ISOTROPIC, ANISOTROPIC, ORTHOTROPIC Micromechanics and Macromechanics in Composite Materials • When a compressive load is applied at the ends of the

ite Materials • When a compressive load is applied at the ends of the tapered sleeves, the grip on the
specimen tightens, and the gage section of the specimen is compressed due to the frictional
Engineering Materials and Their Characteristics Micromechanics:
forces transmitted through the end tabs (ss or frc).
Homogeneous Materials • Micromechanics is the detailed study of how the individual components or constituents
• To measure how the material responds to this compression, strain gages are strategically
within a composite material interact on a microscopic scale. It involves examining these small
• These materials have uniform properties throughout. Wherever you look within the material, mounted in the gage section.
interactions to understand how they influence the overall properties of the composite material.
the characteristics remain the same.
• These strain gages help us collect data on longitudinal and transverse strains, from which we
Macromechanics:
Isotropic Materials can determine the compressive modulus and Poisson's ratio.
• In contrast, macromechanics takes a more generalized approach. It assumes that the
• In isotropic materials, properties are the same in every direction at a given point within the
material is uniform and doesn't dive into the specifics of individual constituents. Instead, it
material. The properties do not depend on orientation at that point.
focuses on observing the composite material's overall, averaged properties. 2. IITRI Test:
Composite Materials
a. This test is quite similar to the Celanese test, but it uses flat wedge grips instead of conical
• Composite materials are different; they are neither homogeneous nor isotropic. wedge grips.
3. Tensile Properties and Analysis
Heterogeneous Materials
(a) Tensile Strength, Tensile Modulus, and Poisson's Ratio
• Heterogeneous materials have non-uniform properties that vary depending on the position b. The advantage of flat wedge grips is that they provide better contact between the wedge
Test Method and Analysis:
within the material. The properties change as you move through it. and the collet, resulting in improved axial alignment. These grips can also accommodate
• We use a specific testing method called ASTM D3039 to perform these tests. variations in specimen thickness.
Nonisotropic Materials
• The test material is in the form of flat, straight-sided laminates. At the ends of these
• Nonisotropic materials can be further categorized into two types:
laminates, we attach beveled tabs with adhesive.
c. The IITRI test fixture consists of two parallel guide pins in its bottom half, which slide into
Orthotropic Materials
• To avoid stress concentrations in the places where the material is held, we use special, strain- two roller bushings located in its top half. These guide pins play a crucial role in maintaining
• In orthotropic materials, properties differ in three mutually perpendicular directions within compatible material for these tabs. good lateral alignment between the two halves during testing.
the material. They exhibit three planes of property symmetry, where properties are consistent.
• For these tests, we've found that using balanced [0/90] cross-ply tabs made of nonwoven E-
Anisotropic Materials glass–epoxy works well.
d. In this test, the standard specimen length is 140 mm. Within this length, the central 12.7
• Anisotropic materials also have properties that change in three mutually perpendicular • The adhesive we use for attaching the tabs can be any high-elongation (tough) adhesive mm is unsupported and serves as the gage length for measurements.
directions, but they do not have planes of property symmetry. Properties depend on orientation system.
at any point in the material.
• We secure the specimen in a testing machine using wedge-action grips and pull it at a
e. When conducting the test, you have the option to use either untabbed or tabbed
Behavior Under Stress recommended speed of 2 millimeters per minute.
specimens. However, tabbing is often preferred. Tabbing helps prevent surface damage and
Isotropic Materials (Again) • During the test, we measure how much the material stretches in the lengthwise and end crushing of the specimen, especially if the clamping force becomes too high.
widthwise directions using electrical resistance strain gages attached to the specimen.
• When you apply tensile stresses in any direction to isotropic materials, they respond by 3. Sandwich Edgewise Compression Test:
elongating in the direction of the applied forces and contracting in the transverse directions. • The data we collect from the tests on 0° unidirectional laminates helps us determine the
longitudinal tensile modulus (E11) and the major Poisson's ratio (v12).
Orthotropic Materials (Again) a. In the sandwich edgewise compression test, we employ a unique approach. Instead of
• The data from the tests on 90° unidirectional laminates helps us determine the transverse
• Orthotropic materials behave differently. When you apply normal stresses in directions other testing a single specimen, we bond two straight-sided specimens to an aluminum
modulus (E22) and the minor Poisson's ratio (v21).
than the principal material direction, they exhibit both extensional and shear deformations. honeycomb core. This core serves as a crucial support structure, ensuring lateral stability
3. (b) Compressive Strength and Compressive Modulus during the test.
Anisotropic Materials (Again)
1. Celanese Test:
• Anisotropic materials show a combination of extensional and shear deformation when
normal stresses act in various directions, which is known as extension-shear coupling. This • In this test, a straight-sided specimen is used, and tabs are attached at its ends. b. To apply the compressive load, we use end caps. These end caps have a dual purpose: they
behavior is not observed in isotropic materials. support the specimens and also prevent any crushing of the ends during the test.
• It employs specialized 10º tapered collet-type grips that fit into sleeves with a matching inner
taper, and an outer cylindrical shell is used for easier assembly and alignment.

c. When analyzing the results of this test, we calculate the average compressive stress in the This test involves a double V-notched test specimen that is evaluated using a four-point bending
composite laminate. It's important to note that this calculation assumes that the aluminum fixture.
honeycomb core doesn't bear any of the load, focusing solely on the composite material's
response to compression.
During the test, a uniform transverse shear force is applied in the gage section of the specimen,
❖From the available data on 0° laminates, following general observations can be made for 0°
and it's important to note that the bending moment at the notch plane is maintained at zero.
laminate .

1. Unlike ductile metals, the compressive modulus is not equal to its tensile modulus.
Except for the immediate vicinity of the notch roots, a state of pure shear is present at the notch
2. Unlike tensile stress–strain curves, compressive stress–strain curves may not be linear.
plane.
3. The longitudinal compressive strength depends on the fiber type, fiber volume fraction, matrix
yield strength, fiber length–diameter ratio, fiber straightness, fiber alignment as well as fiber–
matrix interfacial shear strength. The presence of the notch creates a shear stress concentration at the notch root. This
concentration decreases as the notch angle and notch root radius increase. However, it increases
4. Among the commercially used fibers, the compressive strength and modulus (a) of Kevlar 49-
with increasing orthotropy, which is characterized by a rising value of (E11=E22).
reinforced composites are much lower than their tensile strength and modulus. (b) Carbon and
glass fiber-reinforced composites exhibit slightly lower compressive strength and modulus than
their respective tensile values. (c) Boron fiber-reinforced composites exhibit virtually no
Typical Iosipescu specimens feature a 90º notch angle, a notch depth that's equal to 20% of the
difference between the tensile and compressive properties.
specimen width, and a notch root radius of 1.3 mm.

3. (c) Flexural Strength and Flexural Modulus:

Flexural Properties:

• To measure flexural properties like flexural strength and modulus, we use the ASTM test
method D790.

• In this test, we take a composite beam specimen with a rectangular cross-section and subject
it to bending.

• This bending can be done in one of two ways: either in a three-point bending mode (as
shown in Figure (a)) or a four-point bending mode (as shown in Figure (b)).

• It's recommended to have a large span-to-thickness (L/h) ratio in either mode. This helps
ensure reliable test results.

Three-Point Flexural Test:

• In the three-point bending test, we consider the maximum fiber stress on the tension side of
the flexural specimen at the point of failure as the flexural strength of the material.

Iosipescu Shear Test:

The Iosipescu shear test, specified by ASTM D5379, was originally developed by Nicolai Iosipescu
for shear testing of isotropic materials. It was later adopted by Walrath and Adams for evaluating
the shear strength and modulus of fiber-reinforced composites.