Tinywow - PhysicalEducation12 - 2022 (1) - 41424952 - 9

Physical EDUCATION-XII
UNIT IX PSYCHOLOGY AND SPORTS
Overview
W Personality; its de昀椀nition & types (Jung Classi昀椀cation & Big Five Theo-
ry);
W Motivation, its type &techniques;
W Exercise Adherence: Reasons, Bene昀椀ts & Strategies for Enhancing it;
W Meaning, Concept & Types of Aggressions in Sports;
W Psychological Attributes in Sports – Self Esteem, Mental Imagery, Self
Talk, Goal Setting
W
At the end of the unit, students will be able to:

W Classify different types of personality and its relationship with
sport performance.
W Recognise concept of motivation and identify various types of
motivation.
W Identify various reasons to exercise, its associated bene昀椀ts and
strategies to promote exercise adherence.
W Differentiate between different types of aggression in sports.
W Explain various psychological attribute in sports.
Discussion
Read an excerpt from a leading newspaper regarding news for requirement of
sports psychology in Indian Sports.
BCCI for hiring psychologists to arrest stress
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TNN | Mar 11 NEW DELHI: The Indian Cricket Board has discussed plans to ask its
state units to hire good sports psychologists who can help young players handle
pressure better and ensure lesser drop-outs from the game. With India losing
several talented Under-14 and Under-16 level players every year due to family
and academics pressures, BCCI also wants to make the hiring of psychologists
compulsory at state academies for age group players.
According to a board of昀椀cial, “India is losing a lot of talent at the age-group
levels, The stake-holders of the game are all concerned and they want a system
in place to tackle this problem. It is common these days to see talented players
leaving the game after one or two bad seasons. As you go higher, the talent pool
is reduced. “This shouldn’t happen,” thus the idea of hiring psychologist was
discussed. adding that the cricket drop outs should stop at all levels.
https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/cricket/news/bcci-for-hiring-
psychologists-to- arrest- stress/articleshowprint/57587522.cms 1/1
Discuss in your group

W What causes a person to persist or to give up?
W What is the person thinking and feeling while engaged in the activity?
W What can be the reasons for drop-out of talented athletes from sports?
W How can a Sports Psychologist help young players handle pressure bet-
ter?
W Can different motivation techniques help athletes towards continued
sports participation?
Present your ideas to the class
9.1 Personality: Concept and De昀椀nitions
Reading the news clipping, did you wonder why a psychologist would be required
to prevent athletes from dropping out, even though they have achieved success?
Are we able to identify athletes who have the talent or skill to continue with sports
participation but still lack the determination to continue in sports? If we were asked
to analyse reasons why some sportspeople succeed despite all odds, surely, we will
come up with adjectives like determined, persistent, courageous, dynamic, robust,
etc. Is there something more which can be added to describe these athletes – eg.,
consistent or possessing a stable pattern of behaviour? Sports psychologists have tried
to answer these by relating them with various theories of personality. Understanding
personality has been an area of interest which is as old as our civilization. Even
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before the present day scienti昀椀c and systematic research to explain personality
developed, philosophers across the globe tried to analyse characteristics which
were unique to an individual and why people differed in various ways. However, the
concept of personality is still evolving and covers such a large range of phenomenon,
that it is very dif昀椀cult to include all the aspects of personality in one de昀椀nition.
The word personality is derived from the Latin word persona, the mask used
by actors in the Roman theatre for changing their appearance for performing in-
front of their audience according to the given role. The actor performed as per
the script or story wearing a particular mask. The audience also expected them to
act in a particular manner on seeing the mask. However, it didn’t mean that the
actors possessed the desired qualities of the character in themselves. Therefore,
the concept of personality came to refer to an individual’s characteristic way of
responding to other individuals and situations. When we observe people around us,
we are able to describe their actions and responses to different situations based on
the combination of their individual thoughts, characteristics, behaviour, attitude,
ideas and habits. We may represent them as shy, happy, courageous, aggressive etc.
These characteristics are a representation of different components of personalities.
Therefore, we can view personality as the relatively stable and unique characteristics
of an individual across different situations and varied period of time.
Personality, thus, can be de昀椀ned as the characteristic set of behaviours, cognitions

and emotional patterns that evolve from biological and environmental factors. It is the
integration of those systems and habits that represent an individual’s characteristic
adjustment to his environment. According to Robert A Baron, “Personality is an
individual’s unique and relatively stable pattern of behaviour, thoughts and feelings.”
Matt Jarvis (2006) in his book presented a general de昀椀nition of personality offered
by Pewin (1993) “Personality represents those structural and dynamic properties of
an individual or individuals as they re昀氀ect themselves in characteristic responses
to situations”. It is the integration of those systems and habits that represent an
individual’s characteristic adjustment to his environment.”
Carl Jung (1933)1: Personality as an attitude refers to a predisposition to behave in

a certain manner.
William Herbert Sheldon (1942)2: offered a topology of personality based on three

major morphologies or body types (Endomorph, Ectomorph, Mesomorph), each
associated with a different temperament of an individual.
Cattell (1950)3: Personality is “that which permits a prediction of what a person will
do in a given situation.”
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Guildford (1959)4: Personality is an ‘individual’s unique pattern of traits.’
Allport (1961)5: Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those
psychological systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment.
Eysenck (1953)6: Personality is de昀椀ned as more or less stable and enduring

organization or a person’s character, temperament, intellect and physique which
determine his unique adjustment to the environment.
Robert A Baron (2008)7: Personality is de昀椀ned as individual’s unique and relatively

stable pattern of behaviour, thoughts and feelings.
In sports also, it is important to understand athletes and their unique and relatively
stable characteristics in different situations and conditions. It is essential to know
how a particular athlete responds to the situational demands of the training as well
as competitions. No two athletes behave in a similar manner; they may behave
differently in a common situation. Some athletes may not like to take a command from
a coach but may respond positively towards acceptable alternatives like cooperative
learning from coaches. Sports psychologist may also be interested to learn which
type of people opt for a particular type of sports or exercise program. To understand
this, let us overview personality from various approaches and theories propounded
by eminent psychologists from across the world. These theories represent various
contrasting views and perspectives on the origin and nature of human uniqueness.
Each theory may have vast differences but offers wide range of insight that can add
towards effective understanding of personality of an individual.
9.1.1 PERSONALITY TYPES
Over the years, with the progress of research and development of literature in the
昀椀eld of personality by various psychologists, it is essential to understand the various
approaches for getting a better perspective and understanding of personality.
Personality type refers to the psychological classi昀椀cation of different types of

people. Personality types are distinguished from personality traits, which come in
different degrees. There are many theories regarding personality types, and each
theory contains several and sometimes many sub theories. For example, according
to type theories, there are two types of people, introverts and extroverts. According
to trait theories, introversion and extroversion are part of a continuous dimension
with many people in the middle. The major theories include dispositional (trait)
perspective, psychodynamic, humanistic, biological, behaviourist, evolutionary,
and social learning perspective. However, many researchers and psychologists
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do not clearly subscribe to any one particular perspective, but instead take an
heterogeneous approach. There is also a substantial emphasis on the applied 昀椀eld
of personality testing. In psychological education and training, the study of the
nature of personality and its psychological development is usually reviewed as a
prerequisite.
Since no one particular theory or approach covers the complete aspects of personality,
the approach for explaining ‘personality’ includes mainly, the ‘Type’ approach which
consists of classi昀椀cation or comprehending of personality type based on a set of
behaviour characteristics with similarities as done by Myers and Briggs type indicator,
Friedman and Rosenman Type A personality behaviour etc., as well as on the basis of
body type classi昀椀cation by Kretschmar, or somatotype by William Sheldon, and the
昀氀uid type classi昀椀cation as explained by Hypocrites.
Trait approach, on the other hand, focusses on speci昀椀c psychological attributes

based on the concept of individuals differing in ‘unique’ and ‘stable’ characteristics.
Trait refers to a characteristic that is unchanging and predictable. For example,
shyness is a trait that is usually stable in an individual’s personality. Some traits are
innate – the infant possesses a basis for developing the trait at birth, while others
are acquired through learning, such as the tendencies toward tidiness or untidiness.
Some researchers like Eysenck, Cattel as well as Allport and others support inherent
traits as “cardinal” and proposed a theory of personality based on biological factors,
arguing that individuals inherit a type of nervous system that affects their ability
to learn and adapt to the environment. Sigmund Freud and Neo-Freudians like
Jung, who described the structure of personality in three part-id, ego, super ego,
put forward the psycho-dynamic theory of personality that assumes there is an
interaction between nature (innate instincts) and nurture (parental in昀氀uences).
In modern sports, inter-action perspective regarding personality is an extremely

popular and widely adopted approach towards understanding of behaviour. It
de昀椀nes behaviour as function of personality and situational factors acting together.
According to the interaction theory behaviour in any situation is a function of both
personality and external factors. For example, an player with high hostility trait may
not indulge in aggressive behaviour if he or his team is winning with a large margin,
or an athlete with composed traits may re昀氀ect neurotic tendencies of anxiety if
faced with the challenge of scoring the winning run of the last ball of a knockout
round match.
9.1.2 JUNG’S CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONALITY TYPES
Carl Gustav Jung, a Swiss psychiatrist and a disciple of Sigmund Freud, was once
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a great admirer of Freud’s view on psychoanalysis and worked with him for 昀椀ve
years. However, he started developing contradictory views on some of the major
assumptions or 昀椀ndings of Sigmund Freud and later followed a separate professional
path. Therefore, many times, Carl Jung is referred to as a Neo-Freudian also.
Characteristics of Introverts & Extroverts

Introvert Extrovert
Interested in their own self Reserved Highly socialized Broad-minded
Self-aware and introspective Take Expressive and enjoy centre of attention
pleasure in reading, writing Tend to shy Meet unknown people easily
away from public Bold, outgoing and optimistic person
Think before acting Action oriented
Later he published a book Psychology Typen (Psychology Types) in 1921 and presented
his own theory of personality by classifying personality based on two important
aspects.
First is personality attitude (introvert and extrovert) and second is personality

functions (Sensing, Intuitive, Thinking, Feeling). He can be credited for being the
昀椀rst to introduce the concept of introversion and extroversion to the world of
psychology. It was not a designed to label type of people, instead the purpose was
to demonstrate the complexity of human typology and its consequences. Let us
understand Jung’s topology based on personality attitude and personality functions:
1. Personality Attitude: which is distinguished as Extrovert or Introvert.

2. Personality Functions: which can be classi昀椀ed as four distinct function namely;
Feeling, Intuiting; Judging or Sensing. The four functions are divided into
what Jung called rational (or judging) and irrational (or perceiving) functions.
Thinking and sensations are rational, according to Jung, while intuition and
feeling are irrational.
Introvert: In Jung’s theory, introverts are people who are predominantly interested
in their own mental self. They are typically seen as more reserved or re昀氀ective and
prefer to be withdrawn from external reality. They opt to live in their own inner
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world of feelings and thoughts and often take pleasure in solitary activities such as
reading, writing, or meditating. They prefer to create their own virtual and imagery
world, due to which they tend to shy away from in public interactions and social
connects and are less vocal with people around them, due to this, they like to be
reserved and within themselves. They are more analytical before speaking.
Extrovert: In Jung’s theory people with an extrovert personality are the total opposite
of those with an introvert personality. They prefer the outer world of things, hence
are found to be more broad-minded, are highly socialized, hence can meet unknown
people easily. They are very bold, outgoing and optimistic person.
The Eight Preferences

Where you EXTRAVERSION People INTROVERSION
prefer to who prefer extraversion People who prefer
focus your tend to focus their introversion tend to focus
attention attention on the outer their attention on the
world of people and thin inner world of ideas and
impressions.
The way SENSING INTUITION
you prefer Peole who prfer People who prefer
to take in sensing tend to take in intuition tnnd to take in
information. information through the information from pattern
昀椀ve senses and and the big picture
and focus on future
possibilities.
The way THINKING FEELING
you prefer People who prefer People who prefer feeling
to make thinking tend to tend to make decision
decisions make decision based based primarily on
primarily on logic and values and on subjective
on objective analysis of evaluation of person-
cause and effect. centered concern.
How you JUDGING PERCEIVING
prefer to People who prefer People who prefer
deal with Judging tend to like a perceiving tend to like a
the outer planning and organized 昀氀exible and spontaneous
world approach to life and approach to life and
prefer to have things prefer to keep their
settled. options open
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E
Extroverts tend to enjoy human interactions and to be enthusiastic, talkative,

assertive, and gregarious. They take pleasure in activities that involve large social
gatherings, such as parties, community activities, public demonstrations, and
business or political groups. They also tend to work well in groups.
Personality Functions: Whether a person is an introvert or extrovert, she/he has

a preferred pattern to deal with the situations. There can be four basic way or
function used by people:
1. Feeling: Feeling is a preference for making decisions based on values and

effects on people rather than logic. People use their emotional aspects to
understand the situation and deal according to it.
2. Thinking: The capacity to decide objectively based on the evidence and
applicable principles is de昀椀ned as thinking. People evaluate the information
received with logic and rationale for dealing with outer world.
3. Sensing: Sensing refers to a preference for perceiving the world through facts,
evidence, data and details. People use their senses to seek information. They
are good at looking and listening to understand the world around them.
4. Intuitive: Intuition refers to a preference for perceiving the world through
concepts, theories and abstractions. People use their perception and intuitions
to understand the situation, people around them, sometime its referred as
sixth sense of an individual.
According to Jung, the two attitudes of extraversion and introversion cannot be

demonstrated in isolation. It need to be associated with one of the four functions.
When the two attitudes (Extrovert and Introvert) combine with four functions
(Sensing, Intuition, Thinking, Feeling), they form eight mental functions-in-attitude
or personality types. Let us brie昀氀y view each of the eight combinations of personality
types.
Extroverted Extroverted thinking involves segmenting; organizing for

Thinking ef昀椀ciency; systematizing; applying logic; structuring; checking for
consequences; monitoring for standards or speci昀椀cations being
met; setting boundaries, guidelines, and parameters; deciding if
something is working or not.
Sorting out different colours and styles; thinking about the
consequences. Extroverts who are thinkers are able to see the
world through complex and solid ideas but these complex ideas
are often handed down or moved on by others. These people often
work in 昀椀elds related to Math and Science.
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Introverted Introverted thinking involves analysing; categorizing; evaluating

Thinking according to principles and whether something 昀椀ts the framework
or model; 昀椀guring out the principles on which something works;
checking for inconsistencies; clarifying de昀椀nitions to get more
precision; analysing options for using principles.
Introverts who think see how the world works in a subjective and
creative way. This analysis is based on internal knowledge. These
people often work in science 昀椀elds as well.
Extroverted Extroverted feeling refers to connecting; considering others and
Feeling the group- organizing to meet their needs and honor their values
and feelings; maintaining societal, organizational, or group values;
adjusting to and accommodating others; deciding if something is
appropriate or acceptable to others.
These people base their judgements on factual, known information.
They form their assessments on social values and beliefs. These
people often work in business 昀椀elds and politics.
Introverted Introverted feeling means valuing; considering importance and
Feeling worth; reviewing for incongruity; evaluating something based on
the truths on which it is based; clarifying values to achieve accord;
deciding if something is of signi昀椀cance and worth standing up for.
They base their feelings on emotions, feelings and beliefs. These
people often work in the art 昀椀eld.
Extroverted Extroverted Sensing refers to experiencing the immediate
Sensing context; taking action in the physical world; noticing changes and
opportunities for action; accumulating experiences; scanning for
visible reactions and relevant data.
These individuals look at the world and interpret reality. They see
what is going and go with it. They are not in昀氀uenced by other
opinions. These people often work as taste-testers or proof-readers.
Introverted Introverted Sensing involves reviewing past experiences; “what
Sensing is” evoking “what was”; seeking detailed information and links to
what is known; recalling stored impressions; accumulating data;
recognizing the way things have always been.
Introverts at times look for a hidden message or meaning to
something. They do not just look at something and see it being
there without a reason. These meanings are based on internal
re昀氀ection. These people often work in the art 昀椀eld as well.
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Extroverted Extroverted Intuition refers to interpreting situations and

Intuitive relationships; picking up meanings and interconnections; being
drawn to change “what is” for “what could possibly be”; noticing
what is not said and threads of meaning emerging across multiple
contexts.
These people base their meanings of things on facts rather than
feelings. They are usually inventors.
Introverted Introverted Intuition leads people to foreseeing implications
Intuitive and likely effects without external data; realizing “what will
be”; conceptualizing new ways of seeing things; envisioning
transformations; getting an image of profound meaning or far-
reaching symbols.
Introverted Intuitives usually base their decisions on their inner
desires. They 昀椀nd warmth through subjective ideas. These people
usually work as artists or religious 昀椀gures.
Ambivert
While explaining personality through the term Introvert and Extrovert, there is
reference of a third term called Ambivert which is a relatively new term. Jung
did not use the word to explain that there is no such thing as a pure introvert or
extrovert. This concept was supported by many other later psychologists. Ambiverts
re昀氀ect a blend of traits from the introvert as well as the extrovert along with having
some speci昀椀c strengths. Thus, an ambivert can be de昀椀ned as someone who falls in
the middle of the introvert/extrovert continuum.
9.1.3 BIG FIVE THEORY OF PERSONALITY
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Another important trait approach which can provide essential insights into the key
elements of personality is of the Big Five Factor personality model offered by Paul
Costa and Robert McCrae. The 昀椀ve personality traits also known as the Five Factor
Model of Personality and sometimes referred as OCEAN. The 昀椀ve domains or traits
represented by the acronym OCEAN, are Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion,
Agreeableness, and Neuroticism.
Let us try to understand the attributes of each of the 昀椀ve personality factors on a
continuum leading from high re昀氀ected characteristics at one end to low re昀氀ected
characteristics at the other .
Openness to Experience (Imaginative vs Narrow Interest):
Openness refers to dimension of personality which ranges from being imaginative,

humorous, intellectual, creative, curious, having broad interests, open to ideas at
one end to being closed to experience, suspicious and rigid at the other. In sports,
athletes or Individuals scoring high on Openness are characterized by re昀氀ection of
demonstrating new ideas and skill execution initiatives along with wide variety in
ideas.
EXTRAVERSION (Enthusiastic vs Reserved)
Extraversion refers to dimension of personality which ranges from having enthusiasm,

energy, positive emotions, talkativeness, assertiveness at one end to being reserved,
sober and cautious at the other. An individual who scored high on extraversion is
characterized by high sociability, is outgoing and has a tendency to seek stimulation
in the company of others. Those who score low on extraversion prefer solitude
or smaller groups, prefer activities alone, and avoid large social situations. Not
surprisingly people who score high on both extraversion and openness are more likely
to participate in adventure and risky sports due to their curious and excitement
seeking nature.
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CONSCIENTIOUSNESS (Organized vs Easy-going)
Conscientiousness refers to well-organised, careful, responsible, hardworking and

dependable individuals at one end to being relaxed and easy going, spontaneous,
disorganized and careless. Numerous studies have found to have a positive correlation
between conscientiousness and cognition, individuals high on conscientiousness have
been found to perform better in academics as well as in the sports arena wherever
planning, organising skills and decision-making abilities are essential to the task.
AGREABLENESS (Friendly vs Un-Cooperative)
Agreeableness refers to compassionate behaviour of an individual. Dimensions of

agreeableness range from being good-natured, cooperative, trusting at one end to
being suspicious, irritable and uncooperative at the other. It is also a measure of a
person’s helpful and friendly behaviour nature and re昀氀ects whether that person is
generally friendly and nurturing or not. People who score low on agreeableness tend
to be antagonistic towards others and are described as rude and unkind.
NEUROTICISM (Composed vs Nervous)
Neuroticism focusses on the emotional stability on an individual. This trait refers

to dimensions of personality which range from being poised, calm and composed at
one end to nervous, anxious and excitable at the other. Individuals re昀氀ecting high
neuroticism are characterized by the tendency to experience unpleasant emotions,
and are often found to demonstrate impulsive and hostile behaviour. In contrast,
people who score low in neuroticism tend to be calm and even-tempered. Athletes’
sports performances are highly in昀氀uenced by neurotic characteristics and modern
昀椀ndings supports exercise and physical activity as an alternate therapy to manage
neurotic behaviours.
BIG 5 Traits Behaviour for High Score Behavoiur for low score
OPENNESS Curious,Imaginative, Dislikes change, Does not
Intellectual, Creative, enjoy new things, Resists
Open to trying new things, new ideas
Focused Not very imaginative,
on tackling new challenges, Dislikes abstract or
Thinks about abstract theoretical concepts
concepts
CONSCIENTIOUSNESS Well-Organised, careful, Disorganised, careless,
responsible, self-disciplined relaxed, easy going
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EXTRAVERSION Active, optimistic, sociable, Sober; reserved , cautious

interactive , affectionate
AGGREEABLENESS GoodNatured, friendly, Irritable, suspicious,
helpful, trusting, rude, uncooperative
cooperative
NEUROTICISM Insecure, nervous, anxious, Calm, composed, poised,
excitable Hardy, Secure
I. Tick the correct answers
1. Personality is derived from a latin word ‘persona’ meaning

a. Shape
b. Mask
c. Stage
d. Philosophy
2. Which can be a suitable concept related to personality in sports?

a. Stable but not unique characteristics
b. Stable and Unique characteristics
c. Unstable characteristics
d. Dynamic behaviour pattern
3. A person who is bold and outgoing is an

a. Introvert
b. Extrovert
c. Ambivert
d. Somatotype
II. Answer the following questions brie昀氀y.
1. De昀椀ne Personality?
2. What does OCEAN represent according to Big Five Theory of Personality?
3. Comment upon Allport’s Theory of Personality.
III. Answer the following questions in 150-200 words.
1. Differentiate between Introvert and Extrovert personality?
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2. What are the types of personality traits according to the Big Five Theory?
Explain with their importance in physical education and sports.
9.2 Motivation
Let us re-visit our initial discussion once again. Why did some athlete keep playing
without worrying about pain, discomfort of training, injury or even academic
pressure? On the other hand, why did many talented athletes stop participating
after initial failures?
Let us consider the two important questions.
1. What motivates a player to behave in a certain way?

2. How to motivate an athlete to perform better?
To answer the questions above, let us start from understanding of the concept
‘motivation’. The term ‘Motivation’ is derived from Latin word Movere meaning
‘to move’. The basic reason for any human activity is nothing else but motivation.
Motivation is the driving force that spurs a person to action It can be explained as
a process to initiate, guide and maintain behaviour over time as de昀椀ned by Robert
Baron (2008). Motivation can also be de昀椀ned simply as the direction and intensity of
effort. Truly, motivation is a process of inspiring, guiding the organism to move in a
particular direction.
From the above de昀椀nitions, we can understand motivation is in昀氀uenced by two

factors: Objective and Direction. The 昀椀rst factor ‘objective’ explains the ‘why’ of
an action or behaviour, whereas the second factor ‘Direction’ explain ‘what’ of an
action or behaviour. The ‘why’ or objective for a behaviour helps to 昀椀nd the reason
for initiating a behaviour. The direction is about ‘what’ an individual wants to do,
‘what’ they plan to achieve. If either objective or direction is lacking for an action
or behaviour, ultimately the quality of action or achievement suffers. It means,
to achieve the desired goal you need to have a purpose or desire which activates
you towards initiating a task in a particular direction and seeking behaviours to be
persistent with enough fuel and energy till the goal is achieved. When one of the
random activities leads to a goal, it reduces the drive, and the organism stops being
active.
What is it, then, that arouses the organism to action? How does one get this drive?
The answer can be found in the two terms ‘Intrinsic’ and ‘Extrinsic’ motivation.
Intrinsic motivation involves doing something because it’s personally rewarding to
you. It emerges from within and is directly linked with the natural instincts based
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on feelings of joy and satisfaction. Extrinsic motivation, on the other hand, involves
doing something because you want to earn a reward or avoid punishment. Thus,
extrinsic motives involve outside forces. Let us 昀椀nd out more about the type of
motivation and see how motivation is an important aspect in sports and exercise
psychology.
Do you know?
A motivation A state of lacking any motivation to engage in an activity,

characterized by a lack of perceived competence and/or a failure to value the
activity or its outcomes.
Intrinsic Motivation When you pursue an activity for the pure enjoyment of it, you
are doing so because you are intrinsically motivated.
Extrinsic Motivation refers to behaviour that is driven by external rewards such as

money, fame, grades, and praise.
9.2.1 INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
Intrinsic Motivation: The word intrinsic is derived from the French word ‘intrinseque’
which means inward. Intrinsic is also referred as internal motivation which drives
an individual from within to naturally pursue actions that provide fun, pleasure,
ful昀椀lment or challenge. If an individual’s behaviour re昀氀ects a desire to pursue an
action for enjoyment, or the individual continues the activity in a consistent manner
because it provides a feeling of satisfaction, these can be identi昀椀ed as intrinsic
motivation factors towards the directed behaviour. Intrinsic motivation includes
satisfaction of needs felt by the individual which comes from inside or within and is
directly linked to the individual’s instincts or urges.
Extrinsic Motivation: The word extrinsic is derived from the Latin word ‘entrinsecus’
which means outward. Just as its meaning suggests, extrinsic motivation is that in
which the source of satisfaction does not come from within and the behaviour is
not due to natural urges or impulses. Instead, the behaviour or action is in昀氀uenced
by external forces or drives. The reasons for action are not part of an individual’s
character, but are due to urges from outside such as prize, money, praise, or even
punishment.
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Extension Activity
Talk to a friend who is an athlete and try to 昀椀nd what motivated him to participate
in sports Read the below mentioned responses and identify the statements which
most closely suit your friend’s reason to participate:
1. Doesn’t know why he plays and that he doesn’t see any particular bene昀椀t
associated with it.
2. To learn new skill of the sports.
3. To gain skill mastery and perfection.
4. Find joy and happiness in participation.
5. Perform to obtain a reward or trophy in the championship.
6. To make the coach happy for getting the best athlete ward in school.
7. Participate to avoid pressure from the family.
The response of your friend re昀氀ects the following about his motivation.
If YES to:
Item 1: Re昀氀ects Amotivation
Item 2, 3, 4: he/ she is Intrinsically motivation Item 5,6,7: he/ she is Extrinsically
motivation
Difference between Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation Extrinsic Motivation

De昀椀nition Driving force to pursue an Driving force to pursue an action due
action for fun, joy or any to reward, trophy, money, promotions
other inner satisfaction or praise
Factors Internal factors like joy, External factors like reward, promotion,
enjoyment praise
Method Goal Setting strategies, Associating success with future bene昀椀ts,
Family and Community awards, promotions and avenues.
support
Bene昀椀ts Long term bene昀椀t of Helpful to initiate or create a drive
maintaining a behaviour towards a desired behaviour when
internal factors are missing.
9.2.2 MOTIVATION TECHNIQUES
Motivation is the process in which the learner’s internal energies or needs are directed
towards various goal objects in his environment. In other words, it is the driving
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force which increases the desire to perform better. Every individual has certain basic
motives or needs that she/he tries to satisfy. As long as one is satis昀椀ed with one’s
present behaviour and knowledge and 昀椀nds it adequate to satisfy all her/his needs,
she/he will not try to change his behaviour or acquire new knowledge. Let us try to
understand some of the techniques used in sports to motivate athletes by helping
them to maintain their inner urges to continue training as well by utilizing external
factors to supplement their drive to prolong with the desired athlete behaviours
essential for sports performance.
The motivational techniques are based on the following mentioned approaches.

Understanding of each approach will help in developing unique strategies to motivate
athletes towards desired behaviours.
1. Cognitive Approach: The active processing and interpretation of information

in昀氀uences the persistent and purposive drive for action by an individual. It is
based on the notion that desired motivation can be achieved by an individual
through active processing and interpretation of information. Expectancy theory
and Goal Setting theory is widely used as a cognitive approach for motivation.
Expectancy theory explains that people are motivated for the task where the
probability of success is higher in comparison to failure. Whereas the goal-
setting concept maintains that a stronger drive for actions and behaviour is
fuelled by quality of information on time set for task attainment along with
task dif昀椀culty level and speci昀椀city of the task.
(a) Time Bound: The task should be time bound
(b) Set Complexity level of task: Task should be neither too dif昀椀cult nor too
easy
(c) Make task Speci昀椀c: Task instructions should be precise about what is to
be done
(d) De昀椀ne Purpose of task: Outcome of the task should be clear and de昀椀ned.
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2. Pedagogical Approach: Teaching coaching pedagogies used in sports training

for planned outcome is largely responsible in guiding and maintaining the
desired behaviour of athletes. Adequate communication and maintenance
of positive relationship during training is an essential component in昀氀uencing
the motivation of athletes towards a consistent action or behaviour. Making
training enjoyable, engaging athletes in decision making and providing valuable
feedback to athletes are essential components to motivation. Let us discuss
few techniques of motivation using a pedagogical approach.
(a) Guided Discovery Method: Athletes are highly motivated if allowed to
昀椀nd solutions to the problems by themselves rather than if they are just
made to do things as per instruction. Lack of independence in decision
making and non- promotion of cohesive training environment for athletes
are major reasons affecting motivation. Cooperative learning with
opportunities for athletes to engage in decision making is an effective
strategy towards motivation.
(b) Valuable Feedback System: To persuade athletes to push harder for a
longer period of time, they must be provided with a strong support system.
Assisting athletes with feedback which can provide them with speci昀椀c
direction to move in is an effective means towards effective motivation.
(c) Fun-based Training: Training should be challenging and task-oriented
for optimal performance. However, for providing athletes with enough
drive and energy to sustain them, training methods should involve fun and
enjoyment for athletes. Adding creativity and innovation to training and
the teaching-learning system helps in adding motivation for athletes to
persist with continuous demands of training load.
(d) Individualized Training Program (ITP/IEP): All athletes are unique and
respond differently to the vast variety of training demands. Each athlete
is a unique individual and should have a training programme designed for
their abilities and capabilities and which is within attainable limits of the
athletes. Individualized training programmes or individualized education
programmes are very essential in sports to help athletes to set their own
targets, challenges and dif昀椀culty levels which will not only help them to
avoid burnout, but also keep them motivated.
3. Social Support Strategy: Participation in sports and taking up exercise is
greatly in昀氀uenced by an understanding of the social networking and perception
of people around them. Conducive exercise environment, creating drive among
people to initiate and maintain sporting behaviour is deeply affected by the
societal pressure or support provided to the individual. Positive social support
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from peer group, family members, and friends helps in developing healthy
habits and enough drive to maintain the act of exercising. Initiating group
activities and engagement of family and peers in sports participation helps in
increased participation in sports and exercise.
4. Facilitation Approach:
(a) Incentives and Rewards: Drive towards an action to maintain it for a
long term may sometimes need external support. Awards and rewards
work effectively as a motivation force for athletes to pursue sports with
consistency and continuity.
(b) Valance of Reward: Many time prizes and awards are used extrinsic sources
of motivation to maintain a desired action or behaviour. But, at times,
even these may prove to be ineffective. It is essential to understand that
external factors like prize money or medals do motivate athletes, but the
most important aspect is to understand the need and expectation of the
individual athlete, this is known as ‘valance’ of the reward or valuing the
award. To be motivated, athletes must be awarded by considering what
is desired or expected by an individual so that he or she can value that
reward. An athlete may like to be rewarded by being made the captain of
the team and may value it more than being rewarded with a pay hike.
(c) Performance appraisals: Motivation or the driving force for any desired
behaviour to last over a long period of time may need support of being
recognised and praised for the current and past endeavours. It creates the
drive for future action and pursuit of excellence with con昀椀dence among
athletes. It encourages them to plan their directions and actions. Regular
appraisal of performance should be provided to athletes and appropriate
rewards given.
(d) Quality Support and Facilitation: Motivation for an action is in昀氀uenced
by the amount of facilitation made available for athletes, but the impact is
larger only if the quality of support is of a high standard. Factors in昀氀uencing
or impacting the desired behaviour of athletes need to studied, diagnosed
and appropriate support needs to be provided to ensure maintenance of
behaviour of highest standards.
9.2.3 MOTIVATION AND SPORTS
Motivation as a guiding force to initiate, guide and maintain a behaviour desired for
sports participation and performance is well understood but still motivation remains
as a challenging task in sports.
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Researchers around the world have discussed the methods to maintain or increase
motivation of athletes, but little has been done to understand the reasons about why
we participate in an exercise or indulge in s activities. Summarizing the conclusions
of different research, four motives towards sports and exercise behaviour can be
identi昀椀ed.
1. Physical wellbeing;
2. Psychological wellbeing;
3. Performance achievement;
4. Status and Power (assertive achievements).
All the motives mentioned above are intrinsic in nature and point towards the reason
for sports participation and exercise as being largely intrinsic in nature. People
participate in sports and exercise for various intrinsic motives but external motives
can be added wherever or whenever intrinsic motive is reduced.
I. Tick the correct answers.
1. Motivation that drives individuals to naturally pursue actions that provide

fun, joy, pleasure or challenge is called
a. Extrinsic Motivation
b. Amotivation
c. Intrinsic Motivation
d. Cognitive Motivation
2. Motivation through reward or praise is known as

a. Intrinsic Motivation
b. Extrinsic Motivation
c. Pedagogical Motivation
d. Facilitation Motivation
3. Which of the following is NOT a feature of Intrinsic Motivation?

a. goals
b. feedback
c. needs
d. attitudes
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1. De昀椀ne Motivation.
2. Differentiate between Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation.
3. Write a short note on any two techniques of motivation.
1. How can a coach strategize in motivating an athlete to keep performing?
2. How does motivating a sports person affect games and sports and how do
games and sports in昀氀uence a player’s motivation?
9.3 Exercise Adherence
“If exercise could be packed into a pill, it would be the single most widely prescribed
and bene昀椀cial medicine in the nation” – Dr Rober Butler, Former Director, National
Institute of Ageing.
In the simplest term exercise adherence refers to the extent to which the individual
maintains an active involvement in physical exercise and acts in accordance
with the advised interval, exercise dose, and exercise dosing regimen despite
opportunities and pressures to withdraw. Exercise adherence, therefore, refers
not just initiation but also maintenance of physical activity and exercise behaviour
according to individualized need and requirement. It is associated to the ‘stickability’
factor which is related with quality of any athlete or participants to continue with
sports, exercise or any other physical activity without losing the motivation to
pursue it further. So, exercise adherence can also be referred as a self- regulated,
voluntary behaviour directed towards maintaining an exercise routine for a
prolonged period of time after initial phase of adoption. It is important as well
as interesting to understand the reasons why people adhere to exercise and the
forces that push athletes towards initiating sports participation.
9.3.1 REASON TO EXERCISE
Reason to exercise or exercise determinants point towards the importance of

motives of an individual towards initiating and adopting exercise as a part of her/his
lifestyle. We 昀椀nd many people around us with different behaviours towards exercise
and physical activity and each behaviour can be associated with its own reason for
adherence or non-adherence. We may 昀椀nd many people who have not initiated
exercise or even thought of exercise and physical activity in near future, or those
327
who think of starting exercise in the near future but are not able to initiate the
programme, and still others who started or initiated an exercise programme but
were not able to continue or adhere to it for long and dropped out. Why people 昀椀nd
a reason to exercise, participate in 昀椀tness and engage in recreation sports can be
understood by the following aspects:
1. Overcoming Social Physique Anxiety: People in the society are in昀氀uenced by

how other perceive them in-term of their looks, 昀椀tness or body shape, weight
and size. This leads to adoption of various means and methods to make them
lean and 昀椀tter. Exercise combined with proper diet can help people attain
their goal to be lean and 昀椀t thus helping overcoming social physique anxiety
with the means of exercise, 昀椀tness and recreation sports program engagement.
2. Reduced risk of disease: Lifestyle factors does play an important role
toward rise of various contemporary health issues. Hypertension, obesity are
major health concerns in the modern day due to increase in facilities and
urbanization leading to limited physical engagements, lack of physical activity
and promotion of sedentary lifestyle. To overcome the sedentary lifestyle,
adoption of exercise and 昀椀tness are considered to be essential and important.
3. Recreation : With change in lifestyle and devotion of more hours on table
chair task, engagement in serious academics, focus on professional pathways,
individuals are facing with the challenge of 昀椀nding time and activity for
recreation, fun and enjoyment. Recreation sports, 昀椀tness and exercise provide
fun, enjoyment, recreation along with the physical bene昀椀ts, thus recreation
being considered as an essential reason to exercise.
4. Mental Relaxation: There are various means and methods adopted for stress
reduction and mental relaxation by people of all segments, demography, age
groups. Exercise is one of the most effective ways to cope with stress and
depression more economically and with tremendous bene昀椀ts to the society.
Therefore, people participation in exercise for mental relaxation as a reason
is relevant.
5. Socialization: Often people look for opportunities to engage with community
and socialize with friends, peer groups, colleagues etc from their busy life. The
engagement with society members are essential to overcome social isolation,
tackle loneliness which can affect their mental health and prevent camaraderie
spirit among peoples of the society. Especially in the modern lifestyle and with
urbanization leading to less time available for social connect, the most effective
way to connect socially is through participation in team sports, group exercises
program and various other 昀椀tness programs. Thus socialization quali昀椀es as a
reason for people to engage and experience exercise and sports programs.
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9.3.2 BENEFITS OF EXERCISE
1. Health Bene昀椀ts: There has been evidence of humans working hard and putting
in physical effort for their survival and better life since early times. Even today
people across the world desire to lead a healthy life and consider health as
the most essential aspect of life. With the change in living conditions and
transformation in contemporary lifestyle, engaging in physical activity, exercise
and sports has a prominence as a chosen activity or preferred behaviour among
people to keep themselves healthy. Regular exercise can provide the following
bene昀椀ts:
(a) Reduces risk of Cardiovascular Disease: Exercise and a regular cardio-
昀椀tness regime has a signi昀椀cant role in preventing various cardiovascular
diseases like hypertension and coronary heart disease. Exercise
strengthens the heart and improves circulation. The increased blood 昀氀ow
raises oxygen levels in the body. This helps lower risk of heart diseases
such as high cholesterol, coronary artery disease, and heart attack.
(b) Weight Management: Living in a society where physical appearance is
important, individuals take to exercise from a desire to keep themselves
in shape. Though they may experiment with other methods for losing
weight like dieting and calorie control etc., but these methods alone not
found to be effective for weight reduction unless regular exercise is not
combined with diet control.
(c) Strengthens Bones and Muscles: Regular exercise helps build strong
bones. Later in life, it can also slow the loss of bone density that comes
with age. Doing muscle- strengthening activities can help you increase or
maintain your muscle mass and strength.
(d) Reduces risk of some Cancers: Exercise reduces risk of cancers like
cancers of the colon, breast, uterus, and lungs.
(e) Reduces risk of Falls: For older adults, research shows that doing balance
and muscle- strengthening activities in addition to moderate-intensity
aerobic activity can help reduce your risk of falling.
2. Provides Stress Relief: Modern lifestyle with its work pressure and competitive
lifestyle leads to a lot of stress. The physical effects of prolonged stress are
numerous, including a greater susceptibility to illness, a lack of energy, problems
with sleep, headaches, poor judgment, weight gain, depression, anxiety, and
a host of other ills.
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3. Increases Happiness: It has been evident to 昀椀nd people engaged in physical

activity for various extrinsic goals like weight loss, improving physical
appearance etc. but there are people who prefer to exercise and engage
in physical activities like recreation sports or adventure sports due to their
innate nature to experience joy, happiness and satisfaction. During exercise,
the body increases the production of endorphins which are known to help
produce positive feelings and can improve the mood and make the individual
feel relaxed and happy.
4. Promotes Self-Ef昀椀cacy: Self-ef昀椀cacy is the belief that one is capable of
achieving a speci昀椀c goal. Regular exercise and participation in sports is largely
associated with an individual’s belief in her/his abilities to complete physical
tasks, achieve determined goals and produce challenging outcomes.
5. Promotes Social Cohesion: Human beings are social animals who prefer to
engage in group activities because it given them opportunity to socialize
and interact with other people. As a result, many people engage in exercise
behaviour and sports participation. Sports and group exercise programmes also
prevent boredom and social isolation by helping participants feel connected
with the society and community around them as team mates, opponents or
even as spectators. Group cohesion developed among participants of exercise
group and sporting members acts as one of the important reasons for exercise.
6. Enhances Value Orientation: Knowledge and understanding about a healthy
lifestyle and importance of regular physical activity creates a value orientation
among individuals to initiate exercise and later continue with exercise
behaviour. Value orientations represent philosophical beliefs. Values inculcated
by physical activity and exercise include discipline, enhanced learning process,
self-actualization, social responsibility and ecological integration.
7. Cognitive Bene昀椀ts: Regular aerobic activities lead to a positive improvement
in attention control and information processing speed. Exercise can improve
brain function and protect memory and thinking skills. Exercise increases heart
rate, promoting the 昀氀ow of blood and oxygen to the brain. It can also stimulate
the production of hormones that can enhance the growth of brain cells. This
serves to increase the following mental function.
(a) Attention Control: Regular physical activity and exercise help improve
attention and concentration among people of all ages. Physical exercise
at a moderate level also revealed positive effects and bene昀椀ts among the
participants.
330
(b) Improves Memory: Physical activities have been known to enhance

intelligence especially among children. Even among the elderly, even a
small amount of physical activity delays memory loss. Exercise has been
shown to reduce changes in the brain that can cause Alzheimer’s disease.
8. Mental Health Bene昀椀ts: A session of jogging or any physical activity has the
possibility of mood enhancement and increasing the feel-good factor. Issues
associated with depressions, anxiety etc. can be resolved with regular physical
activity and exercise.
(a) Exercise as therapy for emotional disorder: Physical activity is an
effective intervention for various mental disorders like depression and
anxiety. Exercise therapy has been able to produce improved mood,
enhanced self-esteem and thereby, increase productivity.
(a) Fitness as moderator of life stress: Regular physical activity helps in
creating a positive attitude towards work by developing higher ability to
cope with stress and tension.
(a) Runners High: Participating in regular physical activity promotes a high
sense of mental alertness, mood upliftment, a feeling of liberation,
suppressed discomfort and heightened well-being.
9. Psychological Well-being: Participation in regular physical activity, sports and
exercise brings positive changes in the mental and physical well-being of an
individual. Exercise leads to changes in blood 昀氀ow to brain, increase in oxygen
consumption, reduction in muscular tension, improved metabolism, creating a
feeling of wellbeing.
10. Personality Enhancement: Participation in physical activity and exercise
has revealed signi昀椀cant in昀氀uence on personality. Regular participation and
long-term engagement in physical activities especially at young age (before
maturity) re昀氀ects greater extraversion and stability among participants, which
are very important characteristics or traits of personality.
11. Develops Leadership Qualities: Engagement in an exercise programme and
participation in sports provides opportunity for individuals to experience
adversities and opportunities to learn from compensating various de昀椀ciencies
like lack of space, inadequate logistics, adverse conditions and still persist
with prolonged activities, so developing qualities of leadership.
12. Special Population:
(a) Clinical Population: People with intellectual disabilities of all age groups
and have found to derive signi昀椀cant bene昀椀ts from regular participation in
331
physical activity. Psychomotor activities help them in enhancement their

skills in activities related to daily living too.
(b) Elderly Population: Ageing is a process which is observed to be delayed
among the people who are regular participants of physical activity even
of an acute nature. Even low intensity bouts of exercise prove to be
helpful in slowing down of the ageing process among the elderly.
9.4 Strategies for Enhancing Adherence to Exercise
Psychologists and therapists around the world have widely professed the bene昀椀ts of
exercise. Although most people do understand the importance of physical activity and
regular exercise, yet a large percentage of them have either not initiated exercise
behaviour, or, if a few opted for exercise, they couldn’t continue it and dropped
out. Therefore, its essential to discuss the strategies for enhancing adherence to
exercise.
1. Goal setting: A moderate bout of acute exercise (20-30 min) is considered to

be bene昀椀cial for improving positive psychological effects of exercise. Exercise
performed above lactate threshold (LT) is perceived as unpleasant and the
participant may like to discontinue it due to overexertion and discomfort.
Therefore, along with setting of SMART – Speci昀椀c, Measurable, Attainable,
Realistic, Time based – goals.
2. Adding variety to exercise: Lack of new variety of exercise may lead to
boredom and dropping out. Boredom can be tackled with the addition of a
variety of exercises and moves that address the same body issues, without
loss of therapeutic bene昀椀ts. Adding variety to the exercise program through
adoption of new strategies, changing methods, using new equipment, re-
inventing logistics and adding new members can induce fresh energy to the
exercising activity, thus enhance adherence to exercise.
3. Social support enhancement: Increasing social support refers to engagement
of friends or other members who can contribute towards positive participation
in physical activity, exercise and sports because social interaction may help
fuel goal achievement and thus produce good results. Creating of a system of
buddy partner, youth leader, mentor where members of family, a classmate or
a friend or relative can be engaged as a motivator and 昀氀ag bearer for exercise.
4. Contract: While acute bout of exercise has been associated with positive
effects, chronic exercise habits or regular exercise behaviour are important for
maintaining these bene昀椀ts. Therefore, promoting participants for signing an
332
intent to comply through a written contract which has speci昀椀ed expectations,

responsibilities and contingencies for behavioural changes have found to be
more effective in exercise adherence among the participants.
5. Reinforcement Interventions: Positive as well as negative reinforcement
approaches have found to be effective in exercise adherence. Use of incentives
and rewards for appreciating attendance and participation or awarding with
badges have been proved effective in maintaining exercise behaviour among
participants as well as motivation from many to initiate and engage in physical
activity.
6. Feedback: Providing feedback to the participants in physical activity provides
much needed direction and energy for prolonging and continuing exercise
behaviour. Individualized feedback to the participants on the quality of progress
and other positive aspects about them can create higher levels of motivation
and prove effective towards exercise adherence.
7. Process Orientation: Exercise programmes based on outcome goals or product
goals like weight loss, physique and appearance etc. are found to be effective
in the initial stages of exercise adoption, but it is dif昀椀cult to maintain the
drive with prolonged exercise behaviour. Helping people to shift from process
goals to product goals which are more intrinsic in nature will be more helpful
towards becoming lifelong exercisers.
8. Problem Solving: This intervention is based around identifying the obstacles
and barriers that stand between the participant and her/his physical activity
goals. It is important to generate and implement solutions, evaluate the
outcomes and choose different solutions if needed.
9. Health Risk Appraisals: Health risk appraisals of participants provide them
with relevant information about their current health, risk factors and level of
昀椀tness. This helps to enhance motivation and can be used to monitor changes
over time. It can also help with regards to the goal setting process as areas
they need to improve are identi昀椀ed.
10. Health Education: It is important that participants seek information from
experts on the bene昀椀ts of exercise, proper exercise techniques and the results
that should be expected during exercise. This will ensure that they truly
understand why and what they are doing and it will give them the con昀椀dence and
motivation required to participate in long-term physical activity as well as to
prevent injury or discouragement. Research has also expressed the importance
of health-care provider’s and in昀氀uence they have over participant’s physical
activity and the implementation of the aforementioned interventions.
333
I. Tick the correct answers.
1. Which of the following is effective for prevention of Coronary Heart

Disease?
a. Regular exercise
b. Sedentary lifestyle
c. Medicine
d. Dieting
2. Which one of the following is NOT a result of regular exercise?

a. Increased bone density
b. Increased cholesterol level.
c. Strong immune system.
d. Increased longevity.
3. Normally people do not adhere to a regular exercising programme due to

a. lack of proper goals
b. adding a variety of exercises
c. social support enhancement
d. feedback from instructor
1. Brie昀氀y list the bene昀椀ts of exercise.
2. Mention the strategies to enhance exercise adherence.
3. What are the psychological bene昀椀ts of exercise? Explain.
1. Explain the various reasons to exercise.
9.5 Aggression
Players convicted of on-昀椀eld British boxer disquali昀椀ed after biting

violence opponent during heavyweight bout
334
We have to delve back to 1988 A British heavyweight boxing match ended

to 昀椀nd the 昀椀rst example in the in chaos after a 昀椀ghter bit his opponent and
English game of a footballer being was disquali昀椀ed on Saturday. The 10-round
convicted in a court of law over bout between David Price and Kash Ali
on-昀椀eld violence. In this case, at Liverpool’s MandS Bank Arena came to
Sky Sports’ excitable pundit Chris its abrupt conclusion the 27-year- old Ali
Kamara was the culprit; ‘Kammy’, grabbed hold of his opponent before falling
then of Swindon Town, caught on top of him. He then bit Price near his rib
Shrewsbury Town’s Jim Melrose cage.
with his elbow, breaking Melrose’s
cheekbone in the process.
Do try to remember any sports match where players have been highlighted in media,
newspapers or by commentators for hitting the opponents or abusing the of昀椀cials,
spectators or their own team members and being referred to as displaying unsporting
and aggressive behaviour. Surely, we can recollect various occasions when athletes’
behaviour on the 昀椀eld has been aggressive. Why do athletes become aggressive on or
off the 昀椀eld? What are the different behaviour outcomes associated with aggressive
behaviour? How can these be reduced? These are the few important questions which
most of the teachers, coaches and even parents, who deal with athletes of different
age groups are worried about. Let us try to understand the concept of aggression
as accepted by the world of psychology and used by sports professionals in the past
several years.
Do you know?
Aggression – Aggression is behaviour that is hostile and violates other people’s

rights.
Reactive aggressive behaviour is unplanned and impulsive, and is usually a

response to feelings of anger, fear, or a need to retaliate against someone.
Proactive aggressive behaviour is calculated and planned action that has some
motive other than harming someone.
According to the American Psychological Association, aggression is a type of behaviour

aimed at causing physical or psychological harm to another. Most psychologist refer
to aggression as any behaviour intended to harm or injure any living being who is
trying to avoid it. This de昀椀nition includes three important features. First, aggression
is a behaviour that can be seen. It is not an emotion that occurs inside a person,
335
such as anger. Second, aggression is intentional. Aggression is not accidental. It is a

deliberate behaviour to harm or injure and can be either physical or psychological,
ie., hitting, pushing or abusing someone purposely, with an intent to hurt. Third, the
victim wants to avoid the harm.
Sport psychologist Gill (2000) produced a four-part criterion which aimed to help us
interpret whether an action is aggressive in sport. His criteria were:
h There must be physical or verbal behaviour.

h It must involve causing harm or injury whether it is physical or psychological.
h It must be directed toward another living thing.
h There must be the intention to cause harm or injury.
Few more de昀椀nitions of aggression:
Behaviour that results in personal injury or destruction of property. (Bandura,

1973)8
Behaviour directed towards the goal of harming or injuring another living being
who is motivated to avoid such treatment. (Baron and Richardson, 1994)9
The intentional in昀氀iction of some form of harm on others. (Baron and Byrne,
2000)10
During last many years much debate and deliberations have been made in the 昀椀eld
of sports and exercise psychology as well as sports sciences towards an acceptable
de昀椀nition of aggression. An acceptable concept of aggression along with its two
types of aggression has been cited by Husman and Silva in 1984 as ‘hostile’ and
‘instrumental’ aggression to differentiate between two types of aggression.
9.5.1 TYPES OF AGGRESSION
1. Hostile Aggression: The term ‘hostile’ refers to being ‘opposed’, therefore

hostile aggression refers to violent and angry behaviour where the intent and
primary goal is to harm the other. A boxer who punches the opponent below
the belt with the primary aim of injuring him because he is losing or an athlete
who uses abusive words to mentally harm another player who has angered him
with better skills are examples of hostile aggression. Hostile aggression is a
type of aggression that is committed in response to a perceived threat
or insult. It is unplanned, reactionary, impulsive, and fuelled by intense
emotion as opposed to desire to achieve a goal. Aggressors typically
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have a sense of a loss of control during outbursts, and characteristically

experience physiological hyperarousal. Thus, it is also sometimes known as
reactive aggression. In the examples given above, the intent of action is to
physically or mentally harm the other person due to dislike, enmity or due to
the person being on the opposing team or side. Along with the intent, the goal
is also to harm the other, therefore non-legitimate measures or illegal methods
to physically or mentally harm the other person are employed.
Prospect of Losing Makes Me Aggressive,

says Viswanathan Anand
India Today | 21 June 2012
Speaking at a function for young chess players, the world chess champion
Vishanathan Anand said, “The insecurity of loosing made me aggressive.
I don’t show it openly but the prospect of losing to some player is so
horrifying your might want an extra bit.” “Against Topalov (in 2010 world
championship) I was able to channel that feeling into a willingness to play
long games. I was able to feel motivated.”
“The hunger is still there to go for the next one,” says Anand. “I am often
asked how I maintain my motivation even after 昀椀ve world titles. Frankly, I
never took to chess because it was on some kind o f a checklist. I will keep
playing till I enjoy it. The desire is still there,” he said.
(https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/other-sports/story/viswanathan-anand-
chess- world-champion-niit-delhi-110525-2012-07-21)
2. Instrumental Aggression: The term ‘instrumental’ refers to ‘serve as a means’

ie., aggression is being used just as an instrument to gain advantage or win and
not because of anger or enmity. Therefore, instrumental aggression refers to
aggressive behaviour meant or used to attain some non-aggressive goals like
winning, getting money, prestige or gaining any other advantage. Instrumental
aggression is harmful behaviour engaged in without provocation to obtain
an outcome or coerce others. An instrumental aggression does consist of an
aggressive intent to harm an opponent physically or psychologically without
necessarily being angry. Instrumental aggression is a behaviour directed at the
target as a means to an end. For example, elbowing and injuring a player
to gain a competitive advantage, or late tackling to stop an opponent from
scoring a goal.
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Development of Relational Aggression
A science brief published in Psychological Science Agenda in August 2013 by

APA deals with development of relational aggression associated with young
children due to media exposure. The research work after examining different
types of aggressive behaviour discussed the two types of aggression. Along with
physical aggression like kicking, pushing, it mentions about second type of
aggression known as Relational Aggression. According to the study, relational
aggressive behaviour has an intent to hurt, harm and injure others using
the relationship. It also uses threat of relationship against other individuals
through social exclusion, friendship withdrawal, spreading rumours, false
news etc. are used as goals for the intent of harming.
https://www.apa.org/science/about/psa/2013/07-08/relational-aggression
An important distinction between hostile and instrumental aggression is that

instrumental aggression is learned behaviour, where hostile aggression is
impulsive. In the majority of situations, neither is an ideal response or solution
to your problem.
From the above concept of aggression, we reach a consensus that from the
perspective of a sports psychologist, there is no ‘good’ aggression or ‘bad’
aggression. Any behaviour with an intent to physically or mentally harm another
individual is aggression and is not acceptable on the sports 昀椀eld. An important
concept mentioned by the sports psychologists is assertive behaviour. Most
athletic events involve interaction between people. There is some interchange
of words, feelings and behaviours. While confrontation is often manifest
through assertion and aggression, these two approaches have distinguishing
factors and lead to very different outcomes. Assertive behaviour is generally
seen as a positive form of expression, whereas aggression is a negative form of
expression. Assertive behaviour has its roots in respect for the other individual,
while aggression does not; for example, if you voice your opinion through
aggressive acts, you are conveying that your feelings are more important.
Aggression also is often counter-productive, while assertive behaviour leads to
a more positive resolution. Finally, assertive behaviour is all about standing up
for yourself and your values in an unthreatening manner, while aggression puts
others down.
338
Hostile Instrumental Assertive

Intent Harm or Suffering Harm or Suffering No harm
Primary Goal Harm or injure Win or advantage Win or Advantage
Process Non-Legitimate Non-Legitimate Legitimate
Emotion Anger No Anger Unusual effort and
energy expenditure
Explanation Self-justification Offer apologies
instead of apology
Aggression Management : A Challenge in Sports

Behaviour of aggression by players is an area of concern for coaches, parents across
the society which need to be minimized if not stopped or curtailed completely.
Few of the strategies which could be effective in managing aggression among
athletes have been mentioned below:
1. Social acceptable discharge medium: Aggression is an inborn drive, according
to the drive theory people have the innate instinct to be aggressive and it
builds up till it is discharged (catharsis). There need to be opportunities
and space for people to displace or express aggression through a socially
acceptable means, for example bout of aerobics, swimming, martial arts
kicking pads or punching bags.
2. Positive Reinforcement: Aggression has a circular effect, one act lead to
another because the people especially athletes learn the way to release it.
The circle need to be broken by positive reinforcement and not letting it
continue. Providing space for players to speak and express their opinion is an
effective example.
3. Negative Reinforcement: During competitions, any act of violence should
not be tolerated or exempted and must have strict rules of punishment for
offending players and the team, whereas fair play point can be awarded for
players and teams showing restrains during aggressive situations.
4. Modelling: People emulate their heros and seniors, young players grow up
watching them receive awards, prizes and recognitions, therefore try to copy
their behaviour to a large extent. Hence aggressive behaviour should not be
promoted or appreciated at the top level and by the seniors as it will help in
reducing the trickle effect.
339
5. Training and role playing: Athletes can learn to control their hostile feeling
along with anger through role play and training with experts. Training is
effective in regulating the emotion of anger that leads to hostile behaviour.
6. External Cues: Stimulus which puts preference of winning over participation
can lead to various hostile as well as instrumental aggression. Coaches,
parents must focus and promote participation over performance, appreciate
fare play than winning, discuss fun over results.
I. Tick the correct answers
1. Which of the following is a legitimate behaviour?

a. Hostile Aggression
b. Instrumental Aggression
c. Assertiveness
d. Proactive Aggression
2. In instrumental aggression, the main aim is to using aggression.

a. cause harm to the opponent
b. achieve a positive goal
c. express your feeling of jealousy
d. show your hostility to an opponent
3. Aggression is displayed in sports through …………….

a. assertion of views
b. use of abusive words
c. walking away from the opponent
d. strictly following the rules
1. What do you understand by aggression in sports?
2. De昀椀ne hostile aggression.
3. De昀椀ne instrumental aggression.
340
1. Differentiate between Hostile aggression, Instrumental aggression and

Assertiveness?
2. Describe various reactions of athletes which can be classi昀椀ed as aggression

and assertive behaviours?
Answers to Personality Quiz

1. Extraversion (Q1, Q6R); Agreeableness (Q2R, Q7; Conscientiousness (Q3, Q8R);
Emotional Stability (Q4R, Q9); Openness to Experiences (Q5, Q10R).
2. ‘R’ denote reverse-scored item, recode the reverse-scored items (i.e., recode
a 7 with a 1, a 6 with a 2, a 5 with a 3, etc.). The reverse scored items are 2,
4, 6, 8, and 10.
3. Take the AVERAGE of the two items (the standard item and the recoded reverse-
scored item) that make up each scale.
4. The maximal score can be 14 and minimum score 1.
Example using the Agreeableness scale: A participant has scores of 5 on item 1

(Extraverted, enthusiastic) and and 2 on item 6 (Reserved, quiet). Start with
recoding the reverse-score items (ie. Item 2 score was 5) replacing the 5 with
3. Second, take the average of the score for item 7 (eg.6) and the recoded
score for item 2. So the Agreeableness score would be: (6 + 3)/2 = 4.5.
9.5 Psychological Attributes in Sports
Sports scientist from around the world have researched about unique attributes of
successful athletes and elite sportsmen to understand factors enabling athletes to
perform successfully and reach optimal level of performance in their athletic career.
In sport psychology, much attention has been given to exploring and understanding
the psychological attributes of elite athletes with the aim of in昀氀uencing athlete
talent and development. It is widely acknowledged that psychological attributes
have an important role in athletes’ lives and can in昀氀uence athletes’ performance,
behaviour, and psychological well-being.
Attributes are perceived to be essential for performance effectiveness and athlete

development , where athletes abilities to perform, understand and manage training
and competition environment and other important factors have many positive
effects. From several attributes which are considered to be essential, self-esteem,
mental imagery, self talk and goal setting is being discussed in this chapter.
341
9.5.1 SELF-ESTEEM
The concept of self-esteem generally refers to a person’s evaluation of, or attitude

toward, him- or herself. Self-esteem is centered around a belief in the self, respect
for the self, and con昀椀dence in the self. An equally important component of self-
esteem is esteem from others. That is, the respect and admiration others bestow on
a performer is equally motivational. Because pursuit of excellence is a comparative
process, esteem by others is re昀氀ective of one’s performance. Hence, it is critical
that the performer seeks esteem from others. According to American Psychological
Association (APA), Self-esteem refers to the degree to which the qualities and
characteristics contained in one’s self-concept are perceived to be positive.
It re昀氀ects a person’s physical self-image, view of his or her accomplishments
and capabilities, and values and perceived success in living up to them, as well
as the ways in which others view and respond to that person. The more positive
the cumulative perception of these qualities and characteristics, the higher one’s
self-esteem. A reasonably high degree of self-esteem is considered an important
ingredient of mental health, whereas low self-esteem and feelings of worthlessness
are common depressive symptoms.
The coach needs to instill in the performers the desire for esteem from others.
‘‘athletic participation is associated with increases in self-esteem and positive
feelings about the body.’’ William Russell’s work suggests that this probably relates
to one ‘‘dimension’’ or aspect of self-esteem—the physical (that is, how we judge our
own bodies compared with others’ bodies). Other dimensions of self-esteem might
be intellectual, competitive, congenial (whether others like you, for instance), all,
in some way, rating how we value aspects of ourselves. Research revealed that
the pursuit of self-esteem is a powerful motive behind marathon runners, cyclists,
and other exercisers. A great many studies have documented self-esteem’s positive
association with EXERCISE BEHAVIOR, while others have noted the RELATIONSHIP
between low self-esteem and EATING DISORDERS, SELF-ESTEEM, OBESITY, and
several forms of DEPENDENCE. Self-esteem is popularly used interchangeably
with self-evaluation and high self-esteem with, among other terms, self-respect,
self-assurance, and dignity, though its closest neighbor conceptually is PHYSICAL
SELF-WORTH; for many scholars. Regular exercise has been shown to be related to
increased self-esteem.
342
9.5.2 MENTAL IMAGERY
Mental Imagery is a psychological skill used widely in sports for enhancing performance
of wide variety of motor skills. Mental Imagery may be de昀椀ned as using one’s senses
to create or recreate an experience or visual image in the mind that at times may
seem to be as real as seeing the image with our physical eyes. An expansion of this
brief de昀椀nition clari昀椀es that:
(a) an image can be created in the mind in the absence of any external
stimuli,
(b) an image may involve one or more physical senses, and
(c) an image is created from information stored in the sensory store, working
memory, or long-term memory.
The use of the ‘mind’s eye’, or imagery, is considered important both in stress
management and in focusing athletes on their task. Imagery, or the mental creation
or re-creation of sensory experiences in the mind, is the most popular mental training
technique used by athletes. Imagery can be used in various ways to aid relaxation
and focusing. Sport psychologists distinguish between external imagery, in which
athletes picture themselves from outside performing, and internal imagery, in which
they view themselves performing from inside their own body. A good example of
internal imagery is in the mental rehearsal of sporting techniques. When we imagine
carrying out a sporting technique, the nervous system and muscles react in a similar
manner to that expected if we were actually carrying out the technique. This means
that imagery helps us to learn and practise techniques. Another reason mental
imagery works is that it de-sensitises us to the anxiety of competitive situations. The
more we are exposed to things that cause us anxiety – whether in real life or in our
imagination – the less anxiety they cause. Coaches from around the world have also
indicated that they use imagery more than any other mental training technique and
felt that imagery was the most useful technique that they used with their athletes.
All athletes have the potential to increase their imagery abilities through systematic
practice, with increases in imagery ability enhancing the effectiveness of imagery
training.
How to practice Imagery:
Mental imagery techniques have been implemented with various different models
and strategies. On of the very popular model is PETTLEP framework. PETTLEP model
for mental imagery intervention framework is an acronym representing a seven point
343
checklist of guidelines to be followed when devising an imagery intervention that

can provide an effective execution of imagery interventions for athletes. These are
Physical, Environment, Task, Timing, Learning, Emotion, and Perspective. Mental
Imagery intervention and training can be effective in enhancing performance.
Bene昀椀ts of imagery
Athletes use imagery for many different reasons, including skill learning and
practice, strategy development and rehearsal, competition preparation, including
familiarization with venues and mental warm-ups, mental skill development and
re昀椀nement, and coping with various sport stressors or obstacles, such as injuries,
heavy training, and distractions
h Acquisition and improved performance of skills and strategies

h Modi昀椀cation of attention focus and other cognitions.
h Regulation of arousal and anxiety.
h Effective in enhancing self-con昀椀dence, motivation and self-control
9.5.3 SELF TALK
Self-talk is de昀椀ned as overt or covert personal dialogue in which the athlete

interprets feelings, perceptions, and convictions and gives himself instructions and
reinforcement. Self-talk is an effective technique to control thoughts and to in昀氀uence
feelings. Thoughts and feelings can in昀氀uence self-con昀椀dence as well as performance.
Sports scientists support for the use of self-talk strategies to improve performance
in exercise and sport tasks. Every athlete during any action or performance may
have thoughts that come into their mind, especially during competition it can be
either positive or negative, these thoughts are a form of self-talk. The athlete
must learn to control his thoughts and to structure them to his advantage. This is
effectively accomplished through self-talk, the athlete must carefully pre-select
the actual words and phrases used during self-talk and consider them for maximum
effectiveness. The coach or sport psychologist can assist the athlete in this regard.
For self-talk to be effective, it is suggested that self-talk statements be :
(a) brief and phonetically simple,

(b) logically associated with the skill involved, and
(c) compatible with the sequential timing of the task being performed.
344
Types of self talk
Three primary categories of self-talk include task-speci昀椀c statements, encouragement

and effort, and mood words. These three categories are further clari昀椀ed below:
1. Task-speci昀椀c statements relating to technique category of self-talk refers

to words or statements that reinforce technique. For example, in the tennis
volley, the word “turn” might be used in association with preparation for
stepping into the volley.
2. Encouragement and effort category of self-talk refers to words or statements
that provide self-encouragement to persevere or to try harder. For example,
the phrase “You can do it” might be used in preparation for an anticipated play
at home plate in softball.
3. Mood words category of self-talk refers to words that precipitate an increase
in mood or arousal. For example, the mood words “hard” or “blast” might be
used in conjunction with a play in football or soccer.
Bene昀椀ts of Self -Talk

1. Building and developing self-ef昀椀cacy : Self- talk is effective in stimulating
thoughts and feelings that lead to the belief that a person is competent and
able to perform a task ef昀椀ciently and effectively.
2. Skill acquisition : Learning a new skill requires persistence, effort, and
dedication. Self-talk can be effective in helping the athlete to continue to
work hard in order to achieve a worthwhile goal. In becoming pro昀椀cient in a
new skill, the athlete changes bad habits and learns new good habits.
3. Creating and changing mood : Effective use of mood words can either create
a desired mood or change an undesirable one. Words are powerful motivators
because of the meaning that they convey. In an effort to increase power
needed to get out of a sprinter’s block quickly, the athlete might say the words
“go” or “explode” as she powers forward.
4. Controlling effort : Athletes need to be able to sustain effort throughout long
practices or competitions. Self-talk can suggest to the athlete the need to
increase effort when it is needed or to sustain effort when it is deemed bene昀椀cial
for performance learning or enhancement. During long practices, boredom
can be a challenge that must be overcome. Self-talk words and phrases such
as “pick it up,” “stay with it,” or “pace” can be effective in controlling effort.
345
5. Focusing attention or concentration : As with maintaining effort, it is often

necessary to remind yourself to stay focused or to concentrate on the task at
hand. Athletes often get tired, and when this happens, their concentration
can easily wander. If the mind wanders when the coach is teaching an important
concept relating to the athlete’s role.
9.5.4 GOAL SETTING
Goal setting is a mental training technique that can be used to increase an individual’s
commitment towards achieving a speci昀椀c standard of pro昀椀ciency on a task within
a speci昀椀ed time. It is a process of establishing a level of performance pro昀椀ciency
which should be reached within a prescribed time period is known as goal setting.
It has proven effectiveness in enhancing performance and productivity in several
contexts, including employee exercise programs, competitive sport, and industrial
organizations, and provides a basis for both increasing a person’s SELF-EFFICACY
and for instilling a task with intrinsic worth. An aspiring athlete may set goals
intuitively at the outset of a career, for example, to execute a decent pass, sustain
a rally, or just 昀椀nish a race. As a career progresses, athletes typically de昀椀ne speci昀椀c
goals, sometimes establishing a long-term GOAL SETTING. GOAL that can be broken
into less ambitious short-term goals, setting up a kind of hierarchy of goals to be
achieved one by one. An of昀椀ce worker might enroll in a company FITNESS program,
setting goals related to a broad class of health-related behaviors, so exercise goals
are related to complementary dietary aims and objectives such as walking instead
of driving to work four times a week and taking the stairs every morning.
Goal setting works because it focuses attention on speci昀椀c task demands, increases
effort and intensity, encourages persistence when adversity is encountered, and
promotes the development of strategies and problem solving to move toward goal
achievement. When compared to ‘no goals’ or ‘do-your-best goals’, speci昀椀c goal
setting enhances athletes’ performance. There are different types of goals and
over-all effectiveness of goal setting depends on type of goal being selected by the
athlete in different situation, and coaches can surely help them identify suitable
goal types and peruse toward it. In sports, athletes focus majorly on three types of
goals, Performance goal, Process goal and Outcome goals. The important distinction
between outcome, performance, and process goals indicates that mental skills are
enhanced when athletes focus on the right goals at the right time Let’s try to
understand these different types of goals:
346
1. Outcome Goal: give priority and importance to the 昀椀nal outcome of a sporting
event. Thy are uncontrollable, yet attractive and exciting, they are useful
in enhancing motivation for the exhausting physical and mental preparation
needed to achieve typical outcomes goals, such as winning championships or
medals. Outcome goals are the successful implementations of process and
performance goals. They keep us in perspective and help to stay focused on
the bigger picture. Examples of outcome goals may include winning a sport,
losing the desired amount of weight, or scoring a top rank in school.
2. Performance Goal: focus on achievements of athletes relatively independent
of other competitors or teammates. Therefore, they are more 昀氀exible and
controllable for athletes, which allows them to continually raise and lower
goal dif昀椀culty levels to remain challenged and successful in their pursuit of
exciting outcome goals. These goals help in tracking progress and give us a
reason for continuing the hard work. For example, focus on striking a score of
100 in an innings or making 50 passes in a match rather giving importance on
wining or loosing is an example of performance goal. Performance goals may
help us in quantifying our efforts and measuring the progress and also achieve
outcome goals in the process.
3. Process Goal: focus on speci昀椀c behaviour or task throughout a competition,
training or speci昀椀c task demans in productive ways, such as occupying their
minds with key verbal cues that lock in optimal performance images and plans.
These behaviour re昀氀ects proper and effective techniques for executing a
speci昀椀c athletic task and plans. For example, to focus on the defender rather
than ball or focus on position of arm toward target while shooting, or focusing
on toe positing while jogging to avoid inward movement are process goals,
when repeated for a period of time, it should help in attaining performance
goal and outcome goals.
Principles of Goal Setting

1. Make goals speci昀椀c, measurable, and observable.
2. Clearly identify time constraints.
3. Use moderately dif昀椀cult goals; they are superior to either easy or very dif昀椀cult
goals.
4. Write goals down and regularly monitor progress.
5. Use a mix of process, performance, and outcome goals.
6. Use short-range goals to achieve long-range goals.
347
7. Set team as well as individual performance goals.

8. Set practice as well as competition goals.
9. Make sure goals are internalized by the athlete.
10. Consider personality and individual differences in goal setting.
Characteristic of effective goal:
The acronym SMART has been used by sport psychologists to help athletes remember
昀椀ve important characteristics of well-stated goals
Speci昀椀c goal is one that focuses exactly on the goal to be achieved. For example,
“shooting 80 percent accuracy in free- throw shooting” is speci昀椀c, but “becoming a
better basketball player” is not.
Measurable goal is one that you can quantify, in the sense that you know exactly how
close you are to achieving the goal. The general goal “to become a better server
in tennis” is not measurable, because you don’t know when you have achieved the
goal.
Action-Oriented Goals are there things that we can do to make this happen. Action-
oriented goals have action steps and action plans with detailing of what, when and
how to do. Making clear the key actions required to achieve a goal helps everyone
see how their part of the work is connected to other parts of the work and to a
larger purpose. This information through action-oriented goals helps athletes stay
focused and energized rather than become fragmented and uncertain.
Realistic goals focus on setting the target which are attainable and withing the
capability and capacity of the athlete. The goal set should be able to stretch athlete
toward improvement, but it should not be out of reach or it will be not motivating
enough for an athlete to strive for. Setting of goals that are too high are discouraging
while setting goals too low leaves the athlete dissatis昀椀ed with the task.
Timely : A well-stated goal should be timely in the sense that it speci昀椀es time
constraints associated with the goal, but also timely in the sense that it re昀氀ects an
appropriate amount of time to accomplish the goal. We make the goals of athletes
timely by creating deadline for the speci昀椀c task and try to meet the deadline well
on time.
348
Bene昀椀ts of Goal Setting
It is important for the athletes and the coaches to understand how Goal Setting can
be bene昀椀cial for performance enhancement process. Let’s try to read few important
bene昀椀ts of Goal Setting.
1. Improved focus attention

2. Develop persistence
3. Mobilisation of efforts
4. Developing new learning techniques
5. Increased motivation
Answer the following questions

1. Which one of the goals focus on technique for executing a task?
i. Process Goal
ii. Product Goal
iii. Outcome Goal
2. Which type of goal focus on 昀椀nal result of an event ?
i. Outcome Goal
ii. Process Goal
iii. Product Goal
3. Process of recreating images in mind to improve performance in sports is
referred as ?
i. Mental imagery
ii. Self-talk
iii. Self-esteem
iv. Goal setting
4. De昀椀ne Self-Esteem?
5. Describe important of self-talk by athletes in sports ?
349
Case Study
Read the following Case Study carefully.
A state sports team was winning all the tournaments and was highly praised for
its efforts. An interview with the team to 昀椀nd and explore the reasons for its
continuous success highlighted the following reasons. As per the report, the team
had many new players who were wellorganised, responsible, self-disciplined and
precise in their task and contributed to the success of the team. The Captain had
been selected by the team members themselves, and he was most interactive,
sociable and optimistic on the 昀椀eld as well as off it. This made him a good leader.
The best part of the team was that, all its senior players were helpful and
cooperative with their juniors and were always willing to listen to them. The
team’s coach mentioned few essential elements that had contributed to the team’s
success. According to him, the ability to motivate people plays a crucial role in
the team’s success more often than the technical skills, and this is what separates
a good coach from an average one. The coach also referred to occasions when
players went through the phase of lack of intrinsic motivation. The coach realised
that while there are some athletes have an innate drive to constantly strive for
success and enjoy their task, there are others who seem to lack internal motivation
and need extrinsic factors like rewards, prize, money etc. to create the required
drive or required behaviour. The team’s psychologist spoke about the aggressive
behaviour among the team players against the opponents. It was interesting to
listen to various instances where the players had instigated opponents or charged
at them violently, in anger, but had later tried to justify their actions.
Sometimes, players were found to be abusing opponents not in anger, but to get an
advantage or for the sake of winning, though this behaviour is not acceptable and
they were awarded punishments as per the code of conduct and rules of sport.
Read the above story of a sports team and answer the following questions?
1. Which trait best re昀氀ected the personality of junior players?

(a) Introvert
(b) Conscientiousness
(c) Neuroticism
350
2. Which member of the team re昀氀ected most of the Extrovert traits?

(a) Coach
(b) New Members
(c) Captain
3. Which type of players were recommended for special training with Sports
Psychologist?
(a) Extrovert
(a) Introvert
(a) Mesomorph
4. The team sports psychologist is referring to which type of behaviour as non-
threatening but con昀椀dent.
(a) Assertive
(a) Hostile
(a) Instrumental
5. Which are the two types of motivation discussed in the above story? Which,
according to you, is the better form? Why?
References
1. Sivarajan. K “Psychological Foundations of Education” Calicut University,
Kerala, India, 2006.
3. Baron. R.A “Psychology” Pearson Education South Asia, New Delhi, 2008.
8. Bandura, (1973). Aggression A Social Learning Analysis. Englewood Cliffs NJ
Prentice-Hall.
9. Baron, R. A. (1994). Perspectives in social psychology. Plenum Press.
351
10. Baron, R. A., & Byrne, D. R. (2000). Social Psychology. Pearson.
Suggested Reading
2. Cox. R.H “Sport Psychology: Concepts and Applications” Mc Graw Hill, New
York, USA, 2012.
3. Jarvis. M “Sport Psychology” Routledge, New York, USA, 2006.
4. Weinberg. R.S, Gould.D “Foundations of Sport and Exercise Psychology” Human
Kinetics, Champaign. USA, 2003.
352

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Physical EDUCATION-XII

UNIT IX PSYCHOLOGY AND SPORTS

At the end of the unit, students will be able to:

Discuss in your group

Present your ideas to the class

9.1 Personality: Concept and De昀椀nitions

Personality, thus, can be de昀椀ned as the characteristic set of behaviours, cognitions

Carl Jung (1933)1: Personality as an attitude refers to a predisposition to behave in

William Herbert Sheldon (1942)2: offered a topology of personality based on three

Guildford (1959)4: Personality is an ‘individual’s unique pattern of traits.’

Eysenck (1953)6: Personality is de昀椀ned as more or less stable and enduring

Robert A Baron (2008)7: Personality is de昀椀ned as individual’s unique and relatively

9.1.1 PERSONALITY TYPES

Personality type refers to the psychological classi昀椀cation of different types of

Trait approach, on the other hand, focusses on speci昀椀c psychological attributes

In modern sports, inter-action perspective regarding personality is an extremely

9.1.2 JUNG’S CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONALITY TYPES

Characteristics of Introverts & Extroverts

First is personality attitude (introvert and extrovert) and second is personality

1. Personality Attitude: which is distinguished as Extrovert or Introvert.

The Eight Preferences

Extroverts tend to enjoy human interactions and to be enthusiastic, talkative,

Personality Functions: Whether a person is an introvert or extrovert, she/he has

1. Feeling: Feeling is a preference for making decisions based on values and

According to Jung, the two attitudes of extraversion and introversion cannot be

Extroverted Extroverted thinking involves segmenting; organizing for

Introverted Introverted thinking involves analysing; categorizing; evaluating

Extroverted Extroverted Intuition refers to interpreting situations and

9.1.3 BIG FIVE THEORY OF PERSONALITY

Openness to Experience (Imaginative vs Narrow Interest):

Openness refers to dimension of personality which ranges from being imaginative,

EXTRAVERSION (Enthusiastic vs Reserved)

Extraversion refers to dimension of personality which ranges from having enthusiasm,

CONSCIENTIOUSNESS (Organized vs Easy-going)

Conscientiousness refers to well-organised, careful, responsible, hardworking and

AGREABLENESS (Friendly vs Un-Cooperative)

Agreeableness refers to compassionate behaviour of an individual. Dimensions of

NEUROTICISM (Composed vs Nervous)

Neuroticism focusses on the emotional stability on an individual. This trait refers

EXTRAVERSION Active, optimistic, sociable, Sober; reserved , cautious

I. Tick the correct answers

1. Personality is derived from a latin word ‘persona’ meaning

2. Which can be a suitable concept related to personality in sports?

3. A person who is bold and outgoing is an

II. Answer the following questions brie昀氀y.

2. What does OCEAN represent according to Big Five Theory of Personality?

3. Comment upon Allport’s Theory of Personality.

III. Answer the following questions in 150-200 words.

1. Differentiate between Introvert and Extrovert personality?

Let us consider the two important questions.

1. What motivates a player to behave in a certain way?

From the above de昀椀nitions, we can understand motivation is in昀氀uenced by two

A motivation A state of lacking any motivation to engage in an activity,

Extrinsic Motivation refers to behaviour that is driven by external rewards such as

9.2.1 INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION

Difference between Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic Motivation Extrinsic Motivation

9.2.2 MOTIVATION TECHNIQUES