11I il

log(u!) E

Onloga)
:

um log).) is mor increasing

n
As !
,
and ,

we get loglu!) log(n) aloga Kn

=

, 1

i
log(u!) a
Inlogul
:
E

Let k :
=

TET and us, then

, 4,

!
u =
M(( -

1)
. ..
K(k -
1) ...
-
1

( , M(u -
.
1 - -
k ,kk

log(u. )
Klogk
, E log
=
logn
-

Elog 2
,
logu (as mz
, 4)
!)
=>
log
(n - In
logu) (I
e
1
51 ·
etT
(a) Define xe ·
=

I0, eaT

Them a formulation for the MST problem in

minimize Excel
t
s.
, 1 1 (1)
=
-

2 xe> 1 ,
FOSCV (2)
eeS(S)

Xee20 , 13 feze (3)

here ,
(1) guarantes
exactly /VI-1
edges, and

(1) guarantees that for each cut 5(S) of

the graph, where sie
any - mon-empty and

prousset of the verfices V

I
at least one

edge in selected, herce the selected

subset edge connected
of must be a

connected subgraph with

graph . As
any
T

the
IVI-1
edger is a
spanning trea,
formulation is correct . I
1/
(b) "onlyif" : Let e =24 , V3ET and assume >FeP(V) with

spanning tre
C(1) < <(F) .
Then T+e-F is a will <(T+e-f)

=CCT) Eclel-eCf)
-
< CIT) . Contradiction #

↑ O

"if": Consider T with property and MST T*, with ITnT*/ maximal
.
.

- , - -

FePx(n v)
*
*
SUIVETIT and Flies in
#fT +T Fe =
,
,
where

the cut induced T-e

by

)
---
R
-
- ---

-
2

P+
+ (n ,v)

Now an FET Lotherwise T had a

cycle containinge and f) ,
the two

endpoints of f are connected in T

by
a path that containse .

the if"
By property , ICC) <(F) .
On other hand , by the "only
T*
part For T
*, as ie
MS5, cels , (f) .

Now T*+e-f MST with ITn *+e-F)KITNT

(T *)
is
again , .

Contradiction
&
&
· ta
#I
Cal Simple O(u) algorithm
For all n,r EU do (OnY many)
-

Run BFS(n) on (V,T) to find <n ,v3 path P(n , V) O(a + n -

1) =

O(n)
-

On Pr(n , v), find emay(ir) Ola

Lives Ons) to compute all (4 , V)

-
emay
I
14
~ - - ~
-
- -
- -

More Sin
Clever
algorithm
-
Pick
any
wer and run BFS(r) on (VIT) ,
O(n+h) =

Oln)
F(r)
denote
by flv) the "Father" of v,
fol :
=

.
r
- D
&
-
-
2
↑ a
-
~

-
- -
-Define emax(V , V) =

0, <(0) =
0 D F(n)
·
-
-
--
↑

A
&

- U
-

&
-
↑

Then we have FureU (with u+F(r) and v

+Flu)
0 1 2 3 4

#Gr
-
0(1) computation !

ervel
-
Flas, cu Flul3,
,

, clemapafial Fil , Scistance Frohr)

Algorithm :

-FreV :

emax(v, flvl) :
=

<v, Flvl3 Olul

3
FuzV in oder of single
-

Fret in oder of increasing level

-
Onl
# and FlvlFU and FlulFV

Boul
u +V

compute emax (4 , 01 with (+)

(works because when

considering ,
u
v

max En) Ill ,

in
already ! 3p
1 1 Let T*: = Ind cheapest spanning tree so that T *: T-e+e
*

(b) (for some etT and et EIT) .

Let F 2nd deapest t re

spanking
: =

By definition (IT) EC(F) CCT*)

consider all es -eu ETIF .

Then Fe ETIF ;
7
EFIT so that

T-li+ ;
in again a
free .
(Acymentation property (
A Tie MST, <T-eit)L , CCT) CTik clei) Fi
,

=>
(FlCCT) +Zcl-cleil
i
=
-T 3 0
, Ki

actually this is
,
21T +(C) -Clee)
not
immediately -
clear (See
cost f re obtained From
of sime spanning
T
by
next
page) changing es
For ên
but we accept
by T*.
34
*
it if used (CT ) definition E

(c) Algorithm :

-Compute emay(4 , V) FureV (a) Din

using
v3 EEIT
Bocms
-
For all e =

24,

compute <(T+e-emaSU I V( ⑤(1)

The cheapest of all these is the second cheapest MST #T,

because of (b), and because Te-emar(n , V, ecElT,
the cheapest spanning tre possible
is
precisely when
adding
e to T land
eliminating one other
edge on the cycle) 14
 # part of the reise (I -
had overlooked

(1) (CFCECCT) +Zkl-ceil) i

this complication)
=
-T 30 Vi
this true
why is ?

Recall T
MST, F second chapest MST (IT)
:
= =

Say TIF =

Les ...,
en3 and

FIT = s n3
..

(note, these must have sae cordinality (

Then we can find a
-
matching of alle,
to alle ,

so that
Fi, T-eite , is
again a
spanning free
From the the claim (1) follows

Exauph :

e
Treiten true
an
edge if in a
spanzing

pe ↑

The proof of the fact (existence of thin

perfect
matching) is, unfortunately ,
a non-trivial exereise

!
in its own

I
(From 2020
14) cas

Branchings die not

-
a matroid .

Consider G u
=
&
->

And the two

branchings) !

bases
#
& -
* - - ⑨ & &

Bz Bs1
Then IB11<1By / but #etBr so

that BevLe3 E ,
so (M3) is

violated .
(And (M4), tor) T
1p

(b)
Stable sets in graphs ar
not a matroid .

Consider
U W W

G =
&.

and stable (indip .) Sets I =

<v3 and I =
Su, w3
,
then

Il1 <171, but Fee11 that IUSe3E*

1p
so
14)
(C) A-sided
matchings a re
a matroid ,

#of : Consider two indep . sets of edges En Ez ,

With IErxlE21 .
Not that (EssA1 =
/E1)
and / Eze Al =
/ Ez) ,
so that Ez is

insident with mer vertine From A

than E ..

Example (For illustration

only /:

T-B
------
Er
V e

=> Ez
-

&
·
T -
&

/Ein Al =

2, (EzeAl =

1A) =
3

Choose VEA so that VeEz #* but

Un E1 = 8. .
Let etEr be the
with
edge incident .
v
ThenetEzIEr 1
and EquaeBEE, as unE, =D .

=(M3) is
fulfilled H
3 p