Analog & Linear Integrated Circuit

What is an Op-amp
Op-amp is the abbreviation of Operational Amplifier. An operational amplifier is a direct
coupled high gain amplifier usually consisting of one or more differential amplifiers followed
by a level transistor and an output stage.

It is used to amplify both DC as well as AC signals. Op-amp is primarily designed for

computing mathematical functions like addition, subtraction etc. By using suitable external
feedback components, op-amp can be used for applications like amplifiers, oscillators and
comparators etc.

Op--amp is a differential amplifier having very high gain. It has basically 2 inputs, non-
inverting input (Vp or V+) and inverting input (Vn or V-). Opamp will amplify only
the difference between these two inputs i.e. (Vp – Vn) or (V+ – V-).
 Op-amp Symbol
+ Positive
inverting input
2
7
6
4 0utput
3
Non-inverting
input - Supply

• The input signals at inverting terminal results in opposite polarity output where as the
inputs signals at non-inverting terminal produces same polarity output.

• Important features of op-amp compared to normal amplifiers are given below.

Very high gain
Very high input impedance
Very low output impedance
High CMRR
High bandwidth
Able to amplify both AC and DC
Low noise
 Open loop OPAMP Configuration

• In the case of amplifiers, the term open loop indicates that no connection, exists between input and
output terminals of any type. That is, the output signal is not feedback in any form as part of the
input signal.

• In open loop configuration, The OPAMP functions as a high gain amplifier. There are three open
loop OPAMP configurations.

• Differential Amplifier
• Inverting Amplifier
• Non Inverting Amplifier
 Inverting Amplifier

• If the input is applied to only inverting terminal and non-inverting terminal is grounded
then it is called inverting amplifier.

v1= 0, v2 = vin.
vo = -Ad vin

• The negative sign indicates that the output voltage is out of phase with respect to input
180 ° or is of opposite polarity. Thus the input signal is amplified and inverted also.
 Inverting Amplifier

• If the input is applied to only inverting terminal and non-inverting terminal is grounded
then it is called inverting amplifier.

v1= 0, v2 = vin.
vo = -Ad vin

• The negative sign indicates that the output voltage is out of phase with respect to input
180 ° or is of opposite polarity. Thus the input signal is amplified and inverted also.
 Non Inverting Amplifier

In this configuration, the input voltage is applied to non-inverting terminals and inverting terminal is
ground .
v1 = +vin v2 = 0
vo = +Ad vin

This means that the input voltage is amplified by Ad and there is no phase reversal at the output.

In all there configurations any input signal slightly greater than zero drive the output to saturation
level. This is because of very high gain. Thus when operated in open-loop, the output of the OPAMP is
either negative or positive saturation or switches between positive and negative saturation levels.
Therefore open loop op-amp is not used in linear applications.
 Closed Loop Amplifier

• The gain of the OPAMP can be controlled if feedback is introduced in the circuit. That is, an output
signal is feedback to the input either directly or via another network. If the signal feedback is of
opposite or out phase by 180° with respect to the input signal, the feedback is called negative
feedback.

• An amplifier with negative feedback has a self-correcting ability of change in output voltage caused
by changes in environmental conditions. It is also known as degenerative feedback because it reduces
the output voltage which results in reduced voltage gain.

• The negative feedback stabilizes the gain, increases the bandwidth and changes the input and output
resistances. Other benefits are reduced distortion and reduced offset output voltage. It also reduces
the effect of temperature and supply voltage variation on the output of an op-amp.
 Integrated Circuit

Definition: The “Integrated Circuit “ or IC is a miniature, low cost electronic circuit consisting of
active and passive components that are joined together on a single crystal chip of silicon.

Advantages:

 Small size
 Low cost
 Less weight
 Low supply voltages
 Low power consumption
 Highly reliable
 Fast speed
 Classification

 Digital ICs
 Linear ICs
Integrated circuits

Monolithic circuits Hybrid circuits

Bipolar Uni polar Thick

&Thin film

Pn junction Dielectric JFET

MOSFET
isolation isolation

Classification of ICs
 SSI MSI LSI VLSI ULSI

< 10 active 10-100 100-1000 >1000 Over 1

devices active active active million
devices devices devices active
devices
Integrated BJT’s and MOSFETS 8bit, 16bit Pentium
resistors, Enhanced Microproces Microproces
diodes & MOSFETS sors sors
BJT’s

Temperature Ranges

1. Military temperature range : -55o C to +125o C

2. Industrial temperature range : -20o C to +85o C

3. Commercial temperature range: 0o C to +70o C

 IC Package Types

The metal can (TO) The Flat Package

Package

The Dual-in-Line (DIP)

Package
 Selection of IC Package

Type Criteria

Metal can 1. Heat dissipation is important

package 2. For high power applications like power
amplifiers, voltage regulators etc.

DIP 1. For experimental or bread boarding purposes

as easy to mount
2. If bending or soldering of the leads is not
required
3. Suitable for printed circuit boards as lead
spacing is more
Flat pack 1. More reliability is required
2. Light in weight
 Manufacturer’s Designation for Linear ICs

 Fairchild - µA, µAF

 National Semiconductor - LM,LH,LF,TBA

 Motorola - MC,MFC

 RCA - CA,CD

 Texas Instruments - SN

 Signetics - N/S,NE/SE

 Burr- Brown - BB
Op-Amp Characteristics
 Op-Amp Characteristics
Input offset current
The difference between the bias currents at the input terminals of the op-amp is called as
input offset current.

Input offset voltage

A small voltage applied to the input terminals to make the output voltage zero.

Input bias current

Input bias current is the average value of the base currents entering into inverting and non-
inverting terminals of an op-amp. IB=(IB1 + IB2)/2
 Op-Amp Characteristics
Input Resistance:
Input resistance is defined as the equivalent resistance that would be measured at either input terminal
with the other terminal grounded.

Input Capacitance:
Input resistance is defined as the equivalent capacitance that can be measured at either input terminal
with the other terminal grounded.

Offset Voltage Adjustment Range:

741 OP-AMP have offset voltage null capability. Pins 1 and 5 are marked offset null for this purpose. It
can be done by connecting 10 K ohm potentiometer between 1 and 5. By varying the potentiometer,
output offset voltage (with inputs grounded) can be reduced to zero volts. Thus the offset voltage
adjustment range is the range through which the input offset voltage can be adjusted by varying 10 K
pot. For the 741C the offset voltage adjustment range is ± 15 mV.
 Op-Amp Characteristics
Input Voltage Range:
Input voltage range is the range of a common mode input signal for which a differential amplifier
remains linear. It is used to determine the degree of matching between the inverting and noninverting
input terminals. For the 741C, the range of the input common mode voltage is ± 13V maximum. This
means that the common mode voltage applied at both input terminals can be as high as +13V or as low
as –13V.
Common Mode Rejection Ratio:
CMRR is defined as the ratio of the differential voltage gain Ad to the common mode voltage gain ACM.
For the 741C, CMRR is 90 dB typically. The higher the value of CMRR the better is the matching
between two input terminals and the smaller is the output common mode voltage.
Supply Voltage Rejection Ratio:
SVRR is the ratio of the change in the input offset voltage to the corresponding change in power
supply voltages. This is expressed in m V / V or in decibels, SVRR can be defined as :
 Op-Amp Characteristics
SVRR = d Vio / dV
Where d V is the change in the input supply voltage and d Vio is the corresponding change in the offset
voltage. For the 741C, SVRR = 150 µ V /V.

Large Signal Voltage Gain:

Since the OPAMP amplifies difference voltage between two input terminals, the voltage gain of the
amplifier is defined as:

Because output signal amplitude is much larger than the input signal, the voltage gain is commonly
called large signal voltage gain. For 741C is voltage gain is 200,000 typically.
 Op-Amp Characteristics

Output voltage Swing:

It is the maximum unclipped peak to peak output voltage that an OPAMP can produce. This also
indicates the values of positive and negative saturation voltages of the OPAMP. The output voltage
never exceeds these limits for a given supply voltages +VCC and –VEE. For a 741C it is ± 13 V.

Output Resistance: (RO)

RO is the equivalent resistance that can be measured between the output terminal of the OPAMP and
the ground. It is 75 ohm for the 741C OPAMP.

Output Short circuit Current :

In some applications, an OPAMP may drive a load resistance that is approximately zero. The 741C can
supply a maximum short circuit output current of only 25mA.
 Op-Amp Characteristics
Supply Current:
IS is the current drawn by the OPAMP from the supply. For the 741C OPAMP the supply current is 2.8
m A.

Power Consumption:
Power consumption (PC) is the amount of power (vin= 0V) that must be consumed by the OPAMP in
order to operate properly. The amount of power consumed by the 741C is 85 m W.

Gain Bandwidth Product:

The gain bandwidth product is the bandwidth of the OPAMP when the open loop voltage gain is reduced
to 1.
 Op-Amp Characteristics
Slew Rate:
Slew rate is defined as the maximum rate of change of output voltage per unit of time under
large signal conditions and is expressed in volts / m secs.

Slew rate indicates how rapidly the output of an OPAMP can change in response to changes
in the input frequency with input amplitude constant. The slew rate changes with change in
voltage gain and is normally specified at unity gain.
 Op-Amp Gain Formula

 An operational amplifier circuit is designed so that

1) Vout = Av (V1-V2) (Av is a very large gain)
2) Input resistance (Rin) is very large
3) Output resistance (Rout) is very low
 Ideal Voltage Transfer Curve of Op-Amp

The output voltage cannot exceed the positive and negative saturation voltages. These saturation voltages
are specified for given values of supply voltages. This means that the output voltage is directly
proportional to the input difference voltage only until it reaches the saturation voltages and thereafter
the output voltage remains constant.

Thus curve is called an ideal voltage transfer curve, ideal because output offset voltage is assumed to be
zero.
Basic Block Diagram of Op-Amp
 Basic Block Diagram of Op-Amp

• The Input Stage is a dual input balanced output differential amplifier which provides
most of the voltage gain of amplifier and also establishes the input resistance of op-amp.

• Intermediate Stage is a dual input unbalanced output differential amplifier. DC voltage

at the output stage will be above ground potential due to direct coupling.

• Therefore, a Level Shifting Stage is used to shift the dc level to zero.

• The Output Stage is usually a complementary push-pull amplifier which increases

output voltage swing and current supplying capability of the op-amp. It also responsible
for establishing low output resistance of the op-amp.
Complete Block Diagram of Op-Amp

Simple Op-Amp Circuit Diagram

 Closed Loop Amplifier

• The gain of the OPAMP can be controlled if feedback is

introduced in the circuit. That is, an output signal is
feedback to the input either directly or via another network.
If the signal feedback is of opposite or out phase by 180°
with respect to the input signal, the feedback is called
negative feedback.

• The negative feedback stabilizes the gain, increases the

bandwidth and changes the input and output resistances.
Other benefits are reduced distortion and reduced offset
output voltage. It also reduces the effect of temperature and
supply voltage variation on the output of an op-amp.
Concept of Virtual Ground

a
nd
n a

nd
n a
nd
Inverting Amplifier
Non Inverting Amplifier
 Voltage Follower

The lowest gain that can be obtained from a non-inverting amplifier with feedback is 1. When the non-
inverting amplifier gives unity gain, it is called voltage follower because the output voltage is equal to the
input voltage and in phase with the input voltage. In other words the output voltage follows the input
voltage.
Voltage Follower Cont…
Differential Amplifier with One Op amp
Differential Amplifier with Two Op amp
Inverting configuration Summing Amplifier
Non Inverting configuration Summing Amplifier
 Practice Questions
• In the circuit shown below, the OP-Amps are ideal. What will be the value of output
voltage (Vout) for the given circuit?
 Practice Questions
• Calculate the output voltage (Vo) for the given circuit if V1 = –V2 = 300 mV.
 Practice Questions
Calculate the output voltage (Vo) for the given circuit:
Instrumentation Amplifier
Instrumentation Amplifier
Instrumentation Amplifier
 Applications of Instrumentation Amplifier

Temperature Controller:

Light Intensity Meter:

The same circuit can be used to detect variations in the intensity of light, by replacing the thermistor
by a Light Dependent Resistor (LDR). The bridge is set to a balanced condition in darkness. When light
falls on the LDR, its resistance changes and unbalances the bridge. This causes the amplifier to produce
a finite output, which in turn drives the meter.
 Some Numerical Problems

Calculate the output voltage if V1 = –0.2 V and V2 = 0 V.

Determine the output voltage when V1 = –V2 = 1 V.

 Some Numerical Problems
Calculate the voltage gain for this amplifier circuit
 Some Numerical Problems

• Differential gain Ad, of an op amp measures 100. In the measurement of common-

mode gain experiment when 1.0V is applied common to both the inputs, output voltage
measured is 0.01V. How much is common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR)?
 Log Amplifiers

Logarithmic amplifier gives the output proportional to the logarithm of input signal.

Antilog Amplifiers
Current to Voltage Converter
Current to Voltage Converter
Application of Current to Voltage Converter
Voltage to Current Converter
Voltage to Current Converter with Floating Load
Voltage to Current Converter Applications
The Integrator
Frequency Response of Practical Integrator
 Numerical Example

Assume RCf =1
The Differentiator
Filters Design Using Operational Amplifier
 Filters

▪ Filters are circuits that are capable of passing signals within a band of frequencies while
rejecting or blocking signals of frequencies outside this band.
▪ This property of filters is also called “frequency selectivity”.

There are two broad categories of filters:

• An analog filter processes continuous-time signals
• A digital filter processes discrete-time signals.

The analog or digital filters can be subdivided into four categories:

• Low pass Filters
• High pass Filters
• Band stop Filters
• Band pass Filters
 Ideal Filters

Low pass Filter High pass Filter

M(w)

Passband Stopband Stopband Passband

wc w wc w

Band stop Filter Band pass Filter

M(w)

Passband Stopband Passband Stopband Passband Stopband

wc wc w wc wc w
1 2 1 2
Practical Filters Responses
 Analog Filter Responses

H(f) H(f)

Ideal “brick Practical filter

wall” filter

0 0

fc f fc f

➢Filter can be also be categorized as passive or active..

Passive filters: The circuits built using RC, RL, or RLC circuits.

Active filters : The circuits that employ one or more op-amps in

the design an addition to resistors and capacitors
 Active/Passive Filters

Passive filters use resistors, capacitors, and inductors (RLC networks).

To minimize distortion in the filter characteristic, it is desirable to use inductors with high
quality factors

practical inductors includes a series resistance.

• They are bulky and expensive.

Active filters overcome these drawbacks and are realized using resistors, capacitors, and
active devices (usually op-amps) which can all be integrated.

Active filters replace inductors using op-amp based equivalent circuits.

 Advantages of Active Filters

Advantages of active filters over passive filters (R, L, and C

elements only):
1. By containing the op-amp, active filters can be designed to provide required gain,
and hence no signal attenuation as the signal passes through the filter.
2. No loading problem, due to the high input impedance of the op-amp prevents
excessive loading of the driving source, and the low output impedance of the op-amp
prevents the filter from being affected by the load that it is driving.
3. Easy to adjust over a wide frequency range without altering the desired
response.
 Decibel (dB)

(1) Power Gain in dB : (2) Voltage Gain in dB: (P=V2/R)

Pin Pout vin vout

P  v 
Ap ( dB ) = 10 log10  o  Av ( dB ) = 20 log10  o 
 Pin   vin 

P 
v 
0dB = 10 log10  in  0dB = 20 log10  in 
 Pin   vin 
1 
1   vin 
 Pin  − 6dB = 20 log10  2 
− 3dB = 10 log10  2 
 Pin   vin 
   
 2P   2v 
+ 3dB = 10 log10  in  + 6dB = 20 log10  in 
 Pin   vin 
 Low Pass Filter
➢ A low-pass filter is a filter that passes frequencies from 0Hz to critical frequency, fc and
significantly attenuates all other frequencies.

Ideal response

➢ Ideally, the response drops abruptly at the critical frequency, fH

 Low Pass Filter

Passband of a filter is the range of frequencies that are

allowed to pass through the filter with minimum attenuation
(usually defined as less than -3 dB of attenuation).

Transition region shows the area where the fall-off occurs.

Stopband is the range of frequencies that have the most attenuation.

Critical frequency, fc, (also called the cutoff frequency) defines the end of the passband
and normally specified at the point where the response drops – 3 dB from the passband
response.
 First Order Low Pass Butterworth Filter

Reactance is the resistance offered to the ac currents by inductors and capacitors only.
Usually denoted by X.
For capacitors X=1/(2ΠfC); where f is the frequency, C is the capacitance.
For inductors X= 2ΠfL; where f is the frequency,: L is the inductance.
Impedance is the sum of the resistance and reactance of a circuit
denoted by Z=R+jX (for primarily inductive circuits) or Z=R-jX (for primarily capacitive
circuits).
where j=√(-1).
 First Order Low Pass Butterworth Filter

Filter Design:
A low pass filter can be designed using the following steps:
1.Choose a value of high cutoff frequency fH.
2.Select a value of C less than or equal to 1 µF.
3.Calculate the value of R using .

4.Finally, select values of R1 and RF to set the desired gain using .

 Second Order Low Pass Butterworth Filter

Filter Design:
The design steps of the second order filter are identical to those of the first order filter as
given bellow:
1.Choose a value of high cutoff frequency fH.
2.To simplify the design calculations, set R2 = R3 = R and C2 = C3 = C. Then choose a
value of C less than 1 µF.
3.Calculate the value of R using .
4.Finally, because of the equal resistor (R2 = R3) and capacitor (C2 = C3) values, the pass
band voltage gain AF has to be equal to 1.586. This gain is necessary to guarantee
Butterworth response. Therefore, RF = 0.586 R1. Hence choose a value of R1<= 100 kΩ
and calculate the value of RF.
Derivation for High Cutoff Frequency In Second Order LPF
Derivation for High Cutoff Frequency In Second Order LPF
Derivation for High Cutoff Frequency In Second Order LPF
Derivation for High Cutoff Frequency In Second Order LPF
First Order High Pass Butterworth Filter
First Order High Pass Butterworth Filter
Second Order High Pass Butterworth Filter
Third/Fourth Order Low Pass/High Pass Butterworth Filters
 Band Pass Filter Response

➢ A band-pass filter passes all signals lying within a band between a lower-frequency
limit and upper-frequency limit and essentially rejects all other frequencies that are
outside this specified band.

Actual response Ideal response

Wide Band Pass Filter
 Narrow Band Pass Filter

Generally, the narrow bandpass filter is designed for specific values of centre frequency fc and Q or fc
and BW. The circuit components are determined from the following relationships. For simplification of
design calculations each of C1 and C2 may be taken equal to C.
R1 = Q/2∏ fc CAf
R2 =Q/2∏ fc C(2Q2-Af)
and R3 = Q / ∏ fc C
where Af , is the gain at centre frequency and is given as
Af = R3 / 2R1
The gain Af however must satisfy the condition Af < 2 Q2.
The centre frequency fc of the multiple feedback filter can be changed to a new frequency fc‘ without
changing, the gain or bandwidth. This is achieved simply by changing R2 to R’2 so that
R’2 = R2 [fc/f ’c]2
Band Reject Filter (Wide Band)
All Pass Filter (Phase Lag Circuit)
Basic Comparator Circuit (Non Inverting)
Basic Comparator Circuit (Non Inverting)
Basic Comparator Circuit (Inverting)
Zero Crossing Detector
Schmitt Trigger
Peak Detector
Sample and Hold Circuit
Sample and Hold Circuit
Square Wave Generator
Triangular Wave Generator using Square Wave Generator
Triangular Wave Generator using Basic Comparator
555 Timer Pin Diagram
 555 Timer Pin Description

Pin Name Description

1 Ground 0 V supply .
When the pin voltage falls below 1/3 Vcc, the timer is triggered and the
2 Trigger output goes high. In the monostable configuration a high to low
transition on the trigger pin starts the timer.
The output pulses during astable operation and goes high for a set time
3 Output
in monostable operation.
If reset is not used, connect it to Vcc. If reset falls, a high output will be
4 Reset
forced low.
Control Used to change Threshold and Trigger set point voltages and is rarely
5
Voltage used.
Detects when the voltage on the timing capacitor rises above 2/3 Vcc
6 Threshold
and resets the output when this happens.
Provides a discharge path from the timing capacitor to ground when the
7 Discharge
output is low.
8 Vcc Positive power supply voltage.
555 Timer as Monostable Multivibrator
555 Timer as Monostable Multivibrator
555 Timer as Astable Multivibrator
Astable Multivibrator as Square Wave Generator
Question 1
Question 1
Question 1
 Question 2

Name four level of circuits that exists in the internal circuit of opamp IC.
Also, draw ideal volatge tranfer curve of Op-amp.

Design a second order high pass filter with a cutoff frequency 4kHz using
op-amp 741.

Design a bandpass filter with center frequency (fc) =1kHz, Quality Factor
(Q) =3 and Gain (AF)=10. Assume C=.01µF.

Design a schmitt trigger circuit using op-amp 741 to have LTP = -3 V and
UTP = 3V with ±15 V supply. Consider input to be 12 sin (ωt), draw the
corresponding output waveform.
 Question 3

(a) Derive the expression of gain for the circuit shown in Fig.2.

(b) Draw the output waveformVo(t) for the circuit shown in Fig. 3.

(c) Derive an expression for the output voltage of Instrumentation

Amplifier.

(d) Explain the working of sample and hold circuit.

Digital to Analog Conversion Basics
 Digital to Analog Conversion Basics

• The reference voltage (generally known as Vref) is usually the maximum voltage
value that the D/A converter can reach. This value depends from what is connected to
the Vref pin.

• Resolution - Resolution indicates the smallest increment of its output corresponding to

a 1 LSB input code change. For example for 10 bit DAC, 2^10 = 1024 codes, so the
resolution is 1/1024 of the output range.

• Accuracy is a comparison of the actual output of a DAC with the expected output. It is
expressed as a percentage of a full-scale, or maximum, output voltage.

• For example, if a converter has a full-scale output of 10V and the accuracy is ±0.1 %,
then the maximum error for any output voltage is (10 V)(0.001) =10 mV.

• Ideally, the accuracy should be, at most, ±1/2 of an LSB. For an 8-bit converter, 1 LSB is
1/256 = 0.0039 (0.39% of full scale). The accuracy should be approximately ±0.2%,
Accuracy
 Digital to Analog Conversion Basics

• Settling time is the time required by a converter output to settle at the new level when the
input changes. For an DAC, it is the time for analog output to settle within ± ½ LSB of the new
level when the digital input changes.
.
Digital to Analog Conversion Basics

• Monotonicity: A DAC is monotonic if it does not take any reverse steps when it is
sequenced over its entire range of input bits.
D/A Converter with Binary Weighted Registers
D/A Converter with Binary Weighted Registers
Simple 3 Bit Parallel ADC/ Flash ADC
 Dual Slope Integrator ADC

VS=Vref/RC×t2
∴VS=-VA/RC×t1
Linear Ramp ADC
Digital Ramp ADC
Successive Approximation ADC
R-2R Ladder DAC
R-2R Ladder DAC
Oscillators
Oscillators
Oscillators
Barkhausen Criteria
Oscillators
RC Phase Shift Oscillators
Wein Bridge Oscillator
Wein Bridge Oscillator
Colpitts Oscillator
Colpitts Oscillator
Colpitts Oscillator
Example
Thank You