in
wired LAN’s.
Every LAN uses a protocol – a set of rules that governs how packets are configured and
transmitted.
• Nodes in a LAN are linked together with a certain topology. These topologies include:
– Bus
– Ring
– Star
• LANs are capable of very high transmission rates (100s Mb/s to G b/s).

Advantages of LAN
• Speed
• Cost
• Security
• E-mail
• Resource Sharing
Disadvantages of LAN
• Expensive To Install
• Requires Administrative Time
• File Server May Fail
• Cables May Break
43
METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK (MAN)
• A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a large computer network that usually spans a city or
a large campus.
• A MAN is optimized for a larger geographical area than a LAN, ranging from several blocks of
buildings to entire cities.
• A MAN might be owned and operated by a single organization, but it usually will be used by
many individuals and organizations
A MAN often acts as a high speed network to allow sharing of regional resources.
A MAN typically covers an area of between 5 and 50 km diameter.
Examples of MAN: Telephone company network that provides a high speed DSL to customers
and cable TV network

WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN)

• WAN covers a large geographic area such as country, continent or even whole of the world.
• A WAN is two or more LANs connected together. The LANs can be many miles apart.
• To cover great distances, WANs may transmit data over leased high-speed phone lines or
wireless links such as satellites.
Multiple LANs can be connected together using devices such as bridges, routers, or gateways,
which enable them to share data.
• The world's most popular WAN is the Internet

44
PERSONAL AREA NETWORK (PAN)

• A PAN is a network that is used for communicating among computers and computer devices
(including telephones) in close proximity of around a few meters within a room
• It can be used for communicating between the devices themselves, or for connecting to a larger
network such as the internet.
• PAN’s can be wired or wireless

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

A network topology is the arrangement of a network, including its nodes and connecting lines.
There are two ways of defining network geometry: the physical topology and the logical (or
signal) topology.

The physical topology of a network is the actual geometric layout of workstations. There are
several common physical topologies, as described below and as shown in the illustration

BUS TOPOLOGY

45
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to
single cable. When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus topology.

Features of Bus Topology

1. It transmits data only in one direction.

2. Every device is connected to a single cable

Advantages of Bus Topology

1. It is cost effective.
2. Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
3. Used in small networks.
4. It is easy to understand.
5. Easy to expand joining two cables together.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

1. Cables fails then whole network fails.

2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network decreases.
3. Cable has a limited length.
4. It is slower than the ring topology.

RING TOPOLOGY

It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to another
computer, with the last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbors for each device.

46
Features of Ring Topology

1. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of nodes, because if
someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes,
then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to
prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.
2. The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2
connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
3. In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in opposite
direction in them. Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as a backup, to keep the
network up.
4. Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted, has to pass
through each node of the network, till the destination node.

Advantages of Ring Topology

1. Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only the
nodes having tokens can transmit data.
2. Cheap to install and expand

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.

2. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
3. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

STAR TOPOLOGY

47
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub
is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central node.

Features of Star Topology

1. Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.

2. Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
3. Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.

Advantages of Star Topology

1. Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.

2. Hub can be upgraded easily.
3. Easy to troubleshoot.
4. Easy to setup and modify.
5. Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

1. Cost of installation is high.

2. Expensive to use.
3. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the
hub.
4. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity

MESH TOPOLOGY

48
It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes are connected
to each other. Mesh has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.

There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology, they are :

1. Routing
2. Flooding

Routing

In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network requirements. Like routing logic to
direct the data to reach the destination using the shortest distance. Or, routing logic which has
information about the broken links, and it avoids those nodes etc. We can even have routing
logic, to re-configure the failed nodes.

Flooding

In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes; hence no routing logic is
required. The network is robust, and it’s very unlikely to lose the data. But it leads to unwanted
load over the network.

Types of Mesh Topology

1. Partial Mesh Topology: In this topology some of the systems are connected in the same
fashion as mesh topology but some devices are only connected to two or three devices.
2. Full Mesh Topology: Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each other.

49
Features of Mesh Topology

1. Fully connected.
2. Robust.
3. Not flexible.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

1. Each connection can carry its own data load.

2. It is robust.
3. Fault is diagnosed easily.
4. Provides security and privacy.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

1. Installation and configuration is difficult.

2. Cabling cost is more.
3. Bulk wiring is required.

TREE TOPOLOGY

It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also called
hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.

Features of Tree Topology

1. Ideal if workstations are located in groups.

2. Used in Wide Area Network.

Advantages of Tree Topology

1. Extension of bus and star topologies.

2. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.

50
 3. Easily managed and maintained.
4. Error detection is easily done.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

1. Heavily cabled.
2. Costly.
3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
4. Central hub fails, network fails.

HYBRID TOPOLOGY

It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies. For example
if in an office in one department ring topology is used and in another star topology is used,
connecting these topologies will result in Hybrid Topology (ring topology and star topology).

Features of Hybrid Topology

1. It is a combination of two or topologies

2. Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

1. Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.

2. Effective.
3. Scalable as size can be increased easily.
4. Flexible.

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Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

1. Complex in design.
2. Costly.

DATA TRANSMISSION MODES

Data transmission is the process of sending digital or analog data over a communication
medium to one or more computing, network, communication or electronic devices. It enables
the transfer and communication of devices in a point-to-point, point-to-multipoint and
multipoint-to-multipoint environment.

A given transmission on a communications channel between two machines can occur in several
different ways. The transmission is characterized by:

 the direction of the exchanges

 the transmission mode: the number of bits sent simultaneously
 synchronization between the transmitter and receiver

There are three data transmission modes.

(i) Simplex mode:

 In simplex mode, data is transmitted in only one direction. A terminal can only send data
and cannot receive it or it can only receive data but cannot send data.
 Today, this mode of data communication is not popular, because most of the modem
communications require two-way exchange of data. However, this mode of
communication is used in business field at certain point-of-sale terminals in which sales
data is entered without a corresponding reply. The other examples of simplex
communication modes are Radio and T.V transmissions.
 In computer system, the keyboard, monitor and printer are examples of simplex devices.
The keyboard can only be used to enter data into computer, while monitor and printer can
only accept (display/print) output.

(ii) Half-Duplex Mode:

 In half-duplex mode, data can be transmitted in both directions but only in one direction
at a time. In this mode, data is sent and received alternatively. It is like a one-lane bridge
where two-way traffic must give way in order to cross the other.
 In half-duplex mode, at a time only one end transmits data while other end receives. In
addition, it is possible to perform error detection and request the sender to re-transmit
information.
 The Internet browsing is an example of half duplex. When we issue a request to
download web document or webpage, it is downloaded and displayed before we issue
another request.

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(iii) Full-Duplex Mode:

 In full-duplex mode, data can be transmitted in both directions at the same time on the
same channel. It is the fastest directional mode of communication. The telephone
communication system is an example of full-duplex communication mode.

There are two types of data transmission modes.

These are:

(i)ParallelTransmission.
(ii) Serial Transmission.

Parallel Transmission:

 In parallel transmission, a group of bits of data flow at the same time (in parallel) through
separate communication lines. It is very fast data transmission. The automobile traffic on
a multi-lane highway is an example of parallel transmission.
 Inside the computer, usually a group of bits of data flow from one component to another
at the same time. If a computer uses 32-bit internal structure, then 32-bits of data can be
transferred from one component of computer to another at the same time. Parallel
transmission is commonly used to transfer data from computer to printer.

Serial Transmission:

 In serial data transmission, a group of bits of data flow in sequential Order through single
communication line. The flow of traffic on one-lane residential street is an example of
serial data transmission mode. Serial transmission is typically slower than parallel

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 transmission, because data is sent sequentially in a bit-by-bit on a single communication
line.
 The telephone line system uses the serial transmission to transmit data from one location
to another. In computer system, mouse also uses serial transmission to send the command
signals inside the computer.

Synchronous and Asynchronous Transmissions:

Synchronous Transmission:

 In synchronous transmission, data is transmitted block-by-block or word-byword at the

same time. Each block may contain several bytes of data. In this mode, data is saved
before sending. A large volume of data can be transmitted at a time. The data
transmission is very fast. It is most commonly used by remote communication systems.
 In synchronous transmission, a special communication device known as 'synchronized
clock' is required to schedule the transmission of information. This special
communication device or equipment is expensive.

Asynchronous Transmission:

 In asynchronous transmission, data is transmitted one byte at a 'time'. The data is

transmitted character-by-character as the user types it on a keyboard. In this mode, data is
not saved before sending.
 An asynchronous line that is idle (not being used) is identified with a value 1, also known
as mark state. This value is used by the communication devices to find whether the line is
idle or free.
 In asynchronous transmission, a special signal is sent by sender to the receiver before
sending the message. It is known as start bit. A start bit has a value of 0, also called a
space state. Thus, when the line switches from a value of 1 to a value of 0, the receiver is
alerted for receiving the message. The asynchronous transmission is most commonly
used by microcomputers.

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 DATA TRANSMISSION MEDIA

GUIDED TRANSMISSION

 Bound transmission media are the cables that are tangible or have physical existence and
are limited by the physical geography. Popular bound transmission media in use are
twisted pair cable, co-axial cable and fiber optical cable. Each of them has its own
characteristics like transmission speed, effect of noise, physical appearance, cost etc.

COAXIAL CABLE

Coaxial cable gets its name because it contains two conductors that are parallel to each other.
The center conductor in the cable is usually copper. The copper can be either a solid wire or
stranded martial.

Outside this central Conductor is a non-conductive material. It is usually white, plastic material
used to separate the inner Conductor form the outer Conductor. The other Conductor is a fine
mesh made from Copper. It is used to help shield the cable form EMI.

Characteristics of coaxial cable

 Low cost
 Easy to install
 Up to 10Mbps capacity
 Medium immunity form EMI
 Medium of attenuation

Advantages coaxial cable

 Inexpensive
 Easy to wire
 Easy to expand
 Moderate level of EMI immunity

Disadvantage coaxial cable

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  Single cable failure can take down an entire network

TWISTED PAIR CABLE[

The most popular network cabling is twisted pair. It is light weight, easy to install, inexpensive
and support many different types of network. It also supports the speed of 100 mps. Twisted pair
cabling is made of pairs of solid or stranded copper twisted along each other. The twists are done
to reduce vulnerably to EMI and cross talk. The number of pairs in the cable depends on the
type. The copper core is usually 22-AWG or 24-AWG, as measured on the American wire
gauge standard. There are two types of twisted pairs cabling

1. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)

2. Shielded twisted pair (STP)

Characteristics of UTP

 low cost
 easy to install
 High speed capacity
 High attenuation
 Effective to EMI
 100 meter limit

Advantages of UTP

 Easy installation
 Capable of high speed for LAN
 Low cost

Disadvantages of UTP

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  Short distance due to attenuation

Characteristics of STP

 Medium cost
 Easy to install
 Higher capacity than UTP
 Higher attenuation, but same as UTP
 Medium immunity from EMI
 100 meter limit

Advantages of STP:

 Shielded
 Faster than UTP and coaxial

Disadvantages of STP:

 More expensive than UTP and coaxial

 More difficult installation
 High attenuation rate

FIBER OPTICS

Fiber optic cable uses electrical signals to transmit data. It uses light. In fiber optic cable light
only moves in one direction for two way communication to take place a second connection must
be made between the two devices. It is actually two stands of cable. Each stand is responsible for
one direction of communication. A laser at one device sends pulse of light through this cable to
other device. These pulses translated into “1’s” and “0’s” at the other end.

In the center of fiber cable is a glass stand or core. The light from the laser moves through this
glass to the other device around the internal core is a reflective material known as CLADDING.
No light escapes the glass core because of this reflective cladding.

Fiber optic cable has bandwidth more than 2 gbps (Gigabytes per Second)

Characteristics Of Fiber Optic Cable:

 Expensive
 Very hard to install
 Capable of extremely high speed
 Extremely low attenuation
 No EMI interference

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Advantages Of Fiber Optic Cable:

 Fast
 Low attenuation
 No EMI interference

Disadvantages Fiber Optics:

 Very costly
 Hard to install

WIRELESS TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Unbound transmission media are the ways of transmitting data without using any cables. These
media are not bounded by physical geography. This type of transmission is called Wireless
communication. Nowadays wireless communication is becoming popular. Wireless LANs are
being installed in office and college campuses. This transmission uses Microwave, Radio wave,
Infra red are some of popular unbound transmission media.

INFRARED (IR)

Is a wireless transmission media that sends signals using infrared light waves? Infrared
transmission requires a line of sight transmission that is the sender and receiver must be aligned
so that nothing obstructs the path of infrared light wave.

COMMUNICATION SATELITE

This is a space station that receives microwave signals from an earth-based station, amplifies the
signals, and broadcasts the signal back over a wide area to any number of earth-based stations. A
transmission from the earth to a satellite is called an uplink; a transmission from a satellite to an
earth station is called a downlink. Communication satellites are used in application such as air
navigation, television and radio broadcast, videoconferencing and paging. Satellite - For fixed

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(point-to-point) services, communications satellites provide a microwave radio relay technology
complementary to that of communication cables.

 Speed: Modern satellite Internet service is typically provided to users through

geostationary satellites that can offer high data speeds, with newer satellites achieving
downstream data speeds up to 15 Mbps.
 Cost: Today, prices have dropped considerably: Iridium - $1,200, $1.15 per
minute, Globalstar - $499, $999, $1 per minute, Thuraya - $1,200 $1 per
minute, Inmarsat iSat Phone - $599, $1.20 per minute.
 Security: There have been many debates relating to the security of satellite transmission,
however, researchers have concluded that satellite communication isn’t secure as
information transferred is often inaccurate, but developers are still working on this.

MICROWAVES

These are radio waves that provide a high-speed signal transmission; from one microwave
station to another; which are normally located on the top of buildings, towers or mountain.
Microwave signals must be transmitted in as straight line with o obstructions between
microwave antennas.

 Speed: Air has a refractive index of 1.0003, while fibre optic cable is about 1.5 or so. So
the maximum theoretical speed of microwave transmission is a lot higher than you can
get via fibre.
 Capacity: Depending on the range and capacity to be implemented, the MINI-LINK
portfolio offers frequencies ranging from 7 to 38 GHz, for hop lengths of several tens of
kilometers to just a few kilometers, and transmission capacities of up to 155 Mbit/s.
 Cost: Microwave is less costly and time consuming to deploy than copper leased lines.
 Security: The degree of security depends on the power and frequency of the radio, the
width of the beam and the type of information being transmitted.

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BLUETOOTH

This is an open wireless protocol for exchanging data over short distances (using short radio
waves) from fixed and mobile devices. It can connect several devices, overcoming problems of
synchronization.

Wi-Fi

Wi-Fi is a form of low-power wireless communication used by many electronic devices such as
laptops, systems, smart phones, etc. In a Wi-Fi setup, a wireless router serves as the
communication hub. These networks are extremely limited in range due to low power of
transmissions allowing users to connect only within close proximity to a router or signal
repeater. Wi-Fi is common in home networking applications which provides portability without
any need of cables. Wi-Fi networks need to be secured with passwords for security purposes in
order not to be accessed by others.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Wireless Communications

Advantages

 Any information can be conveyed or transmitted quickly and with a high speed.
 The Internet can be accessed from anywhere and at anytime without the need to carry
cables or wires and it improves easy access and productivity.
 Helpful for Doctors, workers and other professionals working in remote areas as they can
be in touch with the medical centers through wireless communication.
 Emergency situations can be alerted through wireless communication. The affected
regions can be provided support with the help of these alerts through wireless
communication.
 Wireless networks cost less for installation and maintenance.

Disadvantages

 A Hacker can easily capture the wireless signals that spread through the air.
 It is very important to secure the wireless network so that the information cannot be
exploited by unauthorized users, and this also increases the risk of losing data or
information.

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Internet service providers

 Your Internet Service Provider (ISP) is the company you pay a fee to for access to the
internet. No matter the kind of internet access (cable, DSL, dial-up), an ISP provides you
or your business a piece of a larger pipe to the internet.
 All internet connected devices run each request through their ISP in order to access
servers to download web pages and files, and those servers themselves can only provide
you those files through their own ISP.
 Examples of some ISPs include AT&T, Comcast, Verizon, Cox, NetZero, among many,
many others. They may be wired directly to a home or business or beamed wirelessly via
satellite or other technology.

What Does an ISP Do?

 We all have some sort of device in our home or business that connects us to the internet.
It's through that device that your phone, laptop, desktop computer, and other internet
capable devices reach the rest of the world - and it's all done through various ISPs.
 Let's look at an example of where the Internet Service Provider falls in the chain of
events that lets you download files and open web pages from the internet...
 Say you're using a laptop at home to access this page on About.com. Your web browser
first uses the DNS servers that are setup on your device to translate the "About.com"
domain name to the proper IP address that it's associated with (which is the address that
About.com is setup to use with its own ISP).
 The IP address you want to access is then sent from your router to your ISP, which
forwards the request to the ISP that About.com uses.

 At this point, About.com's ISP is able to send

this http://pcsupport.about.com/od/termsi/g/isp.htm file (the HTM file that is this page)
back to your own ISP, which forwards the data to your home router and back to your
laptop.
 All of this is done rather quickly - usually in seconds, which is actually pretty
remarkable. None of it would be possible unless both your home network and
About.com's network have a valid public IP address, which is assigned by an ISP.
 The same concept applies to sending and downloading other files like videos, images,
documents, etc. - anything that you download online is only able to be transferred
through an ISP.

Is The ISP Experiencing Network Issues or Am I?

It's rather pointless to go through all the troubleshooting steps to repair your own network if your
ISP is the one that has the problem... but how do you know if it's your network or the Internet
Service Provider that is to blame?

The easiest thing to do if you can't open a website is to try a different one. If other websites work
just fine then it's obviously neither your computer nor your ISP that's having issues - it's either

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the web server that's dishing out the website or the ISP that the website is using to deliver the
website. There's nothing you can do but wait for them to resolve it.

If none of the websites you try are working then the first thing you should do is open the website
on a different computer or device in your network, because the issue clearly isn't that all of those
ISPs and web servers are to blame.

So if your desktop isn't displaying Google's website, try it on your laptop or phone (but make
sure you're connected to Wi-Fi). If you can't replicate the problem on those devices then the issue
must lie with the desktop.

If just the desktop is responsible for being unable to load any of the websites, then try restarting
the computer. If that doesn't fix it, you might need to change the DNS server settings.

However, if none of your devices can open the website then you should restart your router or
modem. This normally fixes those types of network-wide problems. If the problem persists,
contact your ISP for further information.

It's possible they're undergoing problems themselves or they've disconnected your internet access
for another reason.

Tip: If the ISP for your home network is down for whatever reason, you could always
disconnect the Wifi on your phone to start using your cell phone carrier's data plan. This just
switches your phone from using one ISP to using another, which is one way to get internet access
if your home ISP is down.

How to Hide Internet Traffic from an ISP

Since an Internet Service Provider provides the path for all your internet traffic, it's possible they
could monitor or log your internet activity. If this is a concern for you, one popular way to avoid
having this done is to use a Virtual Private Network (VPN).

Basically, a VPN provides an encrypted tunnel from your device, through your ISP,
to a different ISP, which effectively hides all your traffic from your direct ISP and instead lets
the VPN service you use see all your traffic (which they normally don't monitor or log).

You can read more about VPNs in the "Hiding Your Public IP Address" section here.

More Information on ISPs

An internet speed test can show you the speed you're currently getting from your ISP. If this
speed is different than what you're paying for, you might contact your ISP and show them your
results.

Who is my ISP? Is a website that displays the Internet Service Provider you're using.

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Most ISPs give out always-changing, dynamic IP addresses to customers, but businesses that
serve websites usually subscribe with a static IP address, which doesn't change.

Some specific types of ISPs include hosting ISPs, like ones that just host email or online
storage and free or nonprofit ISPs (sometimes called free-nets), which provide internet access for
free but usually with advertisements.

INTERNET SERVICES

The Internet provides easy access to many important services.

 World Wide Web. The World Wide Web and the Internet function together but are not
the same thing. ...
 Electronic Mail. More commonly known as email, electronic mail started as an
afterthought to the Internet. ...
 Health Information Access. ...
 E-Commerce.

EMAIL

Short for electronic mail, e-mail or email is information stored on a computer that is exchanged
between two users over telecommunications. More plainly, e-mail is a message that may contain
text, files, images, or other attachments sent through a network to a specified individual or group
of individuals. The first e-mail was sent by Ray Tomlinson in 1971. By 1996, more electronic
mail was being sent than postal mail.

E-mail address breakdown

[email protected]

 The first portion all e-mail addresses, the part before the @ symbol, contains the alias,
user, group, or department of a company. In our above example support is the Technical
Support department at Computer Hope.
 Next, the @ (at sign) is used as a divider in the e-mail address; it is required for all SMTP
e-mail addresses since the first message was sent by Ray Tomlinson.
 Finally, computerhope.com is the domain name to which the user belongs.

How to send and receive e-mail

E-mail Program

To send and receive e-mail messages, you can use an e-mail program, also known as an e-mail
client, such as Microsoft Outlook or Mozilla Thunderbird. When using an e-mail client, you
must have a server that stores and delivers your messages, which is provided by your ISP or in
some cases, another company. An e-mail client needs to connect to a server to download new e-

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mail, whereas email stored online (see next section) updates automatically when you visit the
site.

E-mail Online

An alternative way of sending and receiving e-mail (and the more popular solution for most
people) is an online e-mail service or webmail. Examples include Hotmail (now Outlook.com),
Gmail, and Yahoo Mail. Many of the online e-mail services, including the ones we just
mentioned, are free or have a free account option.

Writing an e-mail

When writing an e-mail message, it should look something like the example window below. As
you can see, several fields are required when sending an e-mail:

 The To field is where you type the e-mail address of the person who is the recipient of
your message.
 The From field should contain your e-mail address.
 If you are replying to a message, the to and from fields are automatically filled out; if it's
a new message, you'll need to enter them manually.
 The CC or Carbon Copy field allows you to send a copy of the message to another e-mail
address, but is not mandatory.
 The Subject Line, although not required, should consist of a few words describing the e-
mail's contents.
 Finally, the Message Body is the location you type your main message. It often contains
your signature at the bottom; similar to a hand-written letter.

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What makes a valid e-mail address?

There are several rules that an e-mail address must follow to be valid:

 As mentioned earlier, an e-mail must have a username followed by an @ (at sign) which
is followed by the domain name with a domain suffix.
 The username cannot be longer than 64 characters long and the domain name cannot be
longer than 254 characters.
 There should be only one @ sign in an e-mail address.
 The space and special characters: ( ); < > \ [ ] are allowed. Occasionally, a space,
backslash, and quotation mark work but must be preceded with a forward slash. Although
valid, some e-mail providers do not allow these characters.
 The username and e-mail addresses as a whole cannot begin or end with a period.
 The e-mail must not have two or more consecutive periods.

Advantages of e-mail

There are a number of advantages of e-mail and the usage of e-mail versus postal mail. Some of
the main advantages are listed below.

 Free delivery - Sending an e-mail is virtually free, outside the cost of Internet service.
There is no need to buy a postage stamp to send a letter.
 Global delivery - E-mail can be sent to nearly anywhere around the world, to any
country.

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  Instant delivery - An e-mail can be instantly sent and received by the recipient over the
Internet.
 File attachment - An e-mail can include one or more file attachments, allowing a person
to send documents, pictures, or other files with an e-mail.
 Long-term storage - E-mails are stored electronically, which allows for storage and
archival over long periods of time.
 Environmentally friendly - Sending an e-mail does not require paper, cardboard, or
packing tape, conserving paper resources.

E-COMMERCE

E-commerce (electronic commerce or EC) is the buying and selling of goods and services, or the
transmitting of funds or data, over an electronic network, primarily the internet. These business
transactions occur either as business-to-business, business-to-consumer, consumer-to-consumer
or consumer-to-business. The terms e-commerce and e-business are often used interchangeably.
The term e-tail is also sometimes used in reference to transactional processes for online
shopping.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Ecommerce

The invention of faster internet connectivity and powerful online tools has resulted in a new
commerce arena – Ecommerce. Ecommerce offered many advantages to companies and
customers but it also caused many problems.

Advantages of Ecommerce

 Faster buying/selling procedure, as well as easy to find products.

 Buying/selling 24/7.
 More reach to customers, there is no theoretical geographic limitations.
 Low operational costs and better quality of services.
 No need of physical company set-ups.
 Easy to start and manage a business.
 Customers can easily select products from different providers without moving around
physically.

Disadvantages of Ecommerce

 Any one, good or bad, can easily start a business. And there are many bad sites which eat
up customers’ money.
 There is no guarantee of product quality.
 Mechanical failures can cause unpredictable effects on the total processes.
 As there is minimum chance of direct customer to company interactions, customer
loyalty is always on a check.

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  There are many hackers who look for opportunities, and thus an ecommerce site, service,
payment gate ways; all are always prone to attack.

E LEARNING

 Understanding eLearning is simple. ELearning is learning utilizing electronic

technologies to access educational curriculum outside of a traditional classroom. In most
cases, it refers to a course, program or degree delivered completely online.

 There are many terms used to describe learning that is delivered online, via the internet,
ranging from Distance Education, to computerized electronic learning, online learning,
internet learning and many others.
 We define eLearning as courses that are specifically delivered via the internet to
somewhere other than the classroom where the professor is teaching. It is not a course
delivered via a DVD or CD-ROM, video tape or over a television channel.
 It is interactive in that you can also communicate with your teachers, professors or other
students in your class. Sometimes it is delivered live, where you can “electronically”
raise your hand and interact in real time and sometimes it is a lecture that has been
prerecorded. There is always a teacher or professor interacting /communicating with you
and grading your participation, your assignments and your tests.

Advantages Of eLearning

1. You are able to link the various resources in several varying formats.
2. It is a very efficient way of delivering courses online.

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 3. Due to its convenience and flexibility, the resources are available from anywhere and at
any time.
4. Everyone, who are part time students or are working full time, can take advantage of
web-based learning.
5. Web-based learning promotes active and independent learning.
6. As you have access to the net 24x7, you can train yourself anytime and from anywhere
also.
7. It is a very convenient and flexible option; above all, you don't have to depend on anyone
for anything.
8. Not only can you train yourself on a day to day basis, but also on weekends or whenever
you have the free time to. There is no hard and fast rule.
9. Through discussion boards and chats, you are able to interact with everyone online and
also clear your doubts if any.
10. The video instructions that are provided for audio and video learning can be rewound and
seen and heard again and again if you do not happen to understand the topic first time
around.

Disadvantages Of eLearning

Well, there are not many disadvantages of eLearning, the main one being that you get knowledge
only on a theoretical basis and when it comes to putting to use whatever you have learnt, it may
be a little different. The face-to-face learning experience is missing, which may matter to some
of you.

1. Most of the online assessments are limited to questions that are only objective in nature.
2. There is also the problem of the extent of security of online learning programs.
3. The authenticity of a particular student's work is also a problem as online just about
anyone can do a project rather than the actual student itself.
4. The assessments that are computer marked generally have a tendency of being only
knowledge-based and not necessarily practicality-based.

SOCAIL MEDIA

Social media is a series of websites and applications designed to allow people to share content quickly,
efficiently and in real-time. Most people today define social media as apps on their smartphone or
tablet, but the truth is, this communication tool started with computers.

TYPES OF SOCIAL MEDIA

 1 – Face book. This is easily the largest social networking site in the world and one of the
most widely used. ...
 2 – WhatsApp. ...
 3- QQ. ...
 4 – We Chat. ...
 5 – QZone. ...
 6 – Tumbler. ...

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  7 – Instagram
 8 – Twitter.

ADVANTAGES OF SOCIAL MEDIA

1:- Connectivity – The first and main advantage of the social media is connectivity. People from
anywhere can connect with anyone. Regardless of the location and religion. The beauty of social
media is that you can connect with anyone to learn and share your thoughts.

2:- Education – Social media has a lot of benefits for the students and teachers. It is very easy to
educate from others who are experts and professionals via the social media. You can follow
anyone to learn from him/her and enhance your knowledge about any field. Regardless of your
location and education background you can educate yourself, without paying for it.

3:- Help – You can share your issues with the community to get help and giddiness. Whether it
is helping in term of money or in term of advice, you can get it from the community you are
connected with.

4:- Information and Updates – The main advantage of the social media is that you update
yourself from the latest happenings around in the world. Most of the time, Television and print
media these days are biased and does not convey the true message. With the help of social media
you can get the facts and true information by doing some research.

5:- Promotion – Whether you have an offline business or online, you can promote your business
to the largest audience. The whole world is open for you, and can promote to them. This makes
the businesses profitable and less expensive, because most of the expenses made over a business
are for advertising and promotion. This can be decreased by constantly and regularly involving
on the social media to connect with the right audience.
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6:- Noble Cause – Social media can also be used for the noble causes. For example, to promote
an NGO, social welfare activities and donations for the needy people. People are using social
media for donation for needy people and it can be a quick way to help such people.

7:- Awareness – Social media also create awareness and innovate the way people live. It is the
social media which have helped people discover new and innovative stuffs that can enhance
personal lives. From farmers to teachers, students to lawyers every individual of the society can
benefit from the social media and its awareness factor.

8:- Helps Gvt and Agencies Fight Crime- It is also one of the advantages of the social media
that it helps Governments and Security Agencies to spy and catch criminals to fight crime.

9:- Improves Business Reputation – Just like it can ruin any business reputation, It can also
improve business sales and reputation. Positive comments and sharing about a company can help
them with sales and goodwill. Since people are free to share whatever they want on the social
media, it can impact positively when good words are shared.

10:- Helps in Building Communities – Since our world has different religions and beliefs.
Social media helps in building and participating in the community of own religion and believes
to discuss and learn about it. Similarly, people of different communities can connect to discuss
and share related stuffs. For example Game lover can join games related communities; car lover
can join communities related to cars and so on.

DISADVANTAGES

1:- Cyber bullying – According to a report published by PewCenter.org most of the children
have become victims of the cyber bulling over the past. Since anyone can create a fake account
and do anything without being traced, it has become quite easy for anyone to bully on the
Internet. Threats, intimidation messages and rumors can be sent to the masses to create
discomfort and chaos in the society. Check out the 6 cyber bullying stories that turned into
suicide stories.

2: – Hacking – Personal data and privacy can easily be hacked and shared on the Internet.
Which can make financial losses and loss to personal life? Similarly, identity theft is another
issue that can give financial losses to anyone by hacking their personal accounts. Several
personal twitter and Face book accounts have been hacked in the past and the hacker had posted
materials that have affected the individuals personal lives. This is one of the dangerous
disadvantages of the social media and every user is advised to keep their personal data and
accounts safe to avoid such accidents.

3:- Addiction – The addictive part of the social media is very bad and can disturb personal lives
as well. The teenagers are the most affected by the addiction of the social media. They get
involved very extensively and are eventually cut off from the society. It can also waste individual
time that could have been utilized by productive tasks and activities.

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4:- Fraud and Scams – Several examples are available where individuals have scammed and
commit fraud through the social media. For example, this list contains the 5 social media scams
that are done all the time.

5:- Security Issues – Now a day’s security agencies have access to people personal accounts.
Which makes the privacy almost compromised? You never know when you are visited by any
investigation officer regarding any issue that you mistakenly or unknowingly discussed over the
internet.

6:- Reputation – Social media can easily ruin someone’s reputation just by creating a false story
and spreading across the social media. Similarly businesses can also suffer losses due to bad
reputation being conveyed over the social media.

7:- Cheating and Relationship Issues – Most of the people have used the social media platform
to propose and marry each other. However, after some time they turn to be wrong in their
decision and part ways. Similarly, couples have cheated each other by showing the fake feelings
and incorrect information.

8:- Health Issues – The excess usage of social media can also have a negative impact on the
health. Since exercise is the key to lose weight, most of the people get lazy because of the
excessive use of social networking sites. Which in result brings disorder in the routine life? This
research by discovery will shock you by showing how bad your health can be affected by the use
of the social media.

9:- Social Media causes death – Not just by using it, but by following the stunts and other crazy
stuffs that are shared on the internet. For example bikers doing the unnecessary stunts, people
doing the jump over the trains and other life threatening stuffs. For example in this video 14 year
old from Mumbai was doing stunts on a running train which caused his death. These types of
stunts are performed by the teenagers because of the successful stunts made and shared over the
social media.

10:- Glamorizes Drugs and Alcohol – One of the disadvantages of the social media is that
people start to follow others who are wealthy or drug addicted and share their views and videos
on the web. Which eventually inspires others to follow the same and get addicted to the drugs
and alcohol?

These are some of the advantages and disadvantages of social media for the society. However,
these are the enough advantages and disadvantages to decide which way to go on the social
media.

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