Topics to be

covered
• Memory Hierarchy,
• Main Memory,
• Auxiliary Memory,
• Associative
Memory,
• Cache Memory,
• Virtual Memory
• Memory
Management 1
 Memory
•
Heirarchy
The memory unit that communicates directly with the CPU is
called
the main memory.
• Devices that provide backup storage are called auxiliary
memory. The most common auxiliary memory devices
used in computer systems are magnetic disks and tapes.
• The total memory capacity of a computer can be visualized as
being a hierarchy of components. The memory hierarchy
system consists of all storage devices employed in a
computer system from the slow but high-capacity auxiliary
memory to a relatively faster main memory to an even
smaller Cache memory.
• Cache is high speed memory used to increase the speed of
processing by making current programs and data available to
CPU at a rapid rate. 2
Memory
Heirarchy

3
 Main
• Memory
The main memory is the central storage unit in
a computer system. It is a relatively large and
fast memory used to store programs and data
during the computer operation.
• The principal technology used for the main
memory is based on semiconductor integrated
circuits.
• Integrated circuit RAM chips are available in
two possible operating modes, static and
dynamic.
• A portion of the memory may be constructed
with ROM chips. storing an initial program called a bootstrap loader.
4
 Main memory
Typical RAM chip. Typical ROM chip.

AD7

5
Main
memory
Memory
connection to
CPU

IN RAM
cs1 to decoder
cs2 to 10
AD7 to 1-7
rd to rd
wr to wr

IN ROM
cs1 to rd
cs2 to complement of 10
AD9 to 1-7,8,9

All data points of ram's and rom is

6
 Auxiliary
• Auxiliary memory devices used in computer systems are
Memory
magnetic disks and tapes, magnetic drums, magnetic
bubble memory, and optical disks.
• A magnetic disk is a circular plate constructed of metal or
plastic coated with magnetized material. Often both sides of
the disk are used and several disks may be stacked on one
spindle with read/write heads available on each surface. All
disks rotate together at high speed and are not stopped or
started for access purposes. Bits are stored in the
magnetized surface in spots along concentric circles called
tracks. The tracks are commonly divided into sections called
sectors. In most systems, the minimum quantity of
information which can be transferred is a sector. The
subdivision of one disk surface into tracks and sectors is
shown in Fig
• Magnetic tape transport consists of the electrical, mechanical,
and electronic components to provide the parts and control
mechanism for a magnetic-tape unit. The tape itself is a strip
of plastic coated with a magnetic recording medium.
Magnetic tape units can be stopped, started to move forward7
Auxiliary
Memory
Magnetic Disk

8
 Associative
• Memory
Many data-processing applications require the search of items in a
table stored in memory.
• An assembler program searches the symbol address table in order
to extract the symbol's binary equivalent. An account number may
be searched in a file to determine the holder's name and account
status. The established way to search a table is to store all items
where they can be addressed in sequence. The search procedure
is a strategy for choosing a sequence of addresses, reading the
content of memory at each address, and comparing the information
read with the item being searched until a match occurs. The
number of accesses to memory depends on the location of the item
and the efficiency of the search algorithm. Many search algorithms
have been developed to minimize the number of accesses while
searching for an item in a random or sequential access memory.
The time required to find an item stored in memory can be reduced
considerably if stored data can be identified for access by the
content of the data itself rather than by an address. A memory unit
accessed by content is called content addressable an associative
memory or content addressable memory (CAM). This type of
memory is accessed simultaneously and in parallel on the basis of
data content rather than by specific address or location. When a
word is written in an associative memory, no address is given. 9
Associative
Memory • The block diagram of an
associative memory is
shown in Fig.
• It consists of a memory
array and logic for m
words with n bits per
word.
• The argument register A
and key register K each
have n bits, one for each
bit of a word.
• The match register M has
m bits, one for each
memory word.
• Each word in memory is
compared in parallel with
the content of the
argument register. The
words that match the bits
of the argument Register
set a corresponding bit in
10
the match register.
 CACHE
• MEMORY
Analysis of a large number of typical programs has
shown that the references to memory at any given
interval of time tend to be confined within a few
localized areas in memory. This phenomenon is
known as the property of locality of reference.
• The fundamental idea of cache organization is that by
keeping the most frequently accessed instructions and
data in the fast cache memory, age memory access
time will approach the access time of the cache. in
the fast cache memory.

fundemental idea of cache

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 CACHE
• The performanceMEMORY
of cache memory is frequently measured in
terms of a quantity called hit ratio . When the CPU refers to
memory and finds the word in cache, it is said to produce a
hit . If the word is not found in cache, it is in main memory
and it counts as a miss . The ratio of the number of hits
divided by the total CPU references to memory (hits plus
misses) is the hit ratio
• The average memory access time of a computer system
can be improved considerably by use of a cache.
• The transformation of data from main memory to cache
memory is
referred to as a mapping process.
• Three types of mapping procedures are of practical interest
when considering the organization of cache memory:
1. Associative mapping
2. Direct mapping set assosiative mapping 12
 CACHE
MEMORY
Associative mapping
• The fastest and most flexible cache organization uses an
associative memory. The associative memory stores
• Both the address and content (data) of the memory word. This
permits any location in cache to store any word from main
memory.
• The diagram shows three words presently stored in the
cache. The address value of 15 bits is shown as a five-digit
octal number and its corresponding 12-bit word is shown as a
four-digit octal number.
• A CPU address of 15 bits is placed in the argument register
and the associative memory is searched for a matching
address.
• If the address is found, the corresponding 12-bit data is
read and sent to the CPU. If no match occurs, the main 13
 CACHE If the address is found, the corresponding
12-bit data is
read and sent to the CPU. If no match occurs,
the main
• AssociativeMEMORY
mapping in memory is accessed for the word

cache

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 CACHE
Direct mapping MEMORY
• Associative memories are expensive compared to
random- access memories because of the added logic
associated with each cell. The possibility of using a
random-access memory for the cache is investigated in
Fig.
• The CPU address of 15 bits is divided into two fields.
The nine least significant bits constitute the index field
and the remaining six bits form the tag field.
• The figure shows that main memory needs an address
that includes both the tag and the index bits.
• The number of bits in the index field is equal to the
number of
address bits required to access the cache memory.
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 CACHE
Direct MEMORY
mapping

16
 CACHE
• Set-associativeMEMORY
mapping
• Set-associative mapping, is
an improvement over the
direct mapping organization in
that each word of cache can
store two or more words of
memory under the same index
address.
• with
Eachitsdata
tag word is stored
and the number of a set-associative cache
together
tag- data items in one word of of set size k will
cache is said to form a set. accommodate k words of
main memory in each
• An example of a word of cache.
set-associative cache
organization for a set size of each data word is stored together with its tag a
two is shown in Fig. the number of tag data items in one word of
cache is said to form a set

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 CACHE
Cache MEMORY
Initialization
• The cache is initialized when power is applied to the
computer or when the main memory is loaded
witha
complete set of programs from auxiliary memory.
• After initialization the cache is considered to be empty,
but in effect it contains some non valid data.
• It is customary to include with each word in cache a valid
bit
to indicate whether or not the word contains valid data.
• The cache is initialized by clearing all the valid bits to 0.
The valid bit of a particular cache word is set to 1 the
first time this word is loaded from main memory and
stays set unless the cache has to be initialized again.
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 VIRTUAL
• MEMORY
Virtual memory is a concept used in some large
computer systems that permit the user to construct
programs as though a large memory space were
available, equal to the totality of auxiliary memory.
• Each address that is referenced by the CPU goes
through an address mapping from the so-called virtual
address to a physical address in main memory.
• Virtual memory system provides a mechanism for
translating program-generated addresses into correct
main memory locations. This is done dynamically,
while programs are being executed in the CPU.
• The translation or mapping is handled automatically
by the hardware by means of a mapping table.

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 VIRTUAL
• MEMORY
An address used by a
programmer will be
called a virtual
address,
• And the set of such
addresses the is called

address space.
• An address in
main memory is
called a location
or physical The mapping table may be stored in a
address. separate memory as shown in fig
• The set of such
locations is called the
memory space. 20
 MEMORY
• In a MANAGEMENT
multiprogramming environment where many
programs reside in memory it becomes necessary to
move programs and data around the memory, to vary
the amount of memory in use by a given program, and
to prevent a program from changing other programs.
The demands on computer memory brought about by
multiprogramming have created the need for a memory
management system.
• A memory management system is a collection of
hardware and software procedures for managing the
various programs residing in memory. The memory
management software is part of an overall operating
system available in many computers.

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 MEMORY
The basic MANAGEMENT
components of a memory management unit are:
1. A facility for dynamic storage relocation that maps
logical memory references into physical memory
addresses
2. A provision for sharing common programs stored in
memory by different users
3. Protection of information against unauthorized
access between users and preventing users from
changing operating system functions

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