IGCSE Double Award Extended Coordinated Science

Physics 1 - Motion

​Speed, Velocity, and Acceleration

You need to know ​that speed is:

- how fast an object covers a distance (how fast an object is moving)

If an object is moving in a ​straight line,​ you can find its speed by using the formula:
- Speed = total distance travelled ÷ total time taken
- s=d÷t
- Unit for distance = metres (​m​), unit for time = seconds (​s​), unit for speed = metres per second (​m/s​)
- Speed is what we call a ​scalar ​quantity
- Scalar quantities only have a numerical value.
- Mass, volume, and speed are scalar quantities because they fully described by a single number
- e.g. mass = 5g, volume = 100cm​3​, speed 10m/s.
- If an object moved 10m in 5 seconds, its speed is,
- 10m ÷ 5s = ​2 m/s

You need to know ​that velocity is:

- How fast an object changes position

Velocity is a​ vector​ quantity, which means it is fully described by two values, the numerical value and​ the direction.
- Unlike speed (s), velocity is denoted by the letter v.
- Velocity is like speed with a direction, how fast an object covers a distance in a certain direction.
- If a car was moving at 10m/s forwards, and another car was moving at 10m/s backwards
- These two cars have the​ same speeds, ​but ​different velocities
- Because velocity considers the direction as well.
- In an object moved 25m forwards in 10 seconds, its speed is,
- 25m forwards ÷ 10s = ​2.5m/s forwards
- Since velocity is a vector quantity, both the numerical value and the direction must be given

You need to know ​that acceleration is:

- How fast an object changes speed or velocity (rate of change in velocity)

Acceleration can calculated using the formula:

- Acceleration = total ​change​ in speed ÷ total time taken
- a = Δs ÷ t ​ (where change in speed is ​final speed - initial speed​)
- Unit for speed = metres per second (​m/s​), unit for time = seconds (​s​),
- unit for acceleration = metres per second per second ( m/s /s ) which is simplified to
- metres per second squared (m/s​2​). We use m/s​2
- In an object was moving at 25m/s, and changed its speed to 50m/s in 10 seconds, its acceleration is
- (final speed - initial speed) ÷ time (50 - 25)m/s ÷ 10s = ​2.5m/s​2
If the speed is decreasing, (e.g. from 50m/s ​down ​to 25m/s) we call this​ deceleration.
- We can see that the value of acceleration will be ​negative​.
- We can either say ​2.5m/s​2​ deceleration​, or ​-2.5m/s​2​ acceleration​. (negative acceleration used more often)
 Distance-time and Speed-time Graphs

You need to know ​how to interpret ​distance-time graphs​ and ​speed-time graphs.

Distance-time graph
- Time is plotted on the x axis
- Displacement​ from the starting point in plotted against the y-axis,
- This means at y value of 0, the object is at the starting point

- The ​gradient​ of the graph, is calculated by ​rise over run​, which is ​distance / time.
- This is the formula for speed, so: Gradient of a distance-time graph = speed of the object
- This means the gradient, the speed can be positive or negative (meaning it is a velocity)
- Where positive is the forwards direction, and negative is the backwards direction
- Meaning ​negative speed (velocity)​ means the ​reverse​ ​direction

- The steepness of the gradient also tells us the value of the velocity
- Steeper the gradient, higher the value, so: ​Steeper gradient = faster speed
- The gradient tells us the speed, so what if the ​gradient is 0​?
- This means ​no speed​, which means the object is ​not moving (stationary)​.

- A curved gradient​, instead of a straight line, means there is non-constant velocity

- Velocity is changing which​ means:​ ​there is acceleration (or deceleration)
Speed-time graph
- Time is plotted on the x axis
- Speed​ of the object is plotted against the y-axis,
- This means at y value of 0, the object is at speed 0m/s.

- The ​gradient​ of the graph, is calculated by ​rise over run​, which is ​speed / time.
- Which is formula for acceleration: gradient of a speed-time graph = acceleration of the object
- This means the gradient, the acceleration can be positive or negative.
- Where positive is the acceleration, and negative is the deceleration.
- Again, the acceleration is constant if the gradient is straight,
- If it is a curve, it is accelerating non-uniformly.

- Same as the distance time graph, steeper gradient means faster acceleration.
- However, a gradient of 0 ​does not mean stationary​, it means​ constant velocity
- Because there is ​no acceleration.

- We can find the​ total distance​ travelled from a speed-time graph by

- finding the area underneath the graph​.
- To the find area, we would need to multiply velocity by time, and this means
- velocity x time = distance.
The syllabus says you should be able to, (SO check if you can):
- Define speed and calculate average speed from: total distance / total time
- Distinguish between speed and velocity.
- Recognise linear motion for which the acceleration is constant and calculate the acceleration.
- Recognise motion for which the acceleration is not constant.
- Demonstrate a qualitative understanding that acceleration is related to changing speed.
- Plot and interpret a speed-time graph and a distance-time graph.
- Recognise from the shape of a speed-time graph when a body is:
- at rest
- moving with constant speed
- moving with changing speed.
- Calculate the area under a speed-time graph to work out the distance travelled for motion with constant
acceleration.
 IGCSE Double Award Extended Coordinated Science
Physics 2.1 & 2.2 & 2.3 & 2.4 - Matters and Forces

Mass and Weight

You need to know ​what mass and weight are.

Mass is​ ​the measure of amount of matter in an object.

- Unit for mass is ​kilograms (kg) or grams (g)​.
- All objects have mass
- Even the smallest particles like electrons have mass.
- Mass ​never changes​ (unless a part of the object is removed) and remains constant throughout the universe.

- Mass is also the ​property that resists change in motion

- This is known as ​inertia ​(more in Unit P2.3)
- Change in motion is change in direction and/or speed (​velocity​), which means it is an ​acceleration.
- So we can say mass is the property that resists acceleration
- So​ more mass means smaller acceleration

Weight is the force on the mass due to gravity.

- Weight is a force,​ so it is measured in ​units of newtons (N) ​(more in Unit P2.3)
- Weight is calculated by the formula ​w = mg
- Where ​g​ stands for​ acceleration due to gravity​ or the ​gravitational field strength
- The ​acceleration due to gravity​ (in freefall) is different depending on the environment.
- Earth has acceleration due to gravity of about ​10m/s​2​, ​on the moon it is about ​1.6m/s​2​.
- This means an object of mass ​10kg,​ will have weight ​100N​ on Earth, and ​16N​ on the moon.
- Weight is dependant on the gravitational field strength.
 Density

You need to know ​what density is, and how to find experimentally calculate density.

Density​ how closely packed the matters are in an object (how dense an object is), or,
- the ​measure of matter per volume
- Density = mass ÷ volume
- d = m ÷ v
3​
- kg/m​ = kg ÷ m​3​ for larger objects
- g/cm​3 ​ = g ÷ cm​3 ​ for smaller objects

For ​liquids​ or ​regularly shaped solids,​ it is fairly simple to calculate density.

- Measure the mass using a scale,
- Measure and calculate the total volume (for solids using the appropriate formula)

- Then simply use the formula: density = mass / volume

For ​irregularly shaped solids​, the volume is harder to measure.

- For example, a random pebble from the ground.
- We use ​water displacement​ to find the volume
- There are two methods.
1. Measuring cylinder​ method:
- Fill a measuring cylinder with water and measure the initial
volume
- Then drop the irregular object in the cylinder
- Measure the final volume.
- The difference in volume is called the ​displaced volume
and is equal to the volume of the solid.

2. Eureka can​ method:

Eureka can is a special apparatus used to measure volumes of irregular solids.
It is a large can with a single hole with a pipe to collect the displaced liquid
- Completely fill the Eureka can up to the hole
- Place a measuring cylinder below to collect
the displaced water
- Place the irregular solid in the Eureka can
and water will be displaced and collected.
- The collected volume is the volume of the
solid.
 Force

You need to know ​that force is:

- A quantity that changes the motion, size, or the shape of a body.
- A force is like a push or a pull.
- A pulling force applied on a rubber band can change its shape.
- A pushing force applied on a rubber ball can change its size.
- A pushing force on cart can change its motion
- Change in motion includes
- Acceleration & deceleration
- Changing direction

- There are many types of forces, including

- Frictional force
- Magnetic force
- Gravitational force

- Force is measured in ​newtons (N)

- 1N is the amount of force required to accelerate a mass of 1kg at a rate of 1m/s​2
- Meaning that ​Force = mass x acceleration (F = ma)
- This is Newton’s Second Law of Motion

You need to know ​the interaction between multiple forces.

- Force is a vector quantity. ​This means it has a direction and a magnitude.

- This means multiple forces of multiple directions and magnitude can act on a object at the same time.
- All the forces can be “simplified” or “added” up into one single force called the ​resultant force.

- For example, a 5N force to the right and a 7N force to the left is acting on an object.

- Forces acting in opposite directions cancel out

- And since the magnitudes are not equal (7N - 5N = 2N) and the force ​to the left​ is stronger
- The resultant force is 2N to the left.

- If the opposite forces were equal in magnitude, they would

completely cancel each other out.
- There is no resultant force.
-
- The state of no resultant force, and hence no change in
motion, is called equilibrium
You need to know ​what happens in systems of equilibrium
- If a system is at equilibrium, there is no resultant force, and no change in motion.

There are two possible situations:

1. Object is stationary
- Stationary means ​no movement​, so there is ​no change in motion

- Imagine a box sitting on a surface.

- The mass is affected by gravity and produces a ​weight force ​downwards.
- Since the box is stationary, the weight must be​ balanced by an equal and opposite force​.
- This force is from the ​normal contact force
- It comes from the contact between the box and the surface.
- It is always equal and opposite of the force acting towards the surface

2. Object is at constant velocity

- Constant velocity means that the motion is constant - so there still is​ no change in motion
- Only acceleration or a change in direction is change in motion.

- For example, a car moving at a constant speed to the right.

- There are many forces acting on the car:
- Driving force from the engine, friction, air resistance, normal force, gravitational force.
- The car is not accelerating moving up or down, so the vertical forces must be balanced.
- The car is also not accelerating or decelerating, so the horizontal forces must also be balanced.

- Normal contact force = gravitational force

- Friction + air resistance = driving force
You need to know ​what happens in systems not in equilibrium (accelerating objects)

If the system is not in equilibrium, there is a resultant force, meaning there is change in motion
- There is acceleration.

Using Newton’s Second Law of Motion, we can calculate the accelerations and forces of objects.
- ​Force = mass x acceleration
- F = m x a
- N (kgm/s​2​) = kg x m/s​2
- 1N ​is equal to ​1 kgm/s​2​.
- Meaning it is important that mass is used in ​kilograms​, not in grams.

In situations with a resultant force, there is acceleration in the direction of the resultant force.
- Take a box with mass 10kg. If a force of 50N was applied to the right, the resulting change in motion is:
- F = ma​: 50N / 10kg = ​5m/s​2 ​to the right

- Or take the same box from the equilibrium from the previous example.
- If the surface was removed, the normal contact force would be removed
- This object is now in ​freefall
- There is only the weight of the object acting, pulling the object downwards.
- (air resistance is ignored for simple models)

​
- Using F = ma, 100N / 10kg = ​10m/s​2​ downwards.
- This should be obvious, because on Earth, the acceleration due to gravity in freefall is 10m/s​2​.
 Hooke’s Law

You need to know ​the relationship between force and extension

If you attach a mass (load) to a spring, it will stretch and ​extend​.

If we experimentally measure and record the
- Mass of the load (hence the ​weight in​ ​N​ downwards)
- The extension of the spring from its original length,
We can calculate the relationship between the mass (force) and the
resulting extension of the spring.

Experiment:
1. Set up the apparatus as shown
2. Measure the unstretched length of the spring
3. Measure the mass ​m ​of the load and record in the table.
- Find the force of the weight ​F​, (​m(​ in kg) ​x ​10​)
4. Attach the mass to the spring and measure the total length ​l
5. Subtract original length from the new length to calculate the
extension ​x ​of the spring.
6. Repeat steps 3 to 5 with different masses.

From the data, we can see that there is a ​directly proportional relationship​ between force ​F​, and extension ​x.
- This relationship is called the​ Hooke’s Law​, and can be written as a formula:
- Force = constant x extension
- F ​= ​ k ​ ​x​ ​ x

- The constant ​k ​shows how much the ​force is required per unit extension. (​measured in ​N/m or N/cm)
- Higher the spring constant, the harder it is to stretch.
- e.g. a spring with a constant 5N/cm will require 5 newtons of force to stretch it by 1cm.
- And a spring with constant 0.1N/cm only required 0.1 newtons of force to stretch it by 1cm.

- Looking at the ​graph,​ the spring constant can be found by finding the ​the gradient
- To find the gradient, we find rise/run, which is ​force / extension
- F / x = k​ (Hooke’s Law formula)
- So this means steeper the gradient (​k​), the ​the spring constant increases (stiffer spring)
- Meaning graphs with ​steeper gradients ​have springs that have​ higher spring constants.
You need to know ​behaviour of springs in parallel and series.

If we repeated the experiment with two springs, we have two possibilities of the setup.
1. With two springs connected end-to-end (​in series​)
2. With two springs side-by-side (​in parallel​)

As you can see from the diagram, the results are different to each other, and to the
experiment with one spring.
Force F Extension with Extension with Extension with
/N 1 spring /cm 2 springs ​in series​ /cm 2 springs in​ parallel​ /cm

0 0 0 0

1 2 4 1

2 4 8 2

3 6 12 3

Spring constant ​k: 2 N/cm 4 N/cm 1 N/cm

Looking at the data, we can see how the ​new spring constant​ changes.
- For comparison, we will take the situation with single spring, with the following notation for clarification:
- F​o​ =​ k​o​ x​​ ​x​o ​ (the subscript ‘o’ meaning original)

Springs in series (derivation of new spring constant):

- Each​ of the spring is​ ​affected by the same force ​F​o​, ​and each obey Hooke’s Law separately.
- With each spring having the spring constant ​k​o​ ​(same as a single spring)
- This means ​each​ spring will have the ​extension​ ​x​o​.
- If there are two springs, the total extension will be ​x​o​ + ​x​o​, if there are three, ​x​o​ + ​x​o​ + ​x​o​.
- This means the ​total extension ​will be ​nx​o​, where n is the number of springs in series.
- If we considered the two springs as a whole, the equation becomes ​F​o​ = ​ke​​ x​ ​ ​2x​o
- Where ​k​e is ​ the new “​effective​ spring constant”
- (This is if we considered the multiple springs as single combined spring)
- So we can say the effective spring constan​t
​ ​k​o /​ n​ (where n is the number of springs)
- k​e =​
- The spring constant is divided by the number of springs
- Hence the spring constant decreases
- If there are 5 springs, the effective spring constant is k/5, giving total extension 5x.

Springs in parallel (derivation of new spring constant):

- The springs are side by side, so they ​share the force F​o​ equally.
- If the force was 10N, with two springs, each of the springs would be affected by a force of 5N.
- This means the effective force on a single spring will be ​F​o​/n ​(where n is the number of springs)
- Again,​ each spring​ obeys Hooke’s law separately, so the extension will now be
- F​o​/n = k​o​ x​ ​ ​x​n​. Where ​xn​ is ​ the new extension caused by the new force, ​F​o​/n
- This is rearranged to ​Fo​​ / k​o ​= ​n x​ ​ x​n​. And we know from the original equation
- ​F​o​ / ​k​o​ =​
​ ​xo​​ . ​ So, we can say: ​n x​ ​ x​n =
​ ​x​o​, which can be rearranged again to:
- x​n = ​ ​x​o /​ n, ​giving us the equation for the new extension for a single spring
- So for two parallel springs, the extension will be ​x​o​/2​, for each spring
- But since they are next to each other, the ​total extension is also x​o​/2.
- From this we can find the effective spring constant
- F​o​ ​= ​k​e x​ ​x​o​/n,​ which rearranges to ​n x​ ​(​F​o​ / ​k​o​)​ = ​ ​k​e ​ which is equal to:
- k​e =​ ​ ​n​ x ​ ​k​o (where
​ n is the number of springs)
- The spring constant is multiplied by the number of springs
- Hence the spring constant increases
You need to know ​what a ​limit of proportionality​ of extension-force graph is

The limit of proportionality ​is the point on a extension-force graph where

- Past the point, the material ​stops​ ​obeying Hooke’s Law.
- Meaning: the extension is no longer proportional to force.
- The gradient will not be a straight line
- This is because the material is ruined.
- For example, a spring might be overstretched

Pressure

You need to know ​what pressure is and how to calculate it.

- Pressure​ is force per unit area

- Pressure = force ÷ area of contact
- P = F ÷ A
- Force is measured in newtons ​(N)​ , and area is measured in metre squared ​(m​2​)
- Meaning the unit for ​pressure is newtons per metre squared,​ ​N/m​2
- 1 N/m​2​ is also known as ​1 Pa (pascals), ​which is the common unit of pressure.

- If a force is applied to a surface, there is pressure exerted on the surface.

- e.g. A 1x1x1 metre cube of mass 20kg is sitting on a table. What is the pressure exerted by the cube?
- First find the force, so mass x gravity = force ( 20 x 10 = ​200N​ )
- Then find the area of contact, which is the bottom side of the cube (1m x 1m = ​1m​2​)
- Pressure is ​P = F/A,​ 200/1 = ​200N/m​2
- Which is ​200Pa. ​The box exerts a pressure of 200Pa on the table.
The syllabus says you should be able to, (SO check if you can):
- Be able to distinguish between the mass and weight of an object.
- Know that the Earth is the source of a gravitational field.
- Demonstrate understanding that mass is a property that ‘resists’ change in motion.
- Describe, and use the concept of, weight as the effect of a gravitational field on a mass.

- Describe an experiment to determine the density of a liquid and of a regularly shaped solid, and make the
necessary calculation using the equation:
- density = mass / volume or d = m / V
- Describe the determination of the density of an irregularly shaped solid by the method of displacement, and
make the necessary calculation.

- Know that a force is measured in newtons (N).

- Describe how forces may change the size, shape and motion of a body.
- Find the resultant of two or more forces acting along the same line.
- Explain how a system is in equilibrium when there is no resultant force.
- Interpret extension-load graphs.
- Plot extension-load graphs and describe the associated experimental procedure.
- State and use Hooke’s Law and recall and use the expression:
- force = constant × extension (F = kx)
- Recognise the significance of the term ‘limit of proportionality’ for an extension-load graph.
- Recall and use the relation between force, mass and acceleration (including the direction): F = ma

- Relate (without calculation) pressure to force and area.

- Recall and use the equation P = F /A
 IGCSE Double Award Extended Coordinated Science
Physics 3.1 & 3.3 & 3.4 - Energy, Work, and Power

Energy, Work, and Power

You need to know ​what energy, work, and power is, and the units for energy and power.

Energy,​ E​ is ​the capacity to perform work.

- Energy is measured in units of ​joules (J)
- There are many different types of energy
- They can either be ​stored​ energies or ​“moving” active​ energies.
- Energy can ​neither​ be created ​nor​ destroyed; rather, it can be ​transformed ​from one form to another.
- This is the​ Law of Conservation of Energy
Type of Energy State Description Found in / Uses

Kinetic (KE) Moving Energy in moving objects, a.k.a movement energy All moving objects have KE

Gravitational Potential (GPE) Stored Energy stored in objects raised from the ground All objects above ground have KE

Sound Moving Energy released by vibrating objects Microphone, voice, etc

Thermal (Heat) Moving Energy of vibrating particles in an object All objects at temperature above 0K

Electrical Moving Energy in moving or static electric charges Electronic device, nervous system

Light Moving Only visible form of energy, part of the ER spectrum. Vision, laser beams

Elastic Potential Stored Energy stored in stretched or squashed objects Springs, rubber bands

Chemical Stored Energy stored in molecular bonds Stored in food, fuels, and batteries

Nuclear Stored Energy stored in the nuclei of atoms Nuclear reactor

Work​ is done when a​ force is applied to an object to move it through a distance

- When work is done, energy is transferred
- So the unit of work is also joules, J.
To calculate work done, use the formula:
- The force and the distance moved must be in the ​same direction
- Work done = force x distance
- W = F x d
- J = N x m
- 1 joule is the energy transferred by a force of 1 newton when it moves through a distance of 1 metre
Power​ ​is the rate of doing work (Work done per unit time or energy transferred per unit time)
- Power = work done ÷ time taken
- P = W ÷ t
- ​W = J ÷ s

The unit of power is the ​watt (W), ​and it is equivalent to ​J/s

- A power of 1 watt means that 1 joule of energy is being transferred every second

Energy Transformations

You need to know ​energy transformations in simple systems.

According to the Law of Conservation of Energy:

- Energy can ​neither​ be created ​nor​ destroyed; rather, it can be ​transformed ​from one form to another.

When there is an energy transformation, there is an ​input energy ​and an ​output energy.
- Input energy ---transformation--> output energy
For the output energy, there is ​useful energy​, which is what we want to use, and ​waste energy.
- For example, in a light bulb,
- The goal is to convert ​electrical energy​ into ​light energy
- Electrical energy is the input energy, and light energy is the useful output energy
- However, a light bulb will also produce​ heat energy which is the waste energy.
- Not all 100% of the input energy is transformed into output energy.

You need to know ​what efficiency is, and how to calculate efficiency.

Efficiency​ is the ​percentage ratio of useful output energy to total input energy
- (Useful Energy​ ​÷ Input Energy) x 100% = Efficiency
No device has an energy transformation of 100% efficiency

e.g. 5000J of electrical energy is put through a light bulb and 3500J of light energy is emitted,
- what is the bulbs efficiency?
- (Useful Energy ÷ Input Energy) x 100% = Efficiency
- (3500/5000) x 100% = ​70% efficiency.

You need to know ​how to draw and interpret​ Sankey diagrams

Sankey diagrams are a way to show energy transformations, along with efficiency.
- They look like arrows, with input energy coming from the ​left
- Useful energy continues straight on to the​ right​, whereas the waste energy curves off ​downwards.
- The thicknesses of the arrows show the percentages.
You should be able to ​write some iconic energy transformations like:

Filament Lamp :
- Electrical -> ​Light​, Heat

Television :
- Electrical -> ​Light, Sound​, Heat

Microphone to amplifier:
- Sound -> ​Electrical​ -> ​Sound​, Heat

Car:
- Chemical -> ​Kinetic​, Heat, Sound

A man jumping off a cliff:

- Gravitational Potential -> ​Kinetic​ -> Sound, Heat

MP3 Player with screen:

- Chemical -> ​Electrical​ -> ​Sound, Light​, Heat

Coal Power Station:

- Chemical -> ​Heat​ -> ​Kinetic​ -> ​Electrical, H
​ eat

Nuclear Power Station:

- Nuclear -> ​Heat​ -> ​Kinetic​ -> ​Electrical, ​Heat

Pendulum:
- Gravitational Potential​ ->​ Kinetic,​ Heat -> ​Gravitational Potential​ ->​ Kinetic,​ Heat -> etc..

- In a pendulum, the kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy is continuously transformed between one
another with small amounts of energy lost as heat due to air resistance.
 Kinetic Energy (K.E.)

You should be able to ​calculate kinetic energies of moving objects.

An object possesses a certain amount of kinetic energy at a certain speed.

- KE = ½mv​2
- Kinetic Energy = ½ x mass x (velocity)​2

From this we can see that the ​kinetic energy is dependant on both the mass and velocity ​of the object.
- Doubling the mass doubles the kinetic energy
- Doubling the velocity ​quadruples​ the kinetic energy.

Gravitational Potential Energy (G.P.E.)

You should be able to ​calculate gravitational potential energies of objects.

Gravitational potential energy is the stored energy possessed by an object by its position in a gravitational field.
- It is calculated by:
- GPE = mgh
- Gravitational Potential Energy = mass x gravity​(acc’n due to gravity)​ x height
- For acceleration due to gravity, we take the rounded value 10m/s​2​ (rather than 9.81)
- It is also equal to the energy that is required to move the object against gravity to that position.
The syllabus says you should be able to, (SO check if you can):
- Know that energy and work are measured in joules (J), and power in watts (W).
- Give and identify examples of energy in different forms, including kinetic, gravitational, chemical, strain,
nuclear, thermal (heat), electrical, light and sound.
- Give and identify examples of the conversion of energy from one form to another, and of its transfer from one
place to another.
- Apply the principle of energy conservation to simple examples.
- Demonstrate a qualitative understanding of efficiency.
- Recall and use the equation: efficiency = useful energy output / energy input × 100%

- Demonstrate understanding that an object may have energy due to its motion (kinetic energy, K.E.) or its
position (potential energy, P.E.), and that energy may be transferred and stored.
- Recall and use the expressions
- K.E. = ½mv​2
- P.E. = mgh

- Relate (without calculation) work done to the magnitude of a force and the distance moved.
- Describe energy changes in terms of work done.
- Recall and use W = F × d

- Relate (without calculation) power to work done and time taken, using appropriate examples.
- Recall and use the equation P = E/t in simple systems.
 IGCSE Double Award Extended Coordinated Science
Physics 3.2 - Energy Resources

Energy Resources

You need to know ​the different types of energy resources.

Humans have many sources of energy for use, you need to know 11 types of them:
- Coal, oil, natural gas, solar, hydroelectricity, wave, tidal, wind, biomass, geothermal, and nuclear.

Fossil fuel​ : (Coal, oil, and natural gas.)

- All fossil fuels are burned to produce heat, and this heat is used to turn water into steam.
- The produced steam escape through turbines which are connected to a generator to produce electricity.
Coal
- Formed 300 million years ago from dead trees that didn’t decompose and got buried
- From the heat and pressure, the trees become coal.
Oil & Natural Gas
- Formed through similar processes as coal, but with organisms from the sea.

Solar
- Two methods:
- Using the light energy from the sun
- Solar panels containing photovoltaic cells convert light energy into electrical energy
- Using the heat energy from the sun to turn water into steam and turn turbines to generate electricity.
Hydroelectricity
- Water is stored at a height in a reservoir by a dam.
- The water is released from height, so the GPE of water is converted into kinetic energy.
- Water turns turbines as it is dropped down to generate electricity.

Wave
- Wind of the sea creates waves.
- Turbine- like devices on the surface of the water convert kinetic energy of the waves into electrical energy.

Tidal
- A barrage​ ​is built across an estuary.
- The gravity of the sun and the moon causes the oceanic water to move as tides
- THe water moves in and out of the turbines in the barrage to produce electricity.
Wind
- Wind turbines high up in the air are turned by the force from the wind.
- Turbines are connected to electrical generators used to produce
electricity.

Biomass
- Energy from living organisms or their waste.
- Wood from trees, ethanol fermented from sugar canes, cow dung,
methane from landfill sites etc.
- Can be burned like fuel.

Geothermal
- Heat from the Earth occurs at plate boundaries or where the crust is thin.
- Or can dig into the Earth closer to the heat.
- Heat is either used directly for heating, or used to heat water into steam and turn turbines for electricity.

Nuclear
- Energy stored in the nucleus of unstable isotopes of elements.

- Nuclear Fission
- The nucleus is hit with a particle and it splits (fission) releasing vast amounts of energy
- Nuclear Fusion
- Nuclei are combined, and this fusion releases vast amounts of energy
- This requires extreme environments, like the sun, where two hydrogen nuclei are fused into helium
- This is how the sun is powered.
You need to know ​the difference between renewable and nonrenewable resources.
- Renewable sources
- Will ​effectively ​last forever (will not run out)
- Can be renewed (make more of the source)
- Non-renewable sources
- Will run out at some point
- Cannot be renewed in a reasonable time span.

- The 11 energy resources can be sorted into either of the two categories.
Renewable Non-renewable

Solar Coal

Hydroelectricity Oil

Wave Natural Gas

Tidal Nuclear

Wind

Biomass

Geothermal

You need to know ​the advantages and disadvantages of each type of energy production.

Energy Resource Advantages Disadvantages

Coal Abundant supply, inexpensive, easy care, Non-renewable, produces most CO​2​ and methane, acid rain
already a mature industry highest contributor to global warming,, high carbon footprint

Oil Abundant supply, efficient transport, Non-renewable, high CO​2​ emission.

already a mature industry hore rare than gas and coal, high carbon footprint

Natural Gas Cleanest fossil fuel, no residue on combustion Non-renewable, high CO​2​ emission,
, lighter than air (safe), already a mature industry contains methane, transport is potentially dangerous

Solar Available almost anywhere, clean energy, no waste product, Doesn’t work at night, cloudy days, or dark places
Simple to install and use, renewable Difficult to make solar panels

Hydroelectricity Very large yields of energy, easy to control, clean Destroy natural habitats, relocation of people,
No waste product, renewable greenhouse gases from setting the large amounts of concrete

Wave Clean energy, renewable, no waste product, Destroy beaches, quite expensive, ruin ecosystems and view
Very large yields of energy, reliable (constant)

Tidal Renewable, no waste, very high efficiency, Expensive, location specific, ruin ecosystems
long lasting plants, barrages can double as storm barriers Can disrupt tidal cycles

Wind Clean energy, no waste products, relatively cheap, Unpredictable wind, bad for scenery, creates noise,
Used almost anywhere, quite powerful, low carbon footprint Impacts wildlife, local impacts

Biomass True “renewable fuel” as it can be regrown, relatively cheap, Energy intensive, needs lots of land, compete with food sources
Waste can be converted to energy, widely available Requires water, methane and CO​2​ are produced.

Geothermal Least environmental impact, very efficient, low cost after Very location specific, expensive initial cost
initial investment, can be built underground, low emission Water usage, difficult to care

Nuclear No greenhouse emission, extremely powerful, Complex mechanics, potentially very dangerous, nuclear waste,
Plants are refueled yearly (long refuel time) waste can radioactively ruin environment., expensive
The syllabus says you should be able to, (SO check if you can):
- Distinguish between renewable and non-renewable sources of energy.
- Know that the Sun is the source of energy for all our energy resources except geothermal and nuclear.
- Demonstrate understanding that energy is released by nuclear fusion in the Sun.
- Describe how electricity or other useful forms of energy may be obtained from:
- chemical energy stored in fuel
- water, including the energy stored in waves, in tides, and in water behind hydroelectric dams
- geothermal resources
- nuclear fission
- heat and light from the Sun (solar cells and panels)
- wind.
- Give advantages and disadvantages of each method in terms of reliability, scale and environmental impact.
 IGCSE Double Award Extended Coordinated Science
Chemistry 1 & Physics 4.1 & 4.2 - States of Matter and the Molecular Model

States of Matter

You need to know ​the three states of matter and their properties in terms of ​particles.

Solid Liquid Gas

Physical properties

- Particles can ​vibrate about a fixed point - Particles are ​free to flow ​over each other - Particles are completely free to move around
- ​forces of attraction is very strong and keeps - ​but​ the ​force of attraction​ between the wherever they want
them in a fixed place. particles is strong enough to keep them together - force of attraction between particle is negligible

Cannot be compressed Cannot be compressed Can be compressed

(there are no spaces between the particles) (they actually can be just​ a little bit​ because of (there are lots of spaces between particles)
the small spaces between the particles)

Cannot be poured Can be poured Can be poured

(unless they are in large lumps, (because the particles can flow over each other) (e.g. carbon dioxide can be poured in air, because
like sand or beads, they can act to “pour”) it is dense than air)

Fixed volume Fixed volume No fixed volume

(they expand to take the volume of the container)

Shape depends on solid Takes the shape of the container Takes the shape of the container
(Some shapes have fixed shapes (rocks) (Liquids fill the shape of the container, (​gases expand and fill the shape of the container)
some solids have no fixed shapes (clay)) and always finds ​horizontal level​ at the surface)

Particle theory

Forces of attraction​ (intermolecular bonds) are Energy of the particles​ is ​greater​ than the Energy of the particles ​is ​much greater​ than
much​ stronger​ than the ​energy of the particles​. forces of attraction ​(intermolecular bonds), so the ​forces of attraction​ (intermolecular bonds),
Therefore the particles do not possess enough they can move around. However they​ do not so the particles are ​completely free to move
energy to break away from the bonds holding possess enough energy to ​completely ​break around wherever they can.
each other in fixed points. away from the bonds, so they are still together.

Forces of attraction >>> Energy of particles Energy of particles > Forces of attraction Energy of particles >>> Forces of attraction

The syllabus says you should be able to, (SO check if you can):
- State the distinguishing properties of solids, liquids and gases.
- Describe qualitatively the molecular structure of solids, liquids and gases.
- Relate the properties of solids, liquids and gases to the forces and distances between molecules and to the motion of the molecules.
 IGCSE Double Award Extended Coordinated Science
Physics 4.2 & 4.3 & 4.4 - Molecular Model of Gases

Temperature and Pressure

You need to know ​temperature and pressure of gases

Temperature​ and ​heat​ are different quantities.

- Heat​ is a form of energy ​(from Unit P3.1)
- Temperature ​is a measure of the average speed of the particles in a substance
- This means as the gas particles gain more kinetic energy, they will move faster.
- Faster average speed means higher temperature of the gas.

Pressure​, from Unit P2, is ​force/area​.

- For a gas, this is the same, where:
- The force is: ​total force of all the collisions of the particles against the walls of the container.
- The area is : ​the total surface area of the inner walls of the container in contact with the gas​.

Temperature​ and ​pressure​ are a gas’s important properties along with volume and mass.
- They are important factors in calculations with gases.

The Gaw Laws

You need to know ​the three gas laws.

- Gas laws are connected by the properties of a gas. ​Temperature, pressure, volume, and mass.
- In the 3folloing three ​gas laws,
- Mass of gas is ​always constant.
- One other property is​ ​kept constant​,
- One of the properties is​ ​changed​.
- And the ​effect of that change​ in the remaining property is​ ​measured​.

Gay-Lussac’s Law ​(or pressure law)

- For a fixed mass of gas at a constant volume, an ​increase​ in temperature ​increases ​the pressure.
- Constant volume​, ​increase in temperature​,​ increase in pressure.
- Pressure is directly proportional to temperature.
- p ∝ T, ​or putting in a ​constant of proportionality, k, ​to make it an equation,
- p = kT, ​which we commonly express as​ p/T = k
- This equation shows that for any fixed mass of gas,​ p/T equals a constant.

- As ​temperature increases​,
- The particles move faster, so they will collide with the walls​ more often
- The particles have more kinetic energy, so they will collide with the walls with​ more force.
- Both of these observations lead to the conclusion:
- As temperature increases, the pressure of the gas increases (if volume is constant)
Boyle’s Law
- For a fixed mass of gas at a constant temperature, an​ increase​ in pressure ​decreases​ the volume.
- Constant temperature​, ​increase in pressure​,​ decrease in volume.
- Volume is inversely proportional to pressure
- V ∝ 1/p, ​or putting in a ​constant of proportionality, k, ​to make it an equation,
- V = k/p, ​which we commonly express as​ pV = k
- This equation shows that for any fixed mass of gas,​ pV equals a constant.
- Also since this is for a fixed mass of gas, we can also say ​p1​​ V​1​ = p​2​V​2​ ​= k
- Where p​1​V​1​ is the pressure and volume before, and p​2​V​2​ is the pressure and volume after.
- e.g. ​Q​. A balloon rises through the atmosphere. On the ground, at 1 atmospheric pressure, it has a
volume of 30cm​3​. It travels up until the pressure is 0.3 atmospheres, what is the new volume of the
balloon?
- p​1​V​1​ = p​2​V​2
- 1atm x 30cm​3​ = 0.3atm x ​V​2
- V​2​ = (1 x 30) / 0.3 = ​100cm​3

Charles’ Law
- For a fixed mass of gas at a constant pressure, an​ increase​ in temperature ​increases​ the volume.
- Constant pressure​, ​increase in temperature​,​ increase in volume.
- Volume is directly proportional to temperature
- V ∝ T ​or putting in a ​constant of proportionality, k, ​to make it an equation,
- V = kT, ​which we commonly express as​ V/T = k
- When you increase the temperature, the particles gain more energy and move faster and further apart.
- This makes the gas occupy more volume.

The syllabus says you should be able to, (SO check if you can):
- Interpret the temperature of a gas in terms of the motion of its molecules.
- Describe qualitatively the pressure of a gas in terms of the motion of its molecules.
- Describe qualitatively the effect of a change of temperature on the pressure of a gas at constant volume.
- Relate the change in volume of a gas to change in pressure applied to the gas at constant temperature and
use the equation
- PV = constant at constant temperature.
- Describe qualitatively the effect of a change of temperature on the volume of a gas at constant pressure.

- Describe evaporation in terms of the escape of more energetic molecules from the surface of a liquid.
- Relate evaporation to the consequent cooling.
- Demonstrate understanding of how temperature, surface area and air flow over a surface influence
evaporation.
 IGCSE Double Award Extended Coordinated Science
Physics 5 - Thermal Properties of Matter

Thermal Expansion

You need to know​ thermal expansions for solids, liquids, and gases, and their applications.

Thermal expansion
- When a material is ​heated,​ the particles vibrate and move faster
- The particles ​move further away​ from each other.
- If they all move further away from each other, they ​occupy more space
- Meaning, they ​expand in volume

All materials expand, whether they are solids, liquids, or gases.

- However, they all expand by different amounts
- Gases expand the most,
- because they have the least amount of force holding them together
- They also already have a lot of energy, so it is easier
- Solids expand the least,
- because they are tightly bound by the intermolecular force.

Charles’ Law ​of the gas laws relates to thermal expansion of gases.

State Useful applications of thermal expansion Problems with thermal expansion

Solid Heat-sensored triggers (bimetallic strip), Bridge, roads, rails

(under expansions they can break)

Liquid Thermometer Rising sea level

Gas Hot-air balloon

 Thermal Capacity

You need to know​ that ​specific heat capacity​ for a substance is:
- The energy needed to raise the temperature of 1kg of the substance through 1​°C.

- Energy = mass x specific heat capacity x change in temperature

- E = m ​x​ c ​x​ Δt ( E = mcΔt )
- ​J = kg ​ x​ ​ J/kg​°C ​ x​ ​ °C

Higher the specific heat capacity of a substance, more energy it needs to raise its temperature.
- For example, copper has the s.h.c. of 385 ​J/kg​°C, whereas water has 4184 ​J/kg​°C
- This shows ​water has an extremely high specific heat capacity
- This is good for regulating temperature,
- because it shows water is not easily affected by change of temperature in the environment.

You need to know​ how to experimentally find ​specific heat capacity​.

- To find the specific heat capacity, we need to know:
- Energy input
- Change in temperature
- Mass of the substance

1. Measure the volume of water (1cm​3​ = 1g of water)

2. Measure the temperature at the beginning
3. Turn on the power and measure the power output
4. Measure the time of heating
- (Power x time of heating = energy)
5. At the end of heating, measure the final temperature
6. Use the values to calculate.

Start Temp End Temp Change in Mass of water Power Time of heating Energy
Temp

25​°C 50​°C 35​°C 0.2kg 250W 120s 30000J

- Energy = mass x specific heat capacity x change in temperature

- 30000 = 0.2 x s.h.c. x 25
- Experimental value of s.h.c = 6000 J/kg​°C
- Real value is 4184 J/kg​°C: the values are different because the experiment may have lost heat etc.
 Heating and Cooling Curves

You need to know​ changes of state in terms of specific temperatures, ​melting point​ and​ boiling point​.
You need to know​ latent heats of fusion and vaporisation.

In a​ heating curve​, a substance is being heated, and the temperature is recorded on the y axis, against x, time.

The curve shows important thermal properties of substances The graph has been divided into 5 areas.
- A​ : The substance is at ​solid state​.
- The energy input is being used to​ raise the temperature - ​Heat is converted to kinetic energy.
- B​ ​: The substance is​ changing state from solid to liquid - is melting
- The energy input is​ not​ used to raise the temperature - so there is​ no temperature increase
- The temperature is constant at the melting point​ (​T1 ​on graph)
- The energy input is used to ​break the forces of attraction​ between the particles
- The total energy input during this time is called ​latent heat of fusion
- C​ ​: The substance is at ​liquid state
- The energy input is being used to ​raise the temperature, ​just like in area A
- D​ :​ The substance is​ changing state from liquid to gas - is boiling
- The energy input is​ not​ used to raise the temperature - so there is​ no temperature increase
- The temperature constant at the boiling point​ (​T2 ​on graph)
- The total energy input during this time is called ​latent heat of vaporisation
- Note that heat of vaporisation is ​much more than​ heat of fusion
- Because the particles must be completely free of each other to be in gas.
- Whereas in liquids, they are still very close together
- E​ : The substance is at ​gaseous state
- The energy input is being used to ​raise the temperature, ​just like in area A and C

A​ cooling curve​ is exactly like a heating curve, except the other way around. Gas to liquid to solid.

And we can see that T2 is the condensation point, which is the same temperature as the boiling point,
And that T1 is the freezing point which is the same temperature as the melting point.
 Evaporation

You need to know ​the process of evaporation, and the factors that affect evaporation.

Evaporation​ ​is ​not the same​ as boiling.

- Both are processes that change state from​ liquid to gas.
- However they are not the same.
- Boiling​ ​occurs at the ​boiling point of the liquid
- Evaporation ​below the boiling point of the liquid

- During ​boiling,​ all the particles have enough energy to break away from each other as a gas.
- when the temperature reaches the boiling point.
- At evaporation, only some of the particles have enough energy to escape.
- In a liquid, the temperature was said to be the average speed
- “Average” means some particles will be at energies above the boiling point, and some below.
- A particle will evaporate if they:
- Have ​high enough energy to escape the liquid
- Are​ at the surface​ of the liquid

- If the particle is not at the surface, it will lose energy as it moves up the liquid.
- And when it eventually reaches the surface, it won’t have enough energy to evaporate.

- And when particles with high energy escape the liquid,

- average of speed of the remaining particles decrease ​(as only the low energy particles are left)
- Meaning the ​temperature of the liquid decreases
- This shows the effect of cooling by evaporation,
- This how sweat cools down the body, by evaporating and taking the heat away from the body.

Three factors affect evaporation:

- Temperature
- Obviously, as the temperature increases, more particles will have high enough energy to escape
- As temperature increases, rate of evaporation increases
- Surface area of the liquid
- Larger surface area means the high-energy particles have more probability of being at the surface.
- As surface area increases, rate of evaporation increases

- Air movement
- Sometimes, the escaped particle has lost so much energy that it can fall back into the liquid.
- This is reversing the evaporation process, so it will decrease the overall rate of evaporation.
- A good flow of air ​removes ​the already-escaped particles, preventing it from falling back.
- As air movement increases, rate of evaporation increases
The syllabus says you should be able to, (SO check if you can):

- Describe qualitatively the thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases.

- Explain in terms of motion and arrangement of molecules the relative order of magnitude of the expansion of
solids, liquids and gases.
- Identify and explain some of the everyday applications and consequences of thermal expansion.
- Describe qualitatively the effect of a change of temperature on the volume of a gas at constant pressure.
- (Charles’ law)

- Demonstrate understanding of the term thermal capacity.

- Describe an experiment to measure the specific heat capacity of a substance.
- Recall and use the equation:
- energy = mass × specific heat capacity × change in temperature

- Describe melting and boiling in terms of energy input without a change in temperature.
- Describe condensation and solidification.
- State the meaning of melting point and boiling point.
- Use the terms latent heat of vaporisation and latent heat of fusion, and give a molecular interpretation of
latent heat.

- Distinguish between boiling and evaporation

- Describe evaporation in terms of the escape of more energetic molecules from the surface of a liquid.
- Relate evaporation to the consequent cooling.
- Demonstrate understanding of how temperature, surface area and air flow over a surface influence
evaporation.
 IGCSE Double Award Extended Coordinated Science
Physics 6 - Heat Transfer

Methods of Heat Transfer

You need to know​ what conduction, convection, and radiation is.

Heat transfer is a method of transferring heat energy from one place to another.
- There are three methods of heat transfer.
- Conduction, convection, and radiation.

Conduction
- This is occurs in solids, liquids, and in gases
- But mainly in ​solids​.

- Conduction occurs by particles physically contacting to their neighbouring particles.

- As heat is applied to a particle, they gain​ more kinetic energy

- They ​vibrate faster​ and further away from their stationary position
- As they do this they ​collide with their neighbouring particles
- Energy is transmitted to the neighbouring particle
- Now this particle has more energy and collides with its neighbouring particle
- And so on.
- Energy is passed along the rest of the particles

- Conduction is the main mode of heat transfer in solids because

- In solids, the particles are close together, so collision is easy to happen.
- If it was a gas, the particles would be so far away from each other that they would not often collide.

- Some substances conduct heat better than others, they are called ​good conductors ​of heat
- Like most metals.

- Some substances conduct heat poorly, and they are called ​insulators ​of heat
- Like wood and styrofoam
Convection
- This is occurs in fluids. - liquids and gases. ​Not in solids.

- Convection occurs by fluids changing density because of thermal expansion.

- Take a ‘pocket of air’ with five particles as an example.
- It thermally expands, occupying more volume - but the number of particles, hence the mass, is same.
- This means the ​density of the heated (expanded) gas is lower.
- This is the main logic behind convection.

- In a room with a heater, we can see ‘convection current’ cycles occurring because of the change in densities.

- The process is the same in a liquid, but except with ‘pockets’ of liquid particles

- As the particles must be able to move around separately, this mode of heat transfer is not possible in solids.
Radiation
- Radiation is a method of heat transfer through ​infra-red​ (IR) radiation ​(more on Unit P9).

- Infrared​ radiation an electromagnetic wave, meaning:

- It travels at the speed of light (300,000,000m/s)
- It ​does not need a medium​ to travel through (like light)
- It does not need particles (like conduction) to transfer energy.
- This is how the sun transfers heat energy to Earth,
- Space is a vacuum, it cannot be through conduction or convection.

- All objects emit infrared radiation

- And if hit by the radiation, the heat energy is ​absorbed.
- Some substances can​ reflect​ IR radiation
- And some are better ​emitters​ of IR radiation than others.

Reflect Absorb Emit

White / shiny Good Bad Bad

Black / dull Bad Good Good

For example, if two cans were painted white and black,

and hot water of was put into both cans under the same conditions,
the black can would emit more heat, and therefore lose​ cool down faster

Type of heat transfer Applications

Conduction Heating up a frying pan, touching a hot surface

Convection Heating a room with a heater, sub-oceanic currents

Infrared radiation Heat from a light bulb, heat from the sun

The syllabus says you should be able to, (SO check if you can):

- Explain heat transfer in solids in terms of molecular motion.

- Recognise convection as the main method of heat transfer in liquids and gases.
- Describe experiments to illustrate convection in liquids and gases.
- Relate convection in fluids to density changes.
- Recognise radiation as the method of heat transfer that does not require a medium to travel through.
- Identify infra-red radiation as the part of the electromagnetic spectrum often involved in heat transfer by
radiation.
- Describe experiments to show the properties of good and bad emitters and good and bad absorbers of
infra-red radiation.
- Identify and explain some of the everyday applications and consequences of conduction, convection and
radiation.
- Describe experiments to demonstrate the properties of good and bad conductors of heat.
 IGCSE Double Award Extended Coordinated Science
Physics 7 - Waves

Waves

You need to know ​a wave is:

- A method of transmission of energy without transferring matter in the direction of wave travel.

Waves transfer energy through ​vibrations of particles​.

- There are ​two types​ of waves, depending on the direction of the vibration of the particle.
- Transverse waves​ and ​longitudinal waves​.

Transverse waves
- Particles move ​perpendicular​ to the direction of the energy transfer (wave propagation).

- Transverse waves include light, radio waves, water waves.

Longitudinal waves
- Particles move ​parallel​ to the direction of the energy transfer (wave propagation).

- The area where the molecules are close together in an instant is called​ compression
- The area where the molecules are far apart in an instant is called​ rarefaction ​(pronounced rare-re-faction)

- Longitudinal waves include sound waves, seismic waves, and waves in compressed spring.

Some waves, like sound waves and water waves require a ​medium:
- A medium ​is the material which the wave travels through
Without a medium, these waves cannot propagate since there are no molecules to vibrate.

However, some waves, like electromagnetic waves including ​light​ and radiowaves, can travel​ without a medium​.
- This is why only electromagnetic waves can travel through space, and not sound
- In space there is a vacuum, so only waves that do not need a medium can travel
 Wave Properties

You need to know ​what ​amplitude​, ​wavelength​, ​frequency​, and ​velocity ​of a wave means.

A ​crest​ is the highest point of a wave, and a ​trough ​is the lowest point of a wave.

Amplitude​ :​ ​the maximum displacement of the particle from its “zero” position​.
- Which means it is the distance from the “zero” middle line to either the crest of the trough.

- Amplitude in a sound wave determines the ​volume. ​Higher amplitude means a higher volume.

Wavelength​ : ​the distance from one point on a wave to the same point on the next wave
- usually denoted by the greek letter delta ​(λ)
- which is equal to the distance from one ​trough​ to next, or the from one ​crest​ to the next.
- These are all one complete waves - all equaling the same length:

- On a longitudinal wave, the wavelength can be seen as the distance between the middle of compressions

Frequency​ : the number of waves passing a given point each​ ​second

- If in one second, 5 complete waves pass through, the frequency is 5waves/sec
- Frequency is measured in units of ​hertz (Hz) ​where ​1Hz​ = ​1wave/sec

Velocity​ : ​the speed of the travel of the wave ​- ​it can change depending on the medium.
- If the velocity of the wave is 330m/s (the case for sound in air)
- Energy is transferred to a distance of 330m away each second.

You need to know ​that the ​velocity​ is related to the ​frequency ​and the ​wavelength ​with a formula: ​v = f λ
- v = f ​ ​x ​ λ
- Velocity = frequency ​x​ wavelength
 Wave Behaviours

You need to know ​what ​reflection​ and ​refraction​ is - they are dealt in more detail in ​Unit P8

When a wave hits a surface, the wave​ ​reflects​ back.

It was said that the velocity of wave changes as the ​medium​ changes.
So when a wave crosses a boundary between ​media (​pl. of medium), the velocity of the wave changes.
- When a wave crosses the boundary ​at an angle,​ the change in velocity causes a​ change in direction
- This change in direction is called ​refraction

Both reflection and refraction ​is dealt in much more detail in relation to light wave in ​Unit P8
- So refer to ​Unit P8​ for further explanation.

The syllabus says you should be able to, (SO check if you can):
- Demonstrate understanding that wave motion transfers energy without transferring matter in the direction of wave
travel.
- Describe what is meant by wave motion as illustrated by vibration in ropes and springs and by experiments using water
waves.
- Recall and use the equation v = f λ
- State the meaning of and use the terms speed, frequency, wavelength and amplitude.
- Distinguish between transverse and longitudinal waves and give suitable examples.
- Identify how a wave can be reflected off a plane barrier and can change direction as its speed changes.
- Interpret reflection and refraction using wave theory.
 IGCSE Double Award Extended Coordinated Science
Physics 8 - Light

You need to know ​that light behaves like a​ wave​ and ​therefore can be reflected and refracted.

Reflection

You need to know ​how light is ​reflected.

Reflection​ occurs when a light rayse hits a surface, and it changes direction.

For light, this is how we can see objects

- light rays from the sun hit objects and are reflected into our eyes.

For light reflection on a ​plane mirror (​straight mirror​)​, ​you need to know:

- Incident ray​ : original ray of light that is being reflected on the mirror (direction towards mirror)
- Reflected ray​ : the ray of light that has been reflected off the mirror (direction away from mirror)
- Normal​ : the ​perpendicular​ line to the surface of reflection at the point of reflection.
- Angle of incidence (​i)​ ​: the angle between the ​incident ray and the ​normal
- Angle of reflection (​r) ​: the angle between the ​reflected ray and the ​normal

The equation you need to know it quite simple : ​angle of incidence = angle of reflection

Meaning any incoming incident ray of light is reflected at the same angle - like so:

And if the incident ray is perpendicular to the mirror (angle = 0) the reflection is also perpendicular (angle = 0)
 Refraction

You need to know ​how light is ​refracted​.

Refraction​ is the ​change in velocity ​of light as it passes from one medium to another medium
- Often results in change in direction (if incident ray is at an angle)

Light travels ​more slowly in denser media - ​e.g. velocity of light is higher in air than water.

- Incident ray​ : original ray of light that is being refracted (direction into the boundary of media)
- Reflected ray​ : the ray of light that has changed velocity - refracted (direction away from the boundary)
- Normal​ : the ​perpendicular​ line to the media boundary at the point of refraction.
- Angle of incidence (​i)​ ​: the angle between the ​incident ray and the ​normal
- Angle of refraction (​r) ​: the angle between the ​refracted ray and the ​normal

Of course, as the light ray changes direction: ​angle of refraction ≠ angle of incidence.
As light travels slower, it moves close to the normal (​decrease in angle of refraction in denser media​)
As light travels faster, it moves away from the normal (​increase in angle of refraction in less dense media​)
 Total Internal Reflection (TIR)

You need to know ​what ​total internal reflection ​is.

If light travels from a ​more dense​ medium to ​less dense​ medium, (e.g. from water to air) a phenomenon called
total internal reflection​ can occur - meaning ​all of the incident light is reflected back into the medium

​ ritical angle (​ ​c )​,

When the angle of incidence is ​equal​ to the c
- the ray is changes direction at the boundary so that it ​travels parallel to the boundary​.

So total internal reflection occurs if ​i > c ​(angle of incidence > critical angle)
- If ​i < c ​(angle of incidence < critical angle) instead, normal refraction occurs.

Use of Total Internal Reflection

TIR​ is used in fibre optics technology,

- Which uses fibre optics cables made from glass
- And transfers data using light waves

TIR is important in fibre optics, as the light wave must all be reflected back into the wire without being lost.
The wire is specially designed so the angle of incidence inside will never be less than the critical angle.

Fibre optics internet and endoscopes use this technology.

 Dispersion of Light

You need to know ​how light can be ​dispersed​ through a prism

Dispersion​ is when white light (containing all wavelengths) separates into different wavelengths - due to refraction
Wavelengths of light characterises the colour of the light, making white light separate into different colours.

Rays with shorter wavelengths (therefore high frequencies) are refracted more than those with longer wavelengths

So,​ blue​ light will be refracted more (larger angle of refraction) than ​red​ light.

In a prism, there are two points of refraction, so the difference in angle will be greater in the end.

When this occurs with all the wavelengths of light, the colours spread out into a ​spectrum of light.
- Which has “rainbow colour” with ROYGBIV.
- Infrared and ultraviolet light - which are also part of sunlight are also refracted in the extreme ends.
- More in infrared and ultraviolet light in ​Unit P9
 ​Lenses

You need to know ​the behaviour of light through different lenses.

There are two different types of lenses

- Convex​ lenses: which ​converge ​light rays
- Concave ​lenses: which ​diverge​ light rays

You need to know ​how to draw ray diagrams for the lenses.
- AND​ ​know​ these vocabulary:

Focal point ​(principal focus)​: ​point where the parallel light rays all focus to.
Focal length​ : the distance from the middle of the lens to the focal point
Image : ​the new image of the ​object​ formed by the light rays

Focal point for a ​concave​ lens is ​behind​ the lens - you have to extend the rays backwards to find this.
Draw a line from the middle of the lens and mark the focal point (F) and twice the focal point (2F) on either side

There were few words to describe the image formed:

- Real​ or ​virtual
- Real ​images are formed on the opposite side of the object
- They can be projected onto a screen
- Virtual​ images are formed on the same side of the object
- They cannot be projected onto a screen

- Upright​(also called erect)​ ​or​ inverted

- Upright​ images are “standing” in the same direction as the object
- Inverted ​images are “standing” ​upside down ​to the object

- Magnified​ or ​diminished
- Magnified​ images are larger than the object
- Inverted​ images are smaller than the object
Convex lens

Light rays change direction at the lens as they go through - and goes through at the focal point

1. Draw a parallel line from the top of the image through the focal point
2. Draw another light ray going straight through the centre of the lens.

And depending on the distance of the image from the lens, the image changes

Concave lens

Focal point for a ​concave​ lens is ​behind​ the lens - you have to extend the rays backwards to find this.
The syllabus says you should be able to, (SO check if you can):
- Describe the formation and characteristics of an optical image seen in a plane mirror.
- Perform simple constructions, measurements and calculations based on reflections in plane mirrors.
- Use the law: angle of incidence, i = angle of reflection, r

- Describe an experimental demonstration of the refraction of light.

- Describe, using ray diagrams, the passage of light through parallel-sided transparent material, indicating the angle of
incidence i and angle of refraction r.
- Describe the dispersion of light by a glass prism.
- State the meaning of critical angle.
- Identify and describe internal and total internal reflection using ray diagrams.
- Describe the action of optical fibres and their use in medicine and communications technology.

- Describe the action of a thin converging lens on a beam of light using ray diagrams.
- Use the terms principal focus and focal length.
- Draw ray diagrams to illustrate the formation of a real image by a single lens.
- Draw and interpret simple ray diagrams that illustrate the formation of real and virtual images by a single converging
lens.