The Pascal Programming Language
The Pascal programming language was created by Niklaus Wirth in 1968. It was named after
Blaise Pascal, a famous French Mathematician. Some of benefits of Pascal include:
It is well-structured
It is easy to implement
The syntax is easy to lean and follow
It encourages the programmer to adopt a disciplined approach to programming
OPERATORS (Symbols used for performing calculations or making comparisons)
Type Name Symbol Example
Arithmetic Addition 5+2=7
+
Arithmetic Subtraction - 5-2 = 3
Arithmetic Multiplication * 5*2 = 10
Arithmetic Real Division / 5/2 = 2.5
Arithmetic Integer Division div 5 div 2 = 2
Arithmetic Modulo mod 5 mod 2 = 1
Relational Equal to = 10 = (5*2)
Relational Not Equal to <> 10 <> (5+2)
Relational Less Than < x<y
Relational Less Than or Equal To <= x <= y
Relational More Than > x>y
Relational More Than or Equal To >= x >= y
Logical And If both expressions evaluate to True the result is True.
Logical Or If either expression evaluates to True the result is True.
Logical Not Negates a boolean expression. (True becomes False
DR. Gill: Pascal Programming Language Notes
DATA TYPES AND DECLARATIONS
Data Type Examples
Integer 36
Real Floating Point Values (e.g. 758.69)
Char 1 character (A)
String John (Up to 255 characters)
Boolean True or False
Declaring Variables
Format:
var
Variable Name: Data Type;
Examples:
var
sum: integer;
x,y: real;
name: string;
Grade: char;
NB. A semicolon (;) is used to separate statements.
DR. Gill: Pascal Programming Language Notes
Constants
Constants are like variables except that their values cannot change.
Declaring Constants
Format:
const
Constant Name = Value;
Examples:
const
Pi = 3.14;
VAT = 17.5;
INPUT AND OUTPUT OF DATA
Input
The two basic Input functions are Read and Readln, which are used to read data from the
keyboard.
Format:
Read (item1, item2...)
Readln(item1, item2...)
DR. Gill: Pascal Programming Language Notes
NB.
The Read function reads one or more values into one or more variables. The Readln function
does the same thing as the Read function and then skips to the beginning of the next line in the
file.
Examples:
Read(x,y);
Readln(name, score);
Output
The two basic output functions are Write and Writeln. The write statement leaves the cursor at
the end of the current output, whereas the writeln places the cursor at the start of a new line.
Format:
Write (item 1, item 2,...);
Writeln (item 1, item 2,...);
Example:
Write (‘I like’);
Write (‘Information Technology’);
Output: I like Information Technology
DR. Gill: Pascal Programming Language Notes
Example:
Writeln (‘I like’);
Write (‘Information Technology’);
Output: I like
Information Technology
Example:
Write (‘The answer is:’, ‘ ’, ans);
Output: The answer is: 15
NB. 15 is stored in the variable ans.
The Assignment Statement
Format:
Variable := Expression;
Example:
sum := x + y;
Name := ‘John’;
DR. Gill: Pascal Programming Language Notes
BASIC PASCAL PROGRAMS
Structure of a Pascal Program
Program ProgramName;
Const
Constant Declaration;
Var
Variable Declaration;
Begin
Main Body of Program
End.
Reserved Words
The Pascal programming language has several important words in it. These are called keywords
or reserved words. These keywords cannot be used as variable names. Examples of keywords
are: program, label, const, type, var, begin, end, and, array, case, div, do, else, file, for ,
function, goto, if, in, mod, nil , not, of , or, packed, procedure, record, repeat, set, then, to,
until, while, with, read, readln, write, writeln.
NB. Comments are enclosed in curly brackets { }
DR. Gill: Pascal Programming Language Notes
Sequence Pascal Program Example:
Program Square;
{This program finds the square of a number}
var {Variable Declaration}
number,sq:integer;
Begin
write('Enter number: '); {Prompt for input}
readln(number); {Store data into variable n}
sq:=number*number; {Calculate the square}
writeln('The square is: ', sq); {Output result}
readln;
end.
DR. Gill: Pascal Programming Language Notes
Conditional Structures
The If Then Else Statement
The if statement allows the conditional execution of one statement, or the choice between
execution of two statements.
Format 1:
If expression then
Begin
Statement(s)
End;
Example:
If x > y then
writeln(x);
Format 2:
If expression then
Begin
Statement(s)
End
Else
Begin
Statement(s)
End;
DR. Gill: Pascal Programming Language Notes
Example:
If x > y then
writeln(x)
else
writeln(y);
Selection Pascal Program Example
Program Larger;
{This programs determines and prints the larger of two numbers}
var
a,b: integer;
Begin
Writeln('Enter two numbers');
Readln(a,b);
if a>b then
writeln(a)
else
writeln(b);
if a = b then
writeln('Numbers are equal');
readln;
end.
DR. Gill: Pascal Programming Language Notes
Loop Structures
Definition: A set of statements which are repeated until some condition is met.
Types of Pascal Loops
For Loop
Format:
For control variable := start value to end value do
Begin
Statement(s)
End
Example:
For I := 1 to 10 do
Begin
writeln(‘Enter number’);
Readln( x);
Sq: = x *x;
writeln(Sq);
End;
DR. Gill: Pascal Programming Language Notes
For Loop Pascal Program
Program LoopAverageKnown;
{Program finds the average of 3 numbers}
var
x,i,sum:integer;
avg:real;
begin
sum:=0;
for I := 1 to 3 do
begin
writeln('Enter Number');
readln(x);
sum:=sum+x;
end;
avg:=sum/3; {calculate the average}
writeln(avg); {output the average}
readln;
end.
DR. Gill: Pascal Programming Language Notes
While Loop
The while loop executes the statements within the loop as long as the condition is true. The
condition is tested at the top of the loop.
Format:
While Expression do
Begin
Statement(s)
End;
Example:
begin
I := 0;
while I <= 5 do
begin
I := I + 1;
Sq:=i*I;
Writeln(sq);
end;
end.
DR. Gill: Pascal Programming Language Notes
While Loop Pascal Program
Program AverageUnknown;
{Program finds the average of a set of numbers, the last number is 0}
var
x,i,sum:integer;
avg:real;
begin
sum:=0;
i:=0;
writeln('Enter Number');
readln(x);
while i<>999 do
begin
i:=i+1;
sum:=sum+x;
writeln('Enter Number');
readln(x);
end;
avg:=sum/3;
writeln(avg);
readln;
end.
DR. Gill: Pascal Programming Language Notes
Repeat Until Loop
The repeat until loop is like the while loop except that it tests the condition at the bottom of the
loop.
Format:
Repeat
Statement(s);
Until Expression;
Example:
begin
I := 0;
Repeat
I := I + 1;
Sq:=i*I;
Writeln(sq);
Until I =5;
end.
DR. Gill: Pascal Programming Language Notes
Repeat Loop Pascal Program
Program Average;
{Program finds the average of 3 numbers}
var
x,i,sum:integer;
avg:real;
begin
sum:=0;
repeat
i:=i+1;
writeln('Enter Number');
readln(x);
sum:=sum+x;
until i=3;
avg:=sum/3;
writeln(avg);
readln;
end.
DR. Gill: Pascal Programming Language Notes
ARRAYS
Definition: A consecutive group of memory locations that have the same name and type. A
location is referenced by using the array name and the element’s index.
NB The Index type must be ordinal (byte or integer) or an expression that evaluates to these data
types.
Declaring Arrays
Format:
var
Arrayname: Array[Start Index .. End Index] of Arraytype;
Example:
var
numbers: array[1 .. 3] of integer;
NB Elements of numeric arrays are initialized to 0 by default. Elements of string arrays are
initialized to “ ” by default.
DR. Gill: Pascal Programming Language Notes
Placing Values into an Array
Format:
Arrayname[index]: = value;
Example:
Numbers[1]: = 10;
Numbers
Index
1 10
Copying a value from a Location in an array into a variable
Format:
variablename := Arrayname[index];
Example:
x: = Numbers[1]; {x now contains the value 10}
DR. Gill: Pascal Programming Language Notes
Array Pascal Program
Program Search;
{Linear search}
var
Accounts: array[1 ..5] of integer;
I, accno: integer;
Begin
{store Account Numbers}
for i:= 1 to 5 do
begin
Writeln('Enter Account Number');
Readln(accounts[i]);
end;
Writeln('Enter Account Number');
Readln(accno);
I :=1;
While (accno <> Accounts [I]) and ( I <>5) do
I := I +1;
If accno = Accounts[I] then
writeln('Account Found')
Else
writeln('Account not Found');
readln;
end.
DR. Gill: Pascal Programming Language Notes
