Complex All
Complex All
1
Limit, Continuity, Differentiation
Definition of Complex Number: Let 𝑥 and 𝑦 be two real numbers. Then a number of the form 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑧
is called a complex number where 𝑖 = √−1.
And 𝑥 is called the real part of the complex number 𝑧 and 𝑦 is called the imaginary part of 𝑧 and these are
denoted by 𝑅𝑒 𝑧 and 𝐼𝑚 𝑧 respectively.
Note: The complex number 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 is also represented by the ordered pair of real numbers (𝑥, 𝑦), i.e.,
𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = (𝑥, 𝑦).
Definition of Conjugate: Let the complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦. Then the conjugate of 𝑧 is 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦 and is
denoted by 𝑧̅ i.e., if 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 then 𝑧̅ = 𝑥 – 𝑖𝑦.
# A complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 represents a point in the
complex plane i.e., 𝑅 plane (space) as shown in the figure 1.
# If 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 is a complex number denoted by the point P
then r, the length of OP where O is the origin is called the
modulas of z and is denoted by | 𝑧 |.
i.e., 𝑟 = | 𝑧 | = 𝑥 +𝑦 .
And if 𝜃 is the angle between the line OP and the real axis then 𝜃
is called argument or amplitude of 𝑧 and is denoted by arg 𝑧 or Figure 1
amp 𝑧.
And | 𝑧 | = |𝑧̅|
# If 𝑧 = 𝑟 𝑒 and 𝑧 = 𝑟 𝑒
Then
( )
𝑧 𝑧 =𝑟𝑟 𝑒
|𝑧 𝑧 |=|𝑟 𝑟 | = |𝑧 ||𝑧 |
And, arg (𝑧 𝑧 ) = 𝜃 + 𝜃 = arg 𝑧 + arg 𝑧
Similarly,
| |
=| |
provided |𝑧 | ≠ 0
𝑧 ± 𝑧 = (𝑥 ± 𝑥 ) + 𝚤(𝑦 ± 𝑦 ) = (𝑥 ± 𝑥 ) − 𝑖(𝑦 ± 𝑦 )
= (𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦 ) ± (𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦 ) = 𝑧 ± 𝑧
And, 𝑧 𝑧 = (𝑥 + 𝚤𝑦 )(𝑥 + 𝚤𝑦 ) = (𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑦 𝑦 ) + 𝚤(𝑥 𝑦 + 𝑥 𝑦 )
= (𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑦 𝑦 ) − 𝑖(𝑥 𝑦 + 𝑥 𝑦 )
= (𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦 )(𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦 ) = 𝑧 𝑧
And 𝑧̅̅ = 𝑧
Definition of Complex Variable: A variable 𝑧 which takes any value from a set of complex numbers is
called complex variable.
Problem: For any two complex number 𝑧 and 𝑧 prove that
(i) |𝑧 + 𝑧 | ≤ |𝑧 | + |𝑧 |
(ii) |𝑧 − 𝑧 | ≥ |𝑧 | − |𝑧 |
Proof:
(i) We have,
|𝑧 + 𝑧 | = (𝑧 + 𝑧 )(𝑧 + 𝑧 ) ∵ 𝑧 𝑧 = |𝑧 |
= (𝑧 + 𝑧 )(𝑧 + 𝑧 )
= 𝑧 𝑧 +𝑧 𝑧 +𝑧 𝑧 +𝑧 𝑧
= |𝑧 | + |𝑧 | + 𝑧 𝑧 + 𝑧 𝑧 ∵ 𝑧 + 𝑧̅ = 2𝑥 = 2𝑅𝑒(𝑧)
= |𝑧 | + |𝑧 | + 2 𝑅𝑒(𝑧 𝑧 )z=x+iy
≤ |𝑧 | + |𝑧 | + 2|𝑧 𝑧 | Re z =x≤√(x2+y2)=|z|
3
Limit, Continuity, Differentiation
= |𝑧 | + |𝑧 | + 2|𝑧 ||𝑧 |
= {|𝑧 | + |𝑧 |}
So, |𝑧 + 𝑧 | ≤ |𝑧 | + |𝑧 |
(ii) |𝑧 | = |(𝑧 − 𝑧 ) + 𝑧 | ≤ |𝑧 − 𝑧 | + |𝑧 |
Hence, |𝑧 − 𝑧 | ≥ |𝑧 | − |𝑧 |
LIMIT
Definition of Complex Functions: Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be two sets. A function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is a correspondence such
that by 𝑓 each elements of 𝐴 corresponds to a unique element of 𝐵.
Here we shall always consider the function 𝑓: 𝐶 → 𝐶, where 𝐶 is the set of complex numbers.
Definition of Limit: Let 𝑓(𝑧) be a function. A number 𝑙 is called the limit of 𝑓(𝑧) at 𝑧 = 𝑧 if for any 𝜀 > 0
There exists a 𝛿 > 0 (depending on 𝜀) such that |𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑙| < 𝜀 where 0 < |𝑧 − 𝑧 | < 𝛿.
i.e., 𝑓(𝑧) → 𝑙 as 𝑧 → 𝑧
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑙
→
Suppose 𝛿 = min 1, | |
Hence, lim → 𝑓 (𝑧 ) = 𝑧
lim → 𝑧 =𝑧 [Proved]
Similarly we can show that lim 𝑧 = 𝑧
→
Choose 𝜀 > 0. Then there exists 𝛿 > 0, 𝛿 > 0 such that|𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑙 | < , whenever 0 < |𝑧 − 𝑧 | < 𝛿
Let 𝛿 = min(𝛿 , 𝛿 )
Hence, for 0 < |𝑧 − 𝑧 | < 𝛿
|𝑙 − 𝑙 | = |𝑙 − 𝑓(𝑧) + 𝑓 (𝑧) − 𝑙 |
≤ |𝑙 − 𝑓 (𝑧)| + |𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑙 |
= |𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑙 | + |𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑙 |
< + =𝜀
Or, |𝑙 − 𝑙 | < 𝜀
Since 𝜀 is arbitrary,
|𝑙 − 𝑙 | = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑙 −𝑙 =0 𝑜𝑟 𝑙 =𝑙
Proof:
(i) Choose 𝜀 > 0
5
Limit, Continuity, Differentiation
Since lim 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝐴, so there exist 𝛿 > 0such that |𝑓(𝑧) − 𝐴| < whenever 0 < |𝑧 − 𝑧 | < 𝛿
→
Again since lim 𝑔(𝑧) = 𝐵, so there exist 𝛿 > 0 such that |𝑔(𝑧) − 𝐵| < whenever 0 < |𝑧 − 𝑧 | < 𝛿
→
Let, 𝛿 = min (𝛿 , 𝛿 )
So, for 0 < |𝑧 − 𝑧 | < 𝛿
|𝑓(𝑧) + 𝑔(𝑧) − (𝐴 + 𝐵 )| = |{𝑓(𝑧) − 𝐴} + {𝑔(𝑧) − 𝐵}|
≤ |𝑓(𝑧) − 𝐴| + |𝑔(𝑧) − 𝐵|
< + =𝜀
(ii) We get,
|𝑓(𝑧)𝑔(𝑧) − 𝐴𝐵| = |𝑓(𝑧)𝑔(𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑧)𝐵 + 𝑓(𝑧)𝐵 − 𝐴𝐵|
= |𝑓 (𝑧){𝑔(𝑧) − 𝐵} + 𝐵{𝑓 (𝑧) − 𝐴}|
≤ |𝑓(𝑧)||𝑔(𝑧) − 𝐵| + |𝐵||𝑓(𝑧) − 𝐴|
Since, lim → 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝐴, So there exists 𝛿 > 0 such that |𝑓(𝑧) − 𝐴| < 1 whenever 0 < |𝑧 − 𝑧 | < 𝛿
But |𝑓(𝑧)| − |𝐴| ≤ |𝑓(𝑧) − 𝐴|
∴ |𝑓(𝑧)| − |𝐴| < 1
Or |𝑓(𝑧)| < 1 + |𝐴|
Since lim 𝑔(𝑧) = 𝐵, so there exists 𝛿 > 0 such that |𝑔(𝑧) − 𝐵| < ( | |)
whenever 0 < |𝑧 − 𝑧 | < 𝛿 .
→
Since lim 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝐴, so there exists 𝛿 > 0 such that |𝑓(𝑧) − 𝐴| < (| |)
whenever 0 < |𝑧 − 𝑧 | < 𝛿.
→
Let 𝛿 = min (𝛿 , 𝛿 , 𝛿 )
So for 0 < |𝑧 − 𝑧 | < 𝛿
𝜀 𝜀
|𝑓(𝑧)𝑔(𝑧) − 𝐴𝐵| < (1 + |𝐴|) + |𝐵|
2(1 + |𝐴|) 2|𝐵|
= + =𝜀
|𝑓(𝑧)𝑔(𝑧) − 𝐴𝐵| < 𝜀 whenever 0 < |𝑧 − 𝑧 | < 𝛿
∴ lim 𝑓(𝑧)𝑔(𝑧) = 𝐴𝐵
→
(iii) We get,
1 1 |𝑔(𝑧) − 𝐵|
− =
𝑔 (𝑧 ) 𝐵 |𝐵||𝑔(𝑧)|
| |
Since lim 𝑔(𝑧) = 𝐵 ≠ 0, so there exists 𝛿 > 0 such that |𝑔(𝑧) − 𝐵| < for 0 < |𝑧 − 𝑧 | < 𝛿
→
| |
Again since lim 𝑔(𝑧) = 𝐵 so there exists 𝛿 > 0 such that |𝑔(𝑧) − 𝐵| < whenever 0 < |𝑧 − 𝑧 | <
→
𝛿 .
6
Limit, Continuity, Differentiation
( )
(iv) lim ( )
= lim 𝑓(𝑧). ( )
= lim 𝑓 (𝑧). lim ( )
→ → → →
= 𝐴. [By (ii) and (iii)]
=
[Proved]
𝒛
Example: Show that 𝐥𝐢𝐦 does not exist
𝒛→𝒛𝟎 𝒛
Solution: Let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
̅
Thenlim = lim
→ ( , )→( , )
̅
Since the two limits are unequal, so lim does not exist.
→
7
Limit, Continuity, Differentiation
CONTINUITY
Definition of Continuity: A function 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be continuous at 𝑧 if for any 𝜀 > 0 there exist
𝛿 > 0 (depending on 𝜀 and also on 𝑧 such that |𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑧 )| < 𝜀 whenever |𝑧 − 𝑧 | < 𝛿 or if lim 𝑓(𝑧) =
→
𝑓(𝑧 ) .
Definition of Uniformly Continuous: A function 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be uniformly continuous in a region 𝑅 if
for any 𝜀 > 0 there exist 𝛿 > 0 (depending on 𝜀, not at any point in R) such that |𝑓(𝑧 ) − 𝑓(𝑧 )| < 𝜀
whenever |𝑧 −𝑧 | < 𝛿 in R where 𝑧 , 𝑧 ∈ 𝑅
Properties:
If f(z) and g(z) are continuous at 𝒛𝟎 then,
(i) 𝒇(𝒛) ± 𝒈(𝒛) is continuous at 𝒛𝟎
(ii) 𝒇(𝒛)𝒈(𝒛) is continuous at 𝒛𝟎
𝒇(𝒛)
(iii) is continuous at 𝒛𝟎 , provided 𝒈(𝒛) ≠ 𝟎
𝒈(𝒛)
𝟏
Example: Show that 𝒇(𝒛) = is not uniformly continuous on the region |z|<1.
𝒛
Solution: If 𝑓(𝑧) is uniformly continuous in the region |𝑧| < 1 then for any 𝜀 > 0 there exist a δ>0
(depending on 𝜀) such that for any two points 𝑧 and 𝑧 in the region, |𝑓(𝑧 ) − 𝑓(𝑧 )| < 𝜀 whenever
|𝑧 − 𝑧 | < 𝛿.
Then |𝑧 − 𝑧 | = 𝛿 − = <𝛿
= −
= >𝜀 [∵ 𝛿 < 1]
This is contradiction. Hence 𝑓(𝑧) = is not uniformly continuous on the region |z|<1.
DIFFERENTIABILITY:
Definition of Differentiability: A function 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be differentiable at a point 𝑧 if
𝐿𝑖𝑚 ( ) ( ) 𝐿𝑖𝑚 ( ) ( )
exist and we write 𝑓 (𝑧 ) =
Δ𝑧 → 𝑧 Δ𝑧 → 𝑧
Here 𝑓′(𝑧 ) is called the derivative of 𝑓(𝑧) at 𝑧 .
If we put 𝑧 = 𝑧 + Δ𝑧
As 𝑧 → 𝑧 then Δ𝑧 → 0
𝐿𝑖𝑚 ( ) ( )
Then 𝑓′(𝑧 ) =
Δ𝑧 → 𝑧
Theorem: A function 𝒇(𝒛) which is differentiable at a point is also continuous there. But the converse
is not necessarily true.
Proof: Suppose 𝑓(𝑧) is differentiable at 𝑧 . Then,
𝐿𝑖𝑚 ( ) ( )
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = exist and a finite number.
Δ𝑧 → 𝑧
( ) ( )
Now, 𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑧 ) = × (𝑧 − 𝑧 )
𝐿𝑖𝑚 ( ) ( )
Since the two limits are unequal, so does not exist or 𝑓 (0) does not exist.
Δ𝑧 → 0
ANALYTIC FUNCTION
Definition of analytic function: Let 𝑓(𝑧) be a function define on region 𝑅. Then 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be analytic
in 𝑅 if it is differentiable at every point of 𝑅.
Definition: A function 𝑓(𝑧) is called analytic at a point 𝑧 if there exists a neighbourhood of 𝑧 such that
𝑓 (𝑧) exists at each point of the neighbourhood.
Example: Show that 𝒇(𝒛) = |𝒛|𝟐 is differentiable at z=0 but not analytic there.
Proof: Here 𝑓 (𝑧) = |𝑧|
( ) ( ) | |
Then, lim → = lim →
| |
= lim →
10
Limit, Continuity, Differentiation
̅
= lim →
= lim → 𝑧̅ = 0
Hence f(z) is differentiable at z=0
Choose any point 𝑧 ≠ 0, and consider the limit:
𝑓(𝑧 + Δ𝑧) − 𝑓 (𝑧 )
lim
→ Δ𝑧
| | | |
= lim
→
( ) ( )
= lim where, Δ𝑧 = Δ𝑥 + 𝑖Δ𝑦
→
𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
( ) ( )
= lim
→ , →
( )
= lim
→
= lim = = −2𝑖𝑦
→
( )
= lim
→
If 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) defined in a region R, then = and =− are called C-R equations.
11
Limit, Continuity, Differentiation
[{ ( , ) ( , )} { ( , ) ( , )}]
= lim → , →
Must exist independent of manner in which Δ𝑧 approaches zero (or Δ𝑥, Δ𝑦 approaches zero).
Consider the path Δ𝑥 = 0, Δ𝑦 → 0, then
( , ) ( , ) { ( , ) ( , )}
limit = lim →
( , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( , )
= lim → + lim
→
= +
= -i +
= –i
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= +𝑖
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
Since 𝑓′(𝑧) exists, above two limits must be equal. Hence
−𝑖 = +𝑖
Equating the real and imaginary part from both sides we get:
= and =−
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
Δ𝑣 = +𝜀 Δ𝑥 + +𝜂 Δ𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
= Δ𝑥 + Δ𝑦 + 𝜀 Δ𝑥 + 𝜂 Δ𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Where 𝜀 → 0 𝑎𝑠 Δ𝑥 → 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜂 → 0 𝑎𝑠 Δ𝑦 → 0
Hence, Δ𝑤 = Δ𝑢 + 𝑖Δ𝑣
= +𝑖 Δ𝑥 + +𝑖 Δ𝑦 + (𝜀 + 𝑖𝜀 )Δ𝑥 + (𝜂 + 𝑖𝜂 )Δ𝑦
= +𝑖 Δ𝑥 + +𝑖 Δ𝑦 + 𝜀Δ𝑥 + 𝜂Δ𝑦
Where 𝜀 = 𝜀 + 𝑖𝜀 → 0 𝑎𝑠 Δ𝑥 → 0
And 𝜂 = 𝜂 + 𝑖𝜂 → 0 𝑎𝑠 Δ𝑦 → 0
= +𝑖 Δ𝑥 + − +𝑖 Δ𝑦 + 𝜀Δ𝑥 + 𝜂Δ𝑦
= +𝑖 Δ𝑥 + 𝑖 +𝑖 Δ𝑦 + 𝜀Δ𝑥 + 𝜂Δ𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
∴ Δ𝑤 = +𝑖 (Δ𝑥 + 𝑖Δ𝑦) + 𝜀Δ𝑥 + 𝜂Δ𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
Δ𝑤 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜀Δ𝑥 + 𝜂Δ𝑦
∴ = +𝑖 +
Δ𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 Δ𝑧
i.e., lim → =0
similarly, lim → =0
13
Limit, Continuity, Differentiation
So, lim → =0
Hence, lim = +𝑖
→
Therefore, = 𝑓′(𝑧) exist at each point of the region R, and hence f(z) is analytic in R.
Note: 𝑓 (𝑧) = +𝑖 = −𝑖
= =−
= =−
Definition of Harmonic Function: A function which satisfy Laplace’s equation is called harmonic
function.
Note: So u is called harmonic function, similarly v is called harmonic function. u is called harmonic
conjugate of v and v is called harmonic conjugate of u.
𝒙𝟑 (𝟏 𝒊) 𝒚𝟑 (𝟏 𝒊)
, 𝒂𝒕 𝒛 ≠ 𝟎
Example: Show that𝒇(𝒛) = 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐 is continuous everywhere. Also show that the C-R
𝟎 𝒂𝒕 𝒛 ≠ 𝟎
equations are satisfied at origin, but is not analytic there.
Proof:
Part1:
Let 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣
Now for 𝑧 ≠ 0
𝒙𝟑 (𝟏 + 𝒊) − 𝒚𝟑 (𝟏 − 𝒊)
𝑓 (𝑧 ) =
𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐
𝑥 −𝑦 𝑥 +𝑦
= +𝑖
𝑥 +𝑦 𝑥 +𝑦
=0 at (0,0)
=0 at (0,0)
14
Limit, Continuity, Differentiation
| |
⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑦 ≥ 𝑥𝑦
≤ | |
∵ |𝑥| + |𝑦| ≤ √2|𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦|
= 2|𝑥 − 𝑦|
= √2 𝑥 + 𝑦
≤ 2(|𝑥| + |𝑦|) ≤ 4 𝑥 + 𝑦
Consider, 𝛿 = , then =2 𝑥 +𝑦
( , ) ( , ) ( )
= lim → = lim → ( )
= −1
,
( , ) ( , ) ( )
= lim → = lim → ( )
=1
,
( , ) ( , ) ( )
= lim → = lim → ( )
= −1
,
Thus = and =−
( ) ( )
= lim → , → ( )( )
( )
= lim → , → ( )( )
Similarly = =0
, ,
Hence, = and =−
Hence ≠− when 𝑦 ≠ 0
More over at 𝑧 = 0, ≠
Example: Let 𝒖 = 𝟑𝒙𝟐 𝒚 + 𝟐𝒙𝟐 − 𝒚𝟑 − 𝟐𝒚𝟐. Show that u is harmonic and find its harmonic conjugate
v. Then find𝒇(𝒛) = 𝒖 + 𝒊𝒗 in terms of z.
Solution: Here 𝑢 = 3𝑥 𝑦 + 2𝑥 − 𝑦 − 2𝑦
𝜕𝑢
= 6𝑥𝑦 + 4𝑥
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢
= 3𝑥 − 3𝑦 − 4𝑦
𝜕𝑦
𝜕 𝑢
= 6𝑦 + 4
𝜕𝑥
𝜕 𝑢
= −6𝑦 − 4
𝜕𝑦
Hence + =0
𝜕𝑣
∴ = 6𝑥𝑦 + 4𝑥
𝜕𝑦
17
Limit, Continuity, Differentiation
Example: Show that 𝒖 = 𝒙𝟑 − 𝟑𝒙𝒚𝟐 + 𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟑𝒚𝟐 + 𝟏 is harmonic. Find the analytic f(z)=u+ivin
terms of z.
Solution: Here 𝑢 = 𝑥 − 3𝑥𝑦 + 3𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 1
= 3𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 6𝑥 = φ (𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑠𝑎𝑦
𝜕 𝑢
= 6𝑥 + 6
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢
= −6𝑥𝑦 − 6𝑦 = 𝜑 (𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑠𝑎𝑦
𝜕𝑦
𝜕 𝑢
= −6𝑥 − 6
𝜕𝑦
Hence + = 6𝑥 + 6 − 6𝑥 − 6 = 0
Proof:𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
(𝑢 + 𝑣 ) + (𝑢 + 𝑣 ) =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
⇒ (𝑢 + 𝑣 ) + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
⇒ + =0 [∵ (𝑢 + 𝑣 ) ≠ 0]
⇒ |𝑓 (𝑧)| = 0
i.e., 𝑓 (𝑧) = 0
∴ 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝝏𝟐 𝝏𝟐
Example: Show that 𝟐
+ |𝒇(𝒛)|𝟐 = 𝟒|𝒇 (𝒛)|𝟐 when f(z) is analytic functions.
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚𝟐
|𝑓(𝑧)| = 2 +2 + 2𝑢 + 2𝑣 ___________________(1)
Similarly,
𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕 𝑢 𝜕 𝑣
|𝑓(𝑧)| = 2 +2 + 2𝑢 + 2𝑣
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
+ |𝑓(𝑧)| = 4 + + 2𝑢 + + 2𝑣 + ______________(3)
+ =0 and + =0
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
+ |𝑓(𝑧)| = 4 + = 4|𝑓 (𝑧)|
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝝏𝟐 𝝏𝟐 𝝏𝟐 𝝏𝟐 𝝏𝟐
General Formula: Show that + =𝟒 𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞 𝒛 = 𝒙 + 𝒊𝒚 provided = .
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒚𝟐 𝝏𝒛𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒙𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒚𝝏𝒙
Now = +
= −𝑖
And, = + = +𝑖
̅ ̅ ̅
𝝏𝟐 1 𝜕 𝜕 1 𝜕 𝜕
∴ = −𝑖 +𝑖
𝝏𝒛𝝏𝒛 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
1 𝝏𝟐 𝝏𝟐
= +
4 𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒚𝟐
∴ + =4 [Proved]
̅
𝝏𝟐 𝝏𝟐
Example: Show that 𝟐 +
|𝒇(𝒛)|𝒌 = 𝒌𝟐 |𝒇(𝒛)|𝒌 𝟐 |𝒇(𝒛)|𝟐 where f(z) is analytic function.
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚𝟐
Solution:We get,
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
+ |𝑓(𝑧)| = 4 {|𝑓(𝑧)| }
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑧̅
=4 ̅
𝑓 (𝑧)𝑓(𝑧)
=4 ̅
{𝑓 (𝑧) 𝑓 (𝑧) }
= 𝑘 𝑓 (𝑧 ) 𝑓 (𝑧̅) 𝑓′(𝑧)𝑓′(𝑧̅)
= 𝑘 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑓(𝑧) |𝑓 (𝑧)|
If 𝑓(𝑧) = ( ) ( )
then
For example,
sin 𝑧
𝑓 (𝑧 ) =
𝑧
𝑧 = 0 is a singular point.
But lim → =1
For example,
21
Limit, Continuity, Differentiation
1 1
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 ∴ 𝑓 =
𝑤 𝑤
𝐿𝑖𝑚
Proof of (5) : by definition ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑 𝑧 = ∑𝑛 𝑓(𝜉𝑘 )∆𝑧𝑘
𝑛 →∝ 𝑘=1
Now, ∑ 𝑓(𝜉 )∆𝑧 ≤ ∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝑓 𝜉 |∆𝑧𝑘 |
≤ 𝑀∑ |∆ 𝑧 |
≤ 𝑀𝐿
As ∑ |∆ 𝑍 | is the sum of all chord length which must be less than the length of the curve. Taking limit
on both side as n tends to infinity we have by definition
| 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧| ≤ 𝑀𝐿
Definition: A closed curve which does not intersect itself is called a simple closed curve.
Definition: A region R is called simply connected region if every simple closed curve in R can be shrank to
a point without leaving R . Otherwise R is called multiply connected region.
Greens Theorem: If 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) and 𝑄(𝑥, 𝑦) are continuous and have continuous partial derivatives inside and
on a simple closed curve 𝐶 Then ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑥 + 𝑄𝑑𝑦 = ∬ − 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 where 𝑅 is the region bounded by
𝐶.
The theorem is valid for both simply and multiply-connected regions.
22
Complex Integration
Ex : Prove Green’s theorem in the plane if C is a simple closed curve which has the property that any
straight line parallel to the coordinate axes cuts C in at most two points
Proof:
Let the equation of the curve EGF and EHF be 𝑦 = 𝑌 (𝑥) and
𝑦 = 𝑌 (𝑥) respectively then,
∬ ( 𝑑𝑦)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ [∫ 𝑑𝑦]𝑑𝑥
( )
=∫ 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) | ( ) 𝑑𝑥
=− 𝑃𝑑𝑥
Now let the equation of the curve GEH and GFH be 𝑥 = 𝑋 (𝑦) and 𝑥 = 𝑋 (𝑦) respectively
Thus, ∬ 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = ∫ ∫ 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
= ∫ [𝑄(𝑥 , 𝑦) − 𝑄(𝑥 , 𝑦)]𝑑𝑦
= ∫ 𝑄(𝑥 , 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 + ∫ 𝑄(𝑥 , 𝑦)𝑑𝑦
= ∮ 𝑄𝑑𝑦
=∬ ( (1 − 2𝑥)𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
√
=∫ ∫ (1 − 2𝑥)𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
=∫ (𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑦)|√ dx
=∫ (𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 𝑥 + 2𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
=
Hence the Green’s theorem is verified.
Ex : Extend the proof Green’s theorem in the plane to the curve C for which lines parallel to the coordinate
axes may cut C in more than two points
Solution :
Consider a simple closed curve C such as shown
in the figure in which lines parallel to the axes
may meet C in more than two points. By
constructing line ST, the region is divided into
two regions R1 and R2 whose boundaries are
STUS and SVTS respectively which are of the
type that any straight line parallel to the
coordinate axes cuts C and C2 atmost
most two points
and for which Green’s theorem applies, i.e.
∮ 𝑝𝑑𝑥 + 𝑄𝑑𝑦 = ∬ − 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 ……………………..………(1)
+ = + + + = + =
+ =
Then
𝛿𝑄 𝛿𝑝
𝑝𝑑𝑥 + 𝑄𝑑𝑦 = − 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑦
and the theorem is proved.
NB: We have proved Green’s theorem for the simply-connected region bounded by the simple closed curve
C. For more complicated regions, it may be necessary to construct more lines, such as ST, to establish the
theorem.
Green’s theorem is also true for multiply-connected regions.
Theorem (Cauchy’s theorem) : If 𝑓(𝑥) is analytic inside and on a simple closed curve C and if 𝑓′(𝑧) is
continuous Then
∮ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0
Lem ma 1: (i) ∮ 𝑑𝑧
(ii) ∮ 𝑧𝑑𝑧
( ) ( )
Lem ma 2: Given any ε > 0 , it is possi ble to d ivide the region in side 𝐶 into finite num bers of m ashes either complete or partial squares such that w ithin each m esh there exist a point z0 where − f (z ) < 𝜀 for all values of 𝑧 in the mesh.
Let C be the curve with end poin ts a and b D ivided c by the poin ts a = z1,z2 ,z3… ..zn= b then,
= lim ∑ (𝑧 − 𝑧 )
= lim (𝑧 − 𝑧 )
= b-a
Since is the closed curve so a= b
∴ 𝑑𝑧 = 0
Since c is closed so a= b
∴ 𝑧𝑑𝑧 = 0
P roof of lemma 2:
Consi der the square 𝑆 is in closing 𝐶. Divides 𝑆 into fin ite numbers of small equal squares. Then the region in side 𝐶 is divided int o fini te num ber of m ashes ( either complete or partial squares).
( ) ( )
Suppo se − 𝑓 (𝑧 ) | <∈ fails at least on one mesh, then s ub div ide the m esh by joining it s midpoin t of si des of these st ill rem ain any parts which don ’t sat isfy (i) we again sub div ided it in the sam e way. The process may end after a finite number of steps when (i) is sat isfied for every sub divisi on or the process m ay go on indefinitely .
in the 2nd case we get a decreasing square of meshes inside here (i) is not satisfied. T hen there exist a po int 𝑧 inside each m esh of the sequence
()– ( )
such that − 𝑓 (𝑧) ≮ 𝜀 ; whenever |𝑧 − 𝑧 | is very small.
This im plies that 𝑓(𝑧 ) is not analy tic at 𝑧 which is a po int insi de 𝐶 or on 𝐶 . This g ives a contradiction. S o the lem ma is proved.
[ ∵ ∫ =−∫ ]
= ∫ ∆ + ∫∆ + ∫ ∆ + ∫ ∆
Hence , ∫∆ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 ≤ ∫∆ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∫∆ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∫∆ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∫∆ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
Let ∆ represents that triangle above four so that ∫∆ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 is the largest ( if these are more triangles
with these property then we can choose any one of them ∆ )
Thus , ∫∆ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 ≤ 4 ∫∆ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
Now joining the midpoints of the triangle ∆ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 proceeding as above we obtain a triangle ∆
So that ∫∆ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 ≤ 4 ∫∆ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
Proceeding similarly we obtain a sequence of triangle {∆ }
Such that , ∆> ∆ > ∆ >………..
And ∫∆ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 ≤ 4 ∫∆ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
Then there exist a point 𝑧 such that 𝑧 ∈ ∆ for each 𝑘 = 1,2, … . . 𝑛.
Since 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic at 𝑧 then for any 𝜀 > 0 there exist 𝛿 > 0 such that
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑧 ) + 𝑓 ‘(𝑧 ) (𝑧 − 𝑧 ) + ɳ(𝑧 − 𝑧 ) ; where |ɳ| < 𝜀 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 |𝑧 − 𝑧 | < 𝛿
∫∆ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑧 ) ∫∆ 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑓′(𝑧 )∫∆ (𝑧 − 𝑧 )𝑑𝑧 + ∫∆ ɳɳ(𝑧 − 𝑧 )𝑑𝑧
= ∫∆ ɳɳ(𝑧 − 𝑧 )𝑑𝑧 ; by (i) and (ii)
Now for any 𝑧 on ∆ |𝑧 − 𝑧 | < ; where p is the perimeter of ∆.
Now |ɳ(𝑧 − 𝑧 )| = |ɳ||(𝑧 − 𝑧 )| < 𝜀 .
Choose 𝑛 sufficiently large so that < 𝛿.
Then ∫∆ ɳɳ(𝑧 − 𝑧 )𝑑𝑧 < 𝜀 ; when ever |𝑧 − 𝑧 | < < 𝛿
Ex. If 𝑓(𝑧) is a analytic inside and on the region bounded by 𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 as shown by the figure. Then
∮ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∮ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
Proof : Let ABCDA represent the curve 𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝐹𝐺𝐻 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶 .
Construct a cross cut AE then AEHGFEABCDA becomes a closed curve.
Moreover 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic inside and on the region. Then by Cauchy’s
theorem
∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0
⇒∫ + ∫ + ∫ + ∫ =0
⇒ ∮ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 − ∮ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0
∴ ∮ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∮ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
Ex : Suppose 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in a simply-connected region 𝑅. Prove that ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 is independent of the
path in 𝑅 joining any two points 𝑎 and 𝑏 in 𝑅.
Proof: Consider the two paths 𝐶 = 𝐴𝐷𝐵 and 𝐶 = 𝐴𝐸𝐵 from 𝑎 to 𝑏 in 𝑅 as shown by the figure. Now we
have to show that
∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
Clearly 𝐴𝐸𝐵𝐷𝐴 is a simple closed curve in 𝑅 Then by Cauchy’s
theorem
∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0
or, ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0
or, ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 − ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0
or, ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 − ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0
or, 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
27
Cauchy’s Integral Formulas and Related Theorems
Cauchys Integral Formula: If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic inside and on a simple closed curve 𝐶 and 𝑎 is any point inside
𝐶. Then,
1 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑧−𝑎
( )
Proof: Construct a circle Γ inside 𝐶 with centre at 𝑎 and radius 𝑟. Then is analytic inside the region
bounded by Γ and 𝐶 and also on the boundary. Then by cauchys theorem for simple connected region we get
( ) ( )
∮ 𝑑𝑧 = ∮ 𝑑𝑧 ……………………………………(𝑖)
Now on Γ
|𝑧 − 𝑎| = 𝑟
i.e.,
𝑧 − 𝑎 = 𝑟𝑒
i.e.,
𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑟𝑒 ⇒ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖 𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝜃 where 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋
Hence
𝑓(𝑧) 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑟𝑒
𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝜃
𝑧−𝑎 𝑟𝑒
i.e.,
𝑓(𝑧)
𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑟𝑒 )𝑑𝜃 [𝑏𝑦(𝑖)]
𝑧−𝑎
= 2𝜋𝑖 𝑓(𝑎)
28
Cauchy’s Integral Formulas and Related Theorems
Hence
1 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑧−𝑎
0 if 𝑎 is outside 𝐶
Ex. Show that ∮ =
2𝜋𝑖 if 𝑎 is inside 𝐶
𝑑𝑧
=0 [𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑]
𝑧−𝑎
1 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑧−𝑎
i. e.,
1 𝑑𝑧
1=
2𝜋𝑖 𝑧−𝑎
i. e.,
𝑑𝑧
= 2𝜋𝑖
𝑧−𝑎
Theorem: If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic inside and on a simple closed curve 𝐶 and 𝑎 is any pint inside 𝐶, Then
1 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓′(𝑎) = 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 (𝑧 − 𝑎)²
1 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) = 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑧−𝑎−ℎ
And
1 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑧−𝑎
29
Cauchy’s Integral Formulas and Related Theorems
Now
𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑎) 1 1 1
= − 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
ℎ ℎ2𝜋𝑖 𝑧−𝑎−ℎ 𝑧−𝑎
1 ℎ
= 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧
ℎ2𝜋𝑖 (𝑧 − 𝑎 − ℎ)(𝑧 − 𝑎)
1 (𝑧 − 𝑎)
= 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 (𝑧 − 𝑎 − ℎ)(𝑧 − 𝑎)
1 (𝑧 − 𝑎 − ℎ) + ℎ
= 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 (𝑧 − 𝑎 − ℎ)(𝑧 − 𝑎)
( ) ( )
= ∮ 𝑑𝑧 + ∮ 𝑑𝑧
( )² ( )( )²
Construct a circle Γ is side C with centre at 𝑎 and radius 𝑟. Choose |ℎ| small enough so that 𝑎 + ℎ lies inside Γ
and |ℎ| < . Since 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic inside and on 𝐶. So |𝑓(𝑧)| < 𝑀 for some +ve integer M. Now on Γ,
|𝑧 − 𝑎| = 𝑟
𝑟 𝑟
|𝑧 − 𝑎 − ℎ| ≥ |𝑧 − 𝑎| − |ℎ| > 𝑟 − =
2 2
Hence
2𝑀|ℎ|
= → 0 𝑎𝑠 ℎ → 0
𝑟²
Hence
i.e.,
1 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧
𝑓 (𝑎) =
2𝜋𝑖 (𝑧 − 𝑎)²
30
Cauchy’s Integral Formulas and Related Theorems
(Proved)
Cauchys general integral formula: If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic inside and on a simple closed curve 𝐶 and 𝑎 is any point
inside C. Then
𝑛! 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 (𝑎) = 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 (𝑧 − 𝑎)
Proof: We use the method of induction. The formula holds for 𝑛 = 0 [𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑐ℎ𝑦𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎]
By the preceding theorem this formula holds for 𝑛 = 1 ( একটা অ ত দখােত হেব)
(𝑚 − 𝑎)! 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 (𝑎) = 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 (𝑧 − 𝑎)
𝑓 (𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑓 (𝑎) (𝑚 − 1)! 1 1
= − 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧
ℎ ℎ2𝜋𝑖 (𝑧 − 𝑎 − ℎ) (𝑧 − 𝑎)
(𝑚 − 1)! 1 1
= − 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧
ℎ2𝜋𝑖 (𝑧 − 𝑎) (1 − ) (𝑧 − 𝑎)
(𝑚 − 1)! 1 ℎ
= 1− − 1 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧
ℎ2𝜋𝑖 (𝑧 − 𝑎) 𝑧−𝑎
(𝑚 − 1)! 𝑚 𝑚(𝑚 + 1) ℎ
= + + ⋯ + ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 ℎ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
ℎ2𝜋𝑖 (𝑧 − 𝑎) 2! (𝑧 − 𝑎)
𝑓 (𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑓 (𝑎)
lim
→ ℎ
(𝑚 − 1)! 𝑚 𝑚(𝑚 + 1)ℎ
= lim + + ⋯ ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 ℎ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
→ 2π𝑖 (𝑧 − 𝑎) 2! (𝑧 − 𝑎)
i.e.,
31
Cauchy’s Integral Formulas and Related Theorems
(𝑚 − 1)! 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 (𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 (𝑧 − 𝑎)
i.e.,
𝑚! 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 (𝑎) = 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 (𝑧 − 𝑎)
i.e., the formula holds for n=m. Hence by the method of inductions the formula holds for all +ve integer n.
Cauchys inequality: If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic inside and on a circle 𝐶 with centre at 𝑎 and radius 𝑟 and if
|𝑓(𝑧)| < 𝑀 on C. then
𝑀𝑛!
|𝑓 | ≤
𝑟
𝑛! 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 (𝑎) = 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 (𝑧 − 𝑎)
Hence
𝑛! 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑛! 𝑀
|𝑓 (𝑎)| = 𝑑𝑧 ≤ 2𝜋𝑟
2𝜋𝑖 (𝑧 − 𝑎) 2𝜋 𝑟
i.e.,
!
|𝑓 (𝑎)| ≤ [𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑]
Gauss mean value theorem: If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic inside and on a circle 𝐶 with centre at 𝑎 and radius 𝑟, then
𝑓(𝑎) = ∫ 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝜃
1 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑧−𝑎
On 𝐶,
𝑧 − 𝑎 = 𝑟𝑒
32
Cauchy’s Integral Formulas and Related Theorems
i. e.,
𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝜃
1 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝜃
𝑓(𝑎) =
2𝜋𝑖 𝑟𝑒
1
= 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋
Ex. If in a region R, ∮ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0 for every simple closed curve 𝐶.Then for any two points 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅 .
∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 is independent of path in the region.
Proof: Let 𝐴 = 𝑎 and 𝐵 = 𝑏 two points in the region and let ACD and ABD be two paths on the region from A
to B. Then ABCDA is a simple closed curve in the region. By the given
condition
𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0
Or, ∫ +∫ =0
=− =
Moreras Theorem (convert to Cauchys theorem): If 𝑓(𝑧) is continuous on a simple connected region 𝑅 and
if ∮ 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 0 for every simple closed curve 𝐶 in 𝑅. Then 𝑓(𝑧) analytic in 𝑅.
𝐹(𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑢) 𝑑𝑢
Choose 𝑧 + ∆𝑧 in 𝑅. Then
33
Cauchy’s Integral Formulas and Related Theorems
∆
𝐹(𝑧 + ∆𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑢) 𝑑𝑢
Now
( ∆ ) ( ) ∆
− 𝑓(𝑧)= ∫ 𝑓 (𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 − ∫ 𝑓 (𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 − 𝑓(𝑧)
∆ ∆
∆
= ∫ 𝑓 (𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 − 𝑓(𝑧)
∆
∆
= ∫ 𝑓 (𝑢) − 𝑓 (𝑧) 𝑑𝑢 [Here z is constant and u is
∆
variable]
∆
Since ∮ 𝑓(𝑢)𝑑𝑢 = 0 for all simple closed curve 𝐶 in 𝑅. So ∮ {𝑓(𝑢) − 𝑓(𝑧)} is independent of path in 𝑅
so long as the path inside 𝑅.
So we can choose a path as a straight line. We also choose |∆𝑧| sufficiently small so that the line z to 𝑧 + ∆𝑧
lies in R. Since 𝑓(𝑢) is continuous at 𝑧, So for any 𝑢 on this straight line and any 𝜀 > 0 There exist a 𝛿 > 0
such that
Which will certainly hold if |∆𝑧| < 𝛿. i.e., |𝑓(𝑢) − 𝑓(𝑧)| < 𝜀 whenever |Δ𝑧| < 𝛿
Hence
∆
𝐹(𝑧 + ∆𝑧) − 𝐹(𝑧) 1 𝜀
− 𝑓(𝑧) = {𝑓(𝑢) − 𝑓(𝑧)}𝑑𝑢 < |∆𝑧|
∆𝑧 ∆𝑧 |∆𝑧|
i.e.,
𝐹′(𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑧)
∴ 𝐹(𝑧) is differentiable at every point 𝑧 in 𝑅. Hence 𝐹(𝑧) is analytic in 𝑅 and so 𝐹′(𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in 𝑅.
Maximum modulas theorem: If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic inside and on a simple closed curve 𝐶.Then the maximum
value of |f(z)| ocuurs on C unless 𝑓(𝑧) is a constant.
34
Cauchy’s Integral Formulas and Related Theorems
Proof: Since 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic and hence continuous inside and on 𝐶, it
follows that |𝑓(𝑧)| has a maximum value M for at least one value of z inside
or on 𝐶. Suppose this maximum value s not attained on the boundary of
𝐶 but it is attained at an interior point 𝑎, is |𝑓(𝑎)| = 𝑀. Let 𝐶 be a circle
inside 𝐶 with centre at 𝑎 enclosing the point 𝑏 such that |𝑓(𝑏)| < 𝑀.
𝜀 𝜀 𝜀
|𝑓(𝑧)| − |𝑓(𝑏)| < =𝑀−𝜀+ =𝑀− whenever |𝑧 − 𝑏| < 𝛿
2 2 2
Construct a circle 𝐶 inside 𝐶 with centre at 𝑏 and radius 𝛿. then for all 𝑧 inside 𝐶
𝜀
|𝑓(𝑧)| < 𝑀 −
2
Now construct a circle 𝐶 with centre at a and radius = |𝑎 − 𝑏|. Then by gauss mean value theorem
1
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋
1 1
= 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝜃 + 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋 2𝜋
i.e.,
|𝑓(𝑎)| ≤ ∫ 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝜃 + ∫ 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝜃
i.e.,
|𝑓(𝑎)| ≤ 𝑀− 𝛼+ (2𝜋 − 𝛼)
𝜀𝛼
=𝑀−
4𝜋
i.e.,
|𝑓(𝑎)| = 𝑀 ≤ 𝑀 −
Proof: Let 𝑎 and 𝑏 be any two points in the complex plane. Construct a circle C with centre at 𝑎 and radius 𝑟
enclosing 𝑏. Hence 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic inside and on 𝐶. So by Cauchys integral
formula
1 1 1
𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎) = − 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑧−𝑏 𝑧−𝑎
1 𝑏−𝑎
= 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 (𝑧
( − 𝑎)(𝑧 − 𝑏)
Then on 𝐶, |𝑧 − 𝑎| = 𝑟 and
𝑟 𝑟
|𝑧 − 𝑏| = |(𝑧 − 𝑎) − (𝑏 − 𝑎)| ≥ |𝑧 − 𝑎
𝑎| − |𝑏 − 𝑎| > 𝑟 − =
2 2
Therefore,
1 (𝑏 − 𝑎) 1 |𝑏 − 𝑎|𝑀 2𝑀|𝑏 − 𝑎|
|𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎)| = 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 ≤ 2𝜋𝑟 =
2𝜋𝑖 (𝑧 − 𝑎)(𝑧 − 𝑏) 2𝜋 𝑟. 𝑟
i.e.,
| |
|𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎)| ≤ → 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑟 → ∞
Hence
𝑓(𝑏
𝑏) = 𝑓(𝑎)
Proof: Suppose the equation has no root. Then 𝑃(𝑧) ≠ 0 for all complex number. Then 𝑓(𝑧) = is analytic
( )
on the enire complex plane. more over 𝑓(𝑧) is bounded for all 𝑧. In fact |𝑓(𝑧)| tends to zero as |𝑧| →∝.
Hence by Liouvilles theorem 𝑓(𝑧) is must be constant i.e., is constant and so P(z) is constant. But this is a
( )
contradiction as 𝑛 ≥ 1
Argument Theorem: If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic inside and on a simple closed curve 𝐶 except for a pole at 𝛼 of order 𝑝
and only one zero at 𝛽 of other n inside C. Then
1 𝑓 (𝑧)
𝑑𝑧 = 𝑛 − 𝑝
2𝜋𝑖 𝑓(𝑧)
Proof: Construct two circles 𝐶 and 𝐶 with centre at 𝛼 and 𝛽 respectively so that they lie insde 𝐶 and they do
not intersect each other.
( )
Then is analytic in the multiply connected region bounded by 𝐶 ,
( )
𝐶 and 𝐶. So by cauchys Theorem for multiply connected region
( ) ( ) ( )
⇒ ∮ 𝑑𝑧 = ∮ 𝑑𝑧 + ∮ 𝑑𝑧
( ) ( ) ( )
…………………………………..….…..(i)
( )
𝑓(𝑧) = ……………………………(ii)
( )
where 𝐹(𝑧) is analytic inside and on 𝐶 and contain no zero inside and on 𝐶 .
𝑓′(𝑧) 𝐹′(𝑧) 𝑝
= −
𝑓(𝑧) 𝐹(𝑧) 𝑧 − 𝛼
37
Cauchy’s Integral Formulas and Related Theorems
Hence We know
( )
( ) ( ) 𝑓(𝑎) = ∮ 𝑑𝑧
∮ 𝑑𝑧 = ∮ 𝑑𝑧 − ∮ ( )
( ) ( )
Put 𝑓(𝑧) = 1, then
𝑃
= 0− . 2𝜋𝑖 1 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 1=
2𝜋𝑖 (𝑧 − 𝑎)
= −𝑃
𝑓′(𝑧) 𝐺′(𝑧) 𝑛
= +
𝑓(𝑧) 𝐺(𝑧) 𝑧 − 𝛽
Hence
1 f′(z) 1 G′(z) n dz
dz = dz +
2πi f(z) 2πi G(z) 2πi z−β
𝑛
=0+ 2𝜋𝑖
2𝜋𝑖
=𝑛
1 𝑓′(𝑧)
=𝑛−𝑃
2𝜋𝑖 𝑓(𝑧)
N.B.: Similarly we can show that if 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic inside on a simple closed curve 𝐶 except a finite number of
poles at 𝛼 1,𝛼 2, . . . ,𝛼 r inside 𝐶 of order 𝑝 , 𝑝 , … 𝑝 respectively and if 𝑓(𝑧) has zero at 𝛽 1,𝛽 2, . . . ,𝛽 s inside 𝐶 of
order 𝑛 , 𝑛 , . . . 𝑛 respectively then
1 f′(z)
dz = 𝑛 − 𝑃
2πi f(z)
38
Cauchy’s Integral Formulas and Related Theorems
Corollary: If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic inside and on a simple closed curve 𝐶 except a pole at 𝛼 inside 𝐶 of order 𝑝 and if
𝑓(𝑧) has zero at 𝛽 inside 𝐶 of order 𝑛 then for any analytic function 𝑔(𝑧) inside and on 𝐶
1 f (z)
g(z) dz = n g − p g(α)
2πi f(z)
Proof: Constant two circles 𝐶 & 𝐶 inside C with centre at 𝛼 & 𝛽 repectively so that they do not intersect each
other.
( )
Then 𝑔(𝑧) is analytic in the multiple connected region bounded by C, C 1&C2 . Then by Cauchys theorem
( )
for multiple connected region we have
( ) ( ) ( )
∮ g(z) dz = ∮ g(z) dz + ∮ g(z) dz ………………(i)
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
𝑓(𝑧) = where 𝐹(𝑧) is analytic inside and on 𝐶
( )
Differentiating we get
𝑓′(𝑧) 𝐹′(𝑧)
= − 𝑝⁄(𝑧 − 𝛼)
𝑓(𝑧) 𝐹(𝑧)
( ) ( ) ( )
⇒ 𝑔(𝑧) ( )
= 𝑔(𝑧) ( )
−
∴
𝑔(𝑧)
= 0−𝑝 𝑑𝑧 = −𝑝 2𝜋𝑖 𝑔( 𝛼)
(𝑧 − 𝛼)
= 2𝜋𝑖(−𝑔(𝛼)𝑃)
( )
Similarly we can show that ∮ 𝑔(𝑧) ( )
𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖(−𝑔(𝛽)𝑛)
∴ From (i)
39
Cauchy’s Integral Formulas and Related Theorems
f (z)
g(z) dz = 2πi{(g(β)n + p(−g(α)p)}
f(z)
1 f (z)
g(z) dz = ng(β) − pg(α)
2πi f(z)
[Proved]
Rouchis Theorem: If 𝑓(𝑧) and 𝑔(𝑧) are analytic inside and on a simple closed curve 𝐶 and if |𝑔(𝑧)| < |𝑓(𝑧)|
on 𝐶. Then 𝑓(𝑧) and 𝑓(𝑧) + 𝑔(𝑧) haave same members of zeros inside 𝐶.
( )
Proof: Let 𝐹(𝑧) =
( )
So 𝑔 = 𝐹𝑓 ⇒ 𝑔′ = 𝐹𝑓′ + 𝐹′𝑓
( )
Here |𝐹(𝑧)| = <1 on 𝐶 𝑎𝑠 |𝑔(𝑧)| < |𝑓(𝑧)| 𝑜𝑛 𝐶
( )
1 f + g′ 1 f′
𝑁 −𝑁 = dz − dz
2πi f+g 2πi f
1 f + Ff + F′f 1 f′
= dz − dz
2πi f + fF 2πi f
1 f (1 + f) + F′ f′
= − dz
2πi f(1 + F) f
1 f F′ f′
= + − dz
2πi f 1+F f
1 F′
= dz
2πi 1+F
40
Cauchy’s Integral Formulas and Related Theorems
Since 𝐹(𝑧) is analytic on 𝐶 and |𝐹(𝑧)| < 1 so 1 + 𝐹 ≠ 0 on 𝐶. Hence is also analytic on 𝐶. Therefore by
cauchys theorem
F′
dz = 0
1+F
Hence 𝑁 − 𝑁 = 0 i. e., 𝑁 = 𝑁
Therefore 𝑓(𝑧) and 𝑓(𝑧) + 𝑔(𝑧) have some same number of zeros inside 𝐶.
Now on 𝐶
|g(z)| |a z +a z + ⋯ + a z + a|
=
|f(z)| |a z |
| | ⋯ | || | | |
≤ | || |
|a ||r | + ⋯ + |a ||r| + a
=
|a ||r |
|𝑎 |𝑟 + ⋯ + |𝑎 |𝑟 + |𝑎 |𝑟
≤ |∵𝑟<1
|𝑎 |𝑟
|𝑎 | + |𝑎 | + ⋯ + |𝑎 |
=
|𝑎 |𝑟
| ( )|
choosing 𝑟 large enough we can make | <1
( )|
Then by Rouchis theorem 𝑓(𝑧) and 𝑓(𝑧) + 𝑔(𝑧) have some number of zeros inside 𝐶. But 𝑓(𝑧) has 𝑛 mumber
of zero inside 𝐶 all located at origin. Therefore 𝑓(𝑧) + 𝑔(𝑧) has 𝑛 number of zero inside 𝐶.
Solution: We have =( )(
= −
² ) ( ) ( )
So ∮ 𝑑𝑧 = ∮ 𝑑𝑧 − ∮ 𝑑𝑧
²
Therefore
𝑓(1) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜋 = −1
And
𝑓(−1) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(−𝜋) = −1
1 𝑓(𝑧) 1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑧
(1) =
−1 = 𝑓(1 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑧−1 2𝜋𝑖 𝑧−1
1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑧
⇒ 𝑑𝑧 = −𝜋𝑖
2 𝑧−1
Similarly
((−1) = 𝑓(−1) = ∮ 𝑑𝑧
1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋
⇒ 𝑑𝑧 = −𝜋𝑖
2 𝑧
Hence
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑧
𝑑𝑧 = −𝜋𝑖 − (𝜋𝑖) = 0
𝑧 −1
42
Cauchy’s Integral Formulas and Related Theorems
(b) Since 𝑧 = −1 lies outside 𝐶, So
1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑧
𝑑𝑧 = 0
2 𝑧+1
1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑧
−1 = 𝑓(1) = 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑧−1
1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑧
⇒ 𝑑𝑧 = −𝜋𝑖
2 𝑧−1
Hence ∮ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝜋𝑖 − 0 = −𝜋𝑖
𝜋 2! 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑧
𝑓 ՜՜( ) = 𝑑𝑧
6 2𝜋𝑖 (𝑧 − )
Now,
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑧
𝜋 1 √3 1
∴𝑓 = 30. . −6
6 2 2 2
= 30. . −
43
Cauchy’s Integral Formulas and Related Theorems
= − =
Hence
1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑧 21
𝑑𝑧 =
𝜋𝑖 (𝑧 − ) 16
i.e., ∮ 𝑑𝑧 =
( )
Solution: We have ∮ 𝑑𝑧
( )
= ∮ ( ) (
𝑑𝑧
)
Here 𝑖 & − 𝑖 lie inside 𝐶. Construct two circle C1 & C2 inside C with centre at 𝑖 & − 𝑖 respectively so that they
do not overlap each other. Then by Cauchys
auchys theorem
1 𝑒
2𝜋𝑖 (𝑧 + 𝑖) (𝑧 − 𝑖)
1 𝑒 𝑑𝑧 1 𝑒
= + 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 (𝑧 + 𝑖) (𝑧 − 𝑖)) 2𝜋𝑖 (𝑧 + 𝑖) (𝑧 − 𝑖)
=I1+I2 Say
1 𝑒
𝑓((𝑖) = 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 (𝑧 + 𝑖) (𝑧 − 𝑖)
Here
(𝑧 + 𝑖) + 𝑒 + 𝑒 2(𝑧 + 𝑖)
(𝑧) =
𝑓(𝑧
(𝑧 + 𝑖)
−4𝑡𝑒 − 𝑒 4𝑖 −𝑡𝑒 − 𝑖𝑒
∴ 𝑓((𝑖) = =
16 4
44
Cauchy’s Integral Formulas and Related Theorems
1 𝑒
𝑔(−𝑖) = 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 (𝑧 + 𝑖) (𝑧 − 𝑖)
Here
(𝑧 − 𝑖) + 𝑒 − 𝑒 (𝑧 − 𝑖)
𝑔(𝑧) =
(𝑧 + 𝑖)
Hence 𝑔(−𝑖) = =
Therefore
∮ =I1+I2
( )
= 𝑓(𝑖) + 𝑔(−𝑖)
−𝑡 𝑒 + 𝑒 − 𝑖(𝑒 − 𝑒 )
=
4
−2𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡
=
4
1
= (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 − 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡)
2
( )( )
Ex. Let 𝑓(𝑧) = ( ) ( )
Evaluate
( ) ( )
(i) ∮ 𝑑𝑧 and (ii) ∮ 𝑑𝑧
( ) ( )
Solution:
𝑧 + 5 = 0 then 𝑧 = −5
at 𝑧 = −𝑖 of order 2
at 𝑧 = 3 of order 1
at 𝑧 = −5 of order 3
Again put 𝑧 + 2𝑧 + 2 = 0
Then 𝑧 = −1 ± 𝑖
Put 𝑧 − 6 = 0 then 𝑧 = 6
at 𝑧 = −1 − 𝑖 order 3
at 𝑧 = 6 of order 1
՜( )
∮ 𝑑𝑧 = 5 − 6 = −1
( )
(Ans)
𝑧 − 3 = 0 then 𝑧 = 3
𝑧 + 5 = 0 then 𝑧 = −5
at 𝑧 = −𝑖 of order 2
46
Cauchy’s Integral Formulas and Related Theorems
at 𝑧 = 3 of order 1
at 𝑧 = −5 of order 3
Again put 𝑧 + 2𝑧 + 2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑧 = −1 ± 𝑖
𝑧−6=0 ⇒𝑧 =6
at 𝑧 = −1 − 𝑖 of order 3
at 𝑧 = 6 of order 1
Now put 𝑔(𝑧) = 𝑧 + 𝑧 Here 𝑔(𝑧) is analytic inside and on 𝐶. therefore by argument theorem
1 𝑓՜(𝑧)
(𝑧 + 2) 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝑔(𝑖) + 2𝑔(−𝑖) + 1. 𝑔(2) − 3𝑔(−1 + 𝑖) − 3𝑔(−1 − 𝑖)
2𝜋𝑖 𝑓(𝑧)
= −4 + 12 + 3 + 3
=14
Ex. Prove that all roots of 𝑧 − 5𝑧 + 12 = 0 lie between the circle |𝑧| = 1 and |𝑧| = 2.
= 52 < 2 = |𝑓(𝑧)|
Since both 𝑓(𝑧) and 𝑔(𝑧) are analytic inside and on 𝐶 2. So by Rouchis theorem 𝑓(𝑧) and 𝑓(𝑧) + 𝑔(𝑧) have
some number of inside C2.Since 𝑓(𝑧) has & zeroes inside C2 (all located origin)
Also both 𝑓(𝑧) and 𝑔(𝑧) are analytic inside and on C1 So by Rouchis theorem
𝑓(𝑧) + 𝑔(𝑧) have some number of zeroes inside C1.But 𝑓(𝑧) has no zero inside 𝐶 1. Therefore 𝑓(𝑧) + 𝑔(𝑧) =
𝑧 = 5𝑧 + 12 has no zero onside C1. i.e., all zero of 𝑧 − 5𝑧 + 12 is outside of C1
(𝑧 − 𝑎)
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = 𝑓 (𝑎 ) + (𝑧 − 𝑎 ) 𝑓 (𝑎 ) + 𝑓 (𝑎 ) + ⋯ … … … … … … … … … …
2!
Proof: Construct a circle C, inside C with Centre at a inclosing 𝑧. Then 𝑓 (𝑧) is analytic inside and on 𝐶.
Then by Cauchy’s integral formula,
1 𝑓(𝑤)
𝑓(z) = ∮ 𝑑𝑤
2𝜋𝑖 𝑤 − 𝑧
Now
=( ) (
= = (1 − )-1
) ( ){ }
Since on 𝐶, | |<1
So
= {1 + + + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ } ……………………………………….……….. (1)
= [1 + + + ⋯⋯+ + 1+ + +⋯⋯ ]
( ) ( )
= + + + ⋯⋯⋯+ ( )
+ ⋯⋯⋯+ [By equation (1)]
( ) ( )
So
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
= + + + ⋯⋯⋯+ ( )
𝑓(𝑤) +
( ) ( )
Or
( )
, ∮ 𝑑𝑤
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
= ∮ 𝑑𝑤 + ∮ 𝑑𝑤 + ∮ 𝑑𝑤 + ⋯ ⋯ + ∮ 𝑑𝑤 + 𝑢
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Where 𝑢 = ∮ 𝑑𝑤
( )
! ( )
(Since, f n (a)= ∮ 𝑑𝑤 )
( )
lim → 𝑢 =0
49
Taylor’s Theorem
∴ < | |
Since 𝑓(𝑤) is analytic inside and on𝑐 . So|𝑓(𝑤)| ≤ 𝑀 for some positive number M.
( )
Hence |𝑢 | = ∮ ( ) 𝑑𝑤 < 2𝜋𝑟
| |
→0 as n→ ∞ | since β<1
( )
Therefore 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑎) + (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑓′(𝑎) + 𝑓 (𝑎 ) + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯
!
Laurent’s Theorem: If f (z) is analytic inside and on the boundary of the ring shaped region R bounded by
two concentric circle 𝑐 and 𝑐 with Centre at a and radius 𝑟 and 𝑟 respectively. Then for all z in R,
𝑎
𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑎 ( ) +
(𝑧 − 𝑎)
( )
Where 𝑎 = ∮ ( )
𝑑𝑤
( )
And 𝑎 = ∮ 𝑑𝑤
( )
( ) ( )
𝑓 (𝑧) = ∮ 𝑑𝑤 − ∮ 𝑑𝑤 − − − − − − − (1)
Then <1
So =( ) (
= (1 − )
)
∴ = 1+ + + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯(1)
= [1 + +⋯⋯+ ) + 1+ + ⋯⋯
50
Taylor’s Theorem
( ) ( )
= + + + ⋯⋯+ ( )
+( ) [ by (1) ]
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Hence ∮ 𝑑𝑤 = ∮ 𝑑𝑤 + ∮ 𝑑𝑤 + ⋯ ⋯ + ∮ 𝑑𝑤 + 𝑢
( ) ( )
( )
Where 𝑢 = ∮ ( ) 𝑑𝑤
( )
Thus ∮ 𝑑𝑤 = 𝑎 + 𝑎 (𝑧 − 𝑎) + ⋯ ⋯ + 𝑎 (𝑧 − 𝑎 ) +𝑢
( )
Where 𝑎 = ∮ 𝑑𝑤
( )
Then <1
Hence − = =( ) ( )
= (1 − )
= [1 + +( ) + ⋯⋯⋯]
= [1 + +( ) +⋯⋯+( ) +( ) {1 + + ) +⋯⋯ ]
( )
Or,− = +( )
+⋯⋯+ ( )
+( )
( )
So, − ∮ 𝑑𝑤 = ∮ 𝑓(𝑤)𝑑𝑤 + ∮ 𝑓(𝑤)(𝑤 − 𝑎)𝑑𝑤 + ⋯
( ) ( )
⋯+
( )
∮ (𝑤 − 𝑎 ) 𝑓 (𝑤)𝑑𝑤 + 𝑉
( )
Where, 𝑉 = ∮ ( ) 𝑑𝑤
( )
Thus − ∮ 𝑑𝑤 = + + ⋯⋯+ ( )
+𝑉
( )
( )
Where 𝑎 = ∮ 𝑑𝑤 𝑛 = 1,2,3, … … …
( )
Hence by (1),
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑎 + 𝑎 (𝑧 − 𝑎) + ⋯ ⋯ + 𝑎 (𝑧 − 𝑎) + + + ⋯⋯+ + 𝑢 + 𝑉 ⋯ (2)
𝑧 − 𝑎 (𝑧 − 𝑎) (𝑧 − 𝑎)
Since 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic inside and on the region bounded by 𝑐 and 𝑐 so |𝑓(𝑧)| <M for some positive
number.
= 𝑟 − |𝑧 − 𝑎|
So ≤
| |
( ) ( )
Therefore | ∮ ( )
𝑑𝑤| ≤ | |
2𝜋𝑟
islim → 𝑢 =0
on 𝑐 , |𝑧 − 𝑤| = |(𝑧 − 𝑎) − (𝑤 − 𝑎)|
≥ |𝑧 − 𝑎| − |𝑤 − 𝑎|
= |𝑧 − 𝑎| − 𝑟
is| |≤| |
( )
Hence | ∮ ( ) 𝑑𝑤| ≤ | |
2𝜋𝑟
Is lim → 𝑉 =0
Is 𝑓 (𝑧) = ∑ 𝑎 (𝑧 − 𝑎) + ∑
( )
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = 𝑎 (𝑧 − 𝑎)
( )
Where 𝑎 = ∮ 𝑑𝑤
( )
And c is any simple closed curve, the region enclosing the point 𝑧 = 𝑎
֍If 𝑓(𝑧) has no singularity inside and on 𝑐 (is 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic) then the series doesn’t possess any principal
part. Thus the Laurent’s explanation concide with Taylor’s explanation,is the principal part occurs only
because of singularity of function.
52
Taylor’s Theorem
Note: In Laurent’s expansion of a function 𝑓(𝑧) , if number of terms in the principal part is finite say n, then
the singularity is pole of order n.
If the principal part vanishes then the singularity is called a removable singularity.
Ex. Find Laurent’s series about the indicated singularity. For each function name the singularity in each case
and give the region of convergence of each series.
𝑒 𝑒 ( )
𝑒
∴ 𝑓 (𝑧 ) = = = 𝑒
(𝑧 − 2) 𝑢 𝑢
𝑒 (3𝑢 ) (3𝑢)
= [1 + 3𝑢 + + + ⋯⋯]
𝑢 2! 3!
1 3 9 1 9 1 27 81
=𝑒 [ + + + + + 𝑢 + ⋯⋯]
𝑢 𝑢 2𝑢 2𝑢 8 40
1 3 9 1 9 1 27 81
=𝑒 [ + + + + + (𝑧 − 2) + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ]
(𝑧 − 2) (𝑧 − 2) 2 (𝑧 − 2 ) 2 𝑧 − 2 8 40
( )
Here 𝑎 = ( )!
(3𝑢)
𝑎 =
𝑛!
𝑎 (3𝑢) (𝑛 − 1)! 3
∴ = × = |𝑢|
𝑎 𝑛! ( 3𝑢 ) 𝑛
3
Now lim → | | = lim 𝑛 |𝑢| = 0 < 1
→
1
∴ 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑢 − 7)𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑢
1 1 1
= (𝑢 − 7 ){ − + −⋯⋯⋯}
𝑢 3! 𝑢 5! 𝑢
7 1 7 1 7
=1− − + + − − ⋯⋯⋯
𝑢 3! 𝑢 3! 𝑢 5! 𝑢 5! 𝑢
7 1 7 1 7
=1− − + + − ⋯⋯⋯
𝑧 + 3 3! (𝑧 + 3) 3! (𝑧 + 3) 5! (𝑧 + 3) 5! (𝑧 + 3)
Since the number of terms of the principal part in the expansion is infinite, so 𝑧 = −3 is an essential
singularity.
− + − ⋯⋯⋯ is convergent
! !
(−1)
𝑎 =
(2𝑛 − 1)! 𝑢
(−1)
𝑎 =
(2𝑛 + 1)! 𝑢
We get = {𝑧 − 𝑧 − + − ⋯⋯⋯ }
! !
= ( − + − ⋯⋯⋯)
! ! !
= − + − ⋯⋯⋯
! ! !
Here 𝑎 = (−1) ( )!
𝑧
𝑎 = (−1)
(2𝑛 + 3)!
𝑎 |𝑧|
∴ =
𝑎 (2𝑛 + 3)(2𝑛 + 2)
𝑎
lim =0<1
→ 𝑎
2 2 2 2
= = (1 + )
𝑧 + 2 𝑧(1 + ) 𝑧 𝑧
2 2 4 8
= (1 − + − + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ )
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
2 4 8 16
= − + − + ⋯⋯⋯
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
When |𝑧| < 3
3 3 𝑧
= = (1 + )
𝑧 + 3 3(1 + ) 3
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
= 1− + − + − ⋯⋯⋯
3 9 27 81
Hence the Laurent series is
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 2 4 8 16
1− + − +⋯⋯⋯ − − + − + ⋯⋯⋯
3 9 27 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
55
Taylor’s Theorem
=⋯ ⋯ ⋯ + − + − +1− + − + ⋯⋯⋯
Now = = (1 + )-1
( )
2 2 4 8
= 1 − + − + ⋯⋯⋯
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
2 4 8 16
= − + − + ⋯⋯⋯
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
3 3 3 3
= = (1 + )
𝑧 + 3 𝑧(1 + ) 𝑧 𝑧
3 3 9 27
= 1− + − ⋯⋯
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
= − + − + ⋯⋯⋯
3 9 27 81 2 4 8 16
− + − + ⋯⋯⋯− − + − + ⋯⋯⋯
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
1 5 19 65
= − + − + ⋯⋯⋯
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
(c) Given region is 1 < |𝑧 + 1| < 2
3 2 3 2
∴ 𝑓 (𝑧 ) = − = −
𝑧+3 𝑧+2 𝑢+2 𝑢+1
When 1 < |𝑢|
Then = 1+
= 1− + − +⋯⋯⋯
= − + − + ⋯⋯⋯
3 3 𝑢
= 1+
𝑢+2 2 2
= 1− + − + ⋯⋯⋯
56
Taylor’s Theorem
= − + − + ⋯⋯⋯
3 3𝑢 3𝑢 3𝑢 2 2 2 2
− + − + ⋯⋯⋯ − − + − + ⋯⋯⋯
2 𝑢 8 16 𝑢 𝑢 𝑢 𝑢
2 2 2 2 3 3𝑢 3𝑢 3𝑢
= ⋯⋯⋯+ − + − + − + − + ⋯⋯⋯
𝑢 𝑢 𝑢 𝑢 2 4 8 16
2 2 2 2 3 3 (𝑧 + 1 ) 3 (𝑧 + 1 ) 3(𝑧 + 1)
= ⋯⋯⋯+ − + − + − + − +⋯⋯⋯
(𝑧 + 1) (𝑧 + 1 ) (𝑧 + 1) (𝑧 + 1) 2 4 8 16
2 2 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
= =1− + − + ⋯⋯⋯
𝑧+2 2 1+ 2 4 8
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
1− + − + ⋯⋯⋯− 1 − + − + ⋯⋯⋯
3 9 27 2 4 8
𝑧 5 19
= − 𝑧 + 𝑧 −⋯⋯⋯⋯
6 36 196
Where 𝑎 = ∮ 𝑑𝑧 , 𝑎 = ∮ 𝑑𝑧
Where c is a simple closed curve in the annulus (ring shaped region) enclosing the region.
Then on c 𝑧=𝑒
57
Taylor’s Theorem
𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖𝑒 𝑑𝜃
𝑧+ =𝑒 +𝑒 = 2 cos 𝜃
( )
So 𝑎 = ∫ ( ) 𝑖𝑒 𝑑𝜃
1
= cos h (2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)𝑒 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋
1 𝑖
= cos h(2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 − cos h(2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋 2𝜋
=𝑎 for 𝑛 = 1,2,3, ⋯ ⋯ ⋯
Hence cos ℎ 𝑧 + =𝑎 +∑ 𝑎 𝑧 +∑
=𝑎 +∑ 𝑎 𝑧 +
(Proved)