E.g. 0.

020 = 2SF or 12,000 = 2SF

Used by all scientists
The number of non-zero figures after a to express quantities
decimal point or previous number from measurements

only SI unit with a prefix!

to indicate a
multiplication factor Significant Figures SI Units Kg - kilogram Unit of mass

Unit Prefixes M - metre Unit of length

KEY CONCEPTS OF PHYSICS S - second Unit of time

Unit Multiples and
Submultiples
Standard Form A - Ampere Unit of current
Nano (n) ÷1,000,000,000
Unit of
Micro (m) ÷1,000,000 Large values may be K - Kelvin temperature
Milli (µ) ÷ 1,000
written as x10 to a power Unit of amount of
Mole - mole substance
Centi (c ) ÷100
Eg. X1000 = x10 ^3
Kilo (k) x1000 Cd - Candela Unit of luminous flux
Mega (M) x1,000,000

Giga (g) x1,000,000,000

EDEXCEL
 Acceleration = Change Average Speed = Walking ~ 1.5 m/s
in Velocity / Time Distance / Time
Velocity Running ~ 3 m/s
~ 0.2-0.9 Velocity = Displacement Typical speeds
seconds Displacement / Time Momentum Speed Cycling ~ 6 m/s
Force Distance Distance Travelled =
Experiment to Acceleration Energy Average Speed x Time Sound ~ 330 m/s
measure human
reaction time Vector: Scalar:
Magnitude and direction Magnitude only Measured with
Ruler drop Newton-meter
Scalar and Vector Measured in
Experimental Methods Quantities Measurement Newtons

Light gates
Removes uncertainty when
measuring time
2.1: MOTION AND FORCES Weight
No human reaction time Graphs Vehicles Weight = Mass x Gravitational Field Strength
Gradient = Velocity-Time
Acceleration graphs Stopping distance
Gravitational Field Strength
= Thinking Distance +
Area = Distance Braking Distance Depends on planet
Distance-Time
graphs Weight also changes
Thinking Distance Braking Distance Measured in
N/kg with planet
Gradient = Speed
Fatigue, drugs Road, weather and
and alcohol vehicle conditions EDEXCEL
 m₁v₁= m₂v₂ Acts towards centre of circle
Causes acceleration that
changes velocity Stays constant
Total momentum before event = Total momentum after event
Assuming no other external forces
Measured in Speed
kgm/s Centripetal
Conservation Force
Momentum = mass x velocity Velocity
Collisions Constantly changing
Momentum Circular Motion
Force = rate of change of momentum
2.2: MOTION AND FORCES The forces on interacting
Seat belts objects are equal and opposite
More time to change momentum Newton’s Laws
Smaller rate of change of momentum Third Law
Lower force
First Law
Velocity of an object only changes F=ma
if there is a resultant force Object is Second Law F = mΔv / t
stationary Inertial Mass
Force = Change in Momentum / Time
If resultant force = 0
KEY The acceleration of an object
is directly proportional to the
How difficult it is to
change object’s velocity
‘Higher tier only’ Object moving resultant force acting on it
written in green. at constant velocity EDEXCEL
 In a closed system with no GPE = Mass x
energy transfers in or out, the Gravitational Field
total energy is constant Strength x Height
Doubling speed
quadruples KE
Energy cannot be created or
destroyed, only transferred Objects at a height
Systems have GPE
from one form to another Moving objects
have KE

Law of Conservation KE = ½ x Mass x Gravitational

Velocity² Potential Energy
Higher thermal conductivity
means greater rate of
energy transfer Conservation Kinetic Energy

Thermal
conductivity
3.1: CONSERVATION OF ENERGY Energy Transfers
GPE → KE as jumper falls Bungee jumper
Reduces heat loss Efficiency
to surroundings As cord stretches, KE →
Elastic Potential Energy, Electric kettle
Insulation Waste Energy slowing down the jumper Vehicle braking

Some supplied energy Electrical energy →

Lubrication transformed into heat energy KE → heat energy by
Efficiency = non-useful forms friction in the brakes
Reduces heat loss due to friction
Energy wasted as Vehicle slows down
Total Energy Supplied sound & heat to
Less waste energy means surroundings
a more efficient appliance
Useful Energy Transferred EDEXCEL
 Global warming Carbon Dioxide
- Greenhouse emissions
+ No greenhouse gases
+ Large amounts of Sulphur Dioxide
energy per kg of fuel + Large amounts of
Acid rain energy per kg of fuel
+ Cost-effective and
generation all the time Coal - harmful nuclear waste,
must be stored for years
Coal, oil and gas Fossil Fuels Nuclear Fuels
+Lower greenhouse - Risk of nuclear disasters
emissions Gas
Non-Renewable Energy Sources
+Quick-start up times
allow for flexible
generation
3.2: CONSERVATION OF ENERGY: + Quickly & locally grown
+ Relatively cheap, can be
used in remote areas ENERGY SOURCES (renewable)

- Needs a lot of land

- Only possible in Solar Power Bio Fuels which could be used
daylight Renewable Energy Sources for food production

+ Cost-effective and abundant Wind Power Tidal Power + Renewable & predictable
source of energy
Hydroelectricity - Relatively new so costly
- Restricted by wind speeds to install & maintain
Visual & sound pollution
+ Provides large quantities - Affects water life
of energy in a short time - Only a limited number of suitable
(power surges or outages) sites for water dams EDEXCEL
 Measured in metres v=fλ
Peak-peak or trough-trough 1 Hz = 1 wave each
distance often used! Determined by frequency
and wavelength second

Distance from one point to the

same point on the adjacent wave The rate that the Measured in
wave travels Hertz (Hz)

Wavelength (λ) Velocity (v) Number of waves that pass a

given point in a second
A line where all the oscillations
of the wave are in phase (all at Frequency (f)
the same position in their cycle) 4.1: WAVES:
Wavefront PROPERTIES OF WAVES Period (T)

Amplitude Water Waves Time taken for a complete

wave to pass a given point
Maximum displacement of a A float on water will bob up
wave from its rest position and down when a wave passes f = 1/T

For sound waves, amplitude The wave is transferred but Frequency is the
the medium is not! reciprocal of period
determines the volume of the sound

Can have characteristics of both Waves transfer energy and

transverse and longitudinal waves information, not matter!
EDEXCEL
 Seismic waves Foetal scanning
Earth’s core Sound with
frequencies
Sound with > 20,000 Hz Waves travel from
frequencies emitter and are
Used to measure the depth reflected at boundaries
of things underwater < 20 Hz
Ultrasound inside body

Uses sound waves that are Infrasound

Reflected waves are
within the audible range detected to form an
Human hearing Sound image of the womb
Sound waves
Sonar Sound causes
vibrations in eardrum
4.2: WAVES: Require a medium to be
transferred through
Audible range:
20 Hz - 20kHz Transverse TYPES OF WAVES
Particles in the
Oscillations parallel to medium vibrate
energy transfer
Longitudinal
Energy transferred on collisions
to pass on vibrations
Peaks and troughs Oscillations perpendicular to
energy transfer Frequency of vibrations
KEY Electromagnetic radiation is a
form of transverse wave! Compressions and
determines pitch of sound

‘Higher tier only’ Rarefactions

written in green.
‘Physics only’
written in clouds. EDEXCEL
 The angle between
normal and the
Reflection from rough reflected ray
Incident Angle surface, causing scattering
< Refracted Angle Incident Angle
> Refracted Angle
Reflection from smooth Angle of
surface in one direction reflection
Diffuse
When light enters
air from glass: When light enters
glass from air: Specular Angle of
incidence
The change of speed of a wave Reflection
as it enters a new medium Refraction
The angle between
the normal and
The denser the medium, the
slower the wave will travel
4.3: WAVES: incident ray

WAVE INTERACTIONS Wave is incident on

When a wave slows down, it a boundary and
will bend towards the normal
Colour and bounces back
Temperature Temperature Angle of Incidence
Determined by ratio of radiation = Angle of Reflection
absorbed and emitted Colour
Normal
Temperature increases if
the radiation absorbed Determined by the
exceeds the amount emitted wavelengths that an object An imaginary line perpendicular to a
KEY reflects and absorbs boundary at the point of incidence

‘Physics only’ An object that reflects all

written in clouds. wavelengths of light appears white EDEXCEL
 Temperature increase
Higher temperature bodies
emit greater radiation
Radiation emitted Radiation absorbed
> Radiation absorbed > Radiation emitted

All bodies emit

infrared radiation Temperature decrease
Rate of absorption of radiation
= Rate of emission of radiation
Radiation
Constant temperature

Temperature

5.1: LIGHT AND

Reflection from
Minimum incident angle ELCTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM smooth surface in
one direction
required for all light to
under TIR (Physics only)
Critical Reflection Specular
angle
Law of Diffuse
reflection Reflection from
TIR rough surface,
KEY Angle of incidence
causing scattering
‘Higher tier only’ = Angle of reflection
written in green. Total internal Used in optical
‘Physics only’ reflection fibres
written in clouds. EDEXCEL
 A real image can be A virtual image cannot be
projected onto a screen projected onto a screen

Always a
Real or virtual virtual image Rays diverge
image

Rays converge Negative focal

Convex Concave lengths

Positive focal
lengths 5.2: LIGHT AND
ELCTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM: Power
LENSES
Depends on
Refraction (Physics only) focal length
and shape
The changing of speed, and The shorter the
so direction, as a wave focal length, the
enters a new medium more powerful Focal Length

The distance from

Lenses make use of this the lens to the
KEY effect to cause rays to
converge and diverge
principal focus
‘Physics only’
written in clouds. EDEXCEL
 A body that absorbs all
wavelengths of light appears black
A body that reflects all
wavelengths of light appears white
Human eyes can only see a Depends on wavelengths of light
limited range of frequencies that it absorbs and reflects

Disinfecting water Vision

Colour
Security marking
Ultraviolet Visible light

X-Rays 5.3: LIGHT AND Microwaves

Body imaging
ELCTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM: Satellite
USES Communications
Identifying bone
fractures and breakages
Gamma Rays Radio Waves
Infrared
Radio
Cancer Thermal Imaging Communications
detection and
treatment Short-range Broadcasting
communication
KEY Highly penetrating

‘Physics only’
written in clouds. EDEXCEL
 Exposure shielding used by those
regularly working with X-rays
Exposure measuring badges
Controlling exposure

Cell mutation Greater exposure

leading to cancers means greater risk
X-Rays Exposure

5.4: LIGHT AND Microwaves

ELCTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM: Internal heating
DANGERS of body cells
Gamma Rays
Infrared
Ultraviolet
Cell mutations Damage to eyes
causing cancers
Surface cell damage
leading to skin cancer

EDEXCEL
 All travel at the same
speed in a vacuum
All travel at the same
speed in a vacuum Speed of light = 3x10⁸ m/s
Continuous Spectrum
5.5: LIGHT AND
High Frequency ELCTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM Low Frequency
/ Long Wavelength
/ Short Wavelength

Gamma Rays Radio Waves

X-Rays Microwaves
Ultraviolet Infrared
Visible light

To remember order: Giant Xylophones Usually Live In Music Rooms

EDEXCEL
 Relative mass: 1
Relative mass: 0.0005
Relative charge: +1 Majority of Overall charge is neutral: Levels may be changed
atomic mass equal number of protons by absorption or emission
and electrons Relative charge: -1 of radiation
Protons
Relative mass: 1 Nucleus Electrons Electrons exist in
distinct energy levels
Neutrons Atoms
Relative charge: 0
Ions
Isotopes Atomic Structure Elements

Atoms with the same number of protons 6.1: RADIOACTIVITY: Atoms gain electrons to
form negative ions
but different numbers of neutrons
THE ATOM Have a unique number of protons
nucleus has a characteristic charge
Ball of positive charge
with negative charges
Atomic Models
scattered throughout
Plum Pudding Model
Bohr Model
Atoms thought to be
indivisible until electron Very small positive
discovered nucleus
Central nucleus with
electrons orbiting in
Alpha Scattering Most of atom is energy levels
empty space

Atomic radius approx:

1 x 10⁻¹⁰ m EDEXCEL
 No current flows if X-ray scans combined to
there’s smoke produce 3D image of body

Alpha particles sit between two

charged plates Damages body cells CT Scans Radiation focussed to
Causes mutations that can kill cancerous cells
Smoke alarms lead to cancer
Radiotherapy
Range in of a few cm in air Ionising radiation
2 neutrons and 2 protons
(same as helium nucleus) Alpha Gamma EM radiation

Highly ionising
6.2: RADIOACTIVITY:
High speed electron NUCLEAR RADIATION
Beta
Thickness detectors Irradiation
Emitted when a neutron turns Beta particles passed Object is exposed to radiation
into a proton in nucleus through paper without becoming radioactive

Machine stopped if paper is too thick

KEY Nuclear Rearrangement

‘Physics only’ After nuclear decay, gamma
written in clouds. radiation may be given off EDEXCEL
 Uncontrolled chain
reactions are used in Chain reactions
nuclear weapons

Splitting of large and

Unstable nuclei must absorb a unstable nuclei Neutrons released in
slow-moving neutron one fission induce
further fission

Produces two smaller Releases two or

nuclei and releases energy Nuclear Fission three neutrons

6.3: RADIOACTIVITY
(Physics only)

Nuclear Fusion

Joining of two light nuclei

Requires very high into a larger nucleus
temperatures and pressures

KEY Mass is converted into energy in

the A-form of radiation
‘Physics only’
written in clouds. EDEXCEL
 Proton turns into a neutron and
releases a positron

Nuclear weapons testing Rocks, and cosmic rays Proton number decreases
and nuclear accidents from space Mass number constant

Man-Made Natural β+ Decay

Background Radiation Decay Equations

6.4: RADIOACTIVITY β- Decay

Proton number increases

Count-Rate Nuclear Decay Mass number constant
Measured using a
Geiger-Muller tube
Neutron turns into a
Random proton and an electron
Activity is released
Rate at which a
nuclei decays
Which nuclei and when it will
decay is unpredictable
Measured in
becquerels (Bq) EDEXCEL
 Red Giant Red Supergiant
Forces unbalanced as
hydrogen runs out Larger main sequence stars
Similar mass Larger mass swell to supergiants
Outward forces greater to Sun than Sun
causing swelling Supernova
Outward forces (radiation and
White Dwarf The lifecycle of a star pressure) balanced by inward Large explosion
depends on the star’s mass Main sequence gravitational forces
Fusion stops and star Heavy elements from core
contracts under gravity sent into the universe
Stars
Black Dwarf Black Hole
7.1: ASTRONOMY
Star’s energy runs out (Physics only) Largest red supergiants contract
resulting in a black hole

Protostar Orbits Neutron Star

Circular orbits Formed by large mass red

Stable orbits
Dust and gas pulled supergiants collapsing
together by gravity Constant speed but
changing velocity If orbital speed changes,
the radius must change

In circular motion the

direction is always changing
EDEXCEL
 Produces energy by
nuclear fusion

Such as Pluto

Our solar system’s star Man-made satellites for

communications and imaging
Dwarf Planets
The Sun
Gravitational field strength
Solar System Artificial Satellites varies across planets
All orbit the Sun.

The Planets
Object’s weight is different
Mercury 7.2: ASTRONOMY Weight on each planet
Larger planets are Venus (Physics only)
more gaseous Earth W=mg
Mars
Larger planets have
Jupiter
Asteroids Often remains of
stronger gravitational unformed planets
fields, so attract Saturn
debris to form a ring Large rocks mostly found
Uranus
Comets between Mars and Jupiter
Neptune

Closest to the Sun

Produce tails as
they melt Clusters of rock and ice that
moving in elliptical orbits
EDEXCEL
 + Not weather or light
dependent (versatile) - Very expensive

+ Relatively cheaper
- Difficult to repair! Radio telescopes

Outside earth’s atmosphere

Optical telescopes - Limited to night time use

+ The Earth’s atmosphere absorbs a lot Observation

of radiation and has light pollution - Requires clear sky

Clearer in space 7.3: ASTRONOMY

(Physics only)

Red-Shift

Relative motion between a

Further away galaxies have wave source and observer Provides evidence that the
greater red-shift causes a change in observed Universe is expanding
wavelength and frequency
The Big Bang Theory
Further away galaxies
are moving faster

EDEXCEL
 CMBR
‘Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation’

Cannot explain CMBR

Believed to be the gamma radiation
emitted in the big bang
As the universe expands,
new matter is created
Radiation stretched as the Universe has expanded

The universe has

always existed
7.4: ASTRONOMY
(Physics only)
Steady State Theory Big Bang Theory

The Universe expanded

from a single point

Currently accepted model

Backed up by the most evidence and

explains the existence of CMBR

EDEXCEL
 Waste energy is
downwards arrow
In a closed system, the total
Arrow’s width represents energy remains constant
Useful energy is shown energy for a purpose
by a horizontal arrow
Energy can only be transformed
Shows energy transfers from one form to another
in a system
Energy cannot be created
or destroyed
Sankey Diagrams
Conservation
8.1: ENERGY
Mechanical processes waste
Efficiency energy due to friction and heat
loss to surroundings

Useful Energy Waste Energy Some supplied energy transformed

Transferred
Efficiency = into non-useful forms
Total Energy Supplied
Lubrication Insulation

Reduces heat loss Reduces heat loss

due to friction to surroundings
EDEXCEL
 Doubling speed quadruples KE
As cord stretches,
Moving objects have KE KE → Elastic Potential Energy, The vehicle slows down
slowing down the jumper
KE = ½ x Mass x
Velcoity² KE → heat energy by
GPE → KE as jumper falls friction in the brakes
GPE = Mass x Gravitational
Field Strength x Height Bungee jumper
Kinetic Energy Vehicle braking

Objects at a Gravitational Electric kettle

height have GPE Potential Energy Energy Transfers
Electrical energy → heat energy

8.2: ENERGY Energy wasted as sound &

heat to surroundings

Power = Work Done (J) Power Work Done

Time Taken (s)
Work Done (J) = Force (N) x Distance (m)

1 W = 1 J/s Work done when energy is transferred 1 J = 1 Nm

from one form to another

The unit of power is The work done is equal to energy transferred

the Watt (W)
Must use the force in the
direction of motion EDEXCEL
 Resistive force between Acts in the opposite
moving surfaces direction to the force an
Friction object applies on a surface
Normal Contact Force
Acts opposite to
object’s motion Lubrication Only act when the interacting
objects are physically touching
Air resistance is a
type of friction Reduces heat loss
due to friction Equilibrium
Contact Forces
Quantities

Non-Contact Forces 9.1: FORCES AND Resultant force on

object is zero
THEIR EFFECTS
Scalar
Forces that act without Vector
physical contact Magnitude only
Acts between Direction and
masses magnitude
Gravitational
Electrostatic

Acts between
charges Magnetic poles exert
Magnetic fields non-contact forces
on each other
EDEXCEL
 Free Body Diagrams
Resolving Vectors
Normal reaction force

Different lengths between the

pivot increases force V Horizontal
Air Driving component,
resistance force y
0
Horizontal component, x
Force multipliers
Weight
Levers Diagrams

9.2: FORCES AND Principle of moments

Gears
THEIR EFFECTS
The sum of clockwise
moments must equal the sum
Combine different sizes to of anticlockwise moments
alter force and speed Moments for any object in equilibrium

The turning effect

of a force Total Clockwise Moment
= Total Anticlockwise Moment

KEY Perpendicular distance Measured in Nm

between line of action
‘Higher tier only’ of force and pivot
written in green.
‘Physics only’
written in clouds.
Moment of a Force = Force x Distance
EDEXCEL
 Relative Measured in
charge: -1 Amps

Relative Relative mass: Rate of flow of

Work done when charge charge in circuit
charge: 0 0.0005 flows in circuit Measured in
Ohms
Relative mass: 1 Measured in Current (I)
Electrons Coulombs Measure of how hard it
is for current to flow
Neutrons
Charge (Q) Resistance (R)
Atomic Structure
Quantities
Protons
10.1: ELECTRICITY
Relative
charge: +1
Relative mass: 1
AND CIRCUITS Potential
Difference (V)

Measured in
Power Volts
Power ratings
Appliance power ratings show Measured in
the rate of energy transfer Rate of energy Watts
Efficiency transfer
E=Pt
Useful Power Output / P=I²R
Total Power Input P=IV
EDEXCEL
 The total resistance is lower
than the lowest resistance
Detecting circuits Heating systems
1/R = 1/R₁ +1/ R₂
Resistance decreases as
Circuits designed to detect temperatures increases
changes in their environment Parallel resistors

Thermistors Measures the P.D. over Connected in parallel

a circuit component
Resistance decreases as LDRS Circuits Voltmeter Parallel circuits
light intensity increases

Used in street lamps Components in different loops

10.2: ELECTRICITY AND Current split between loops
CIRCUITS Voltage same in each loop
I

V I-V I

Current directly
Characteristics
proportional to P.D. Ohmic conductor As temperature increases,
ions gain K.E. and vibrate more
I Filament bulb
Resistance stays
constant with current
V Harder for electrons to pass
Current can only flow
Only if temperature constant Diode in one direction
EDEXCEL
 Circuit Breakers
Switch which breaks circuit Live Wire Earth Wire Neutral Wire
Connected to if current gets too high
live wire Brown Green and yellow Blue

Mains voltage Prevents appliance from

Thin piece of wire which melts and = 230V Completes circuit
breaks if current gets to high becoming live
Fuses

Alternating Current
Direct Current Mains Electricity
Current flows in one direction Direction of current flow
oscillates at given frequency
Batteries produce DC
10.3: ELECTRICITY AND
CIRCUITS Mains provides AC

Frequency = 50 Hz
Series Circuits
Ammeter Series resistors
Components in one loop
Measures the current at Total resistance is sum of
a point in circuit individual resistances
Current the same
everywhere R = R₁ + R₂
Connected in series
Voltage split between
components
EDEXCEL
 Direction a positive
charge would flow
Field lines point
-Q from +ve to -ve

+Q +
-ve Charge Pump & pipes are earthed
to prevent sparks
-
Uniform field
+ve Charge Field patterns
Dangers of Sparking
Electric Fields
11.1: STATIC ELECTRICITY Fuel pumps
Non-contact (Physics Only)
Charge builds as fuel
flows through pipes
Charged objects
Earthing
Due to friction
Electrostatic force doesn’t Charged objects produce
need physical contact an electric field Path to allow exceeds Charge build up could
charge build ups to escape result in spark

Charges in an electric
field experience a force Fire hazard in
presence of fuel

EDEXCEL
 Rubbing insulators Results in an
transfers electrons Opposite charges on electric shock
balloon and wall attract
Transfer of Charged objects loses
electrons Balloon repels same charges on the its excess electrons
Will attract small wall, leaving opposite charges
pieces of paper
Touching a charged object
Charged balloon will stick to wall while earthed, may cause
Charged by rubbing electrons to flow
with a cloth Rubbing a balloon with a
cloth charges it

Perspex rod Balloon Electric shocks

11.2: STATIC ELECTRICITY Electrostatic

Charging Insulators (Physics Only) Phenomena

Equally and Lightning

Insecticide sprayers
Attraction oppositely charged
Electrostatic
Object gaining electrons charge builds up
becomes negative Particles are equally charged in clouds
Opposite charges as they leave spray
attract
Repulsion Object losing electrons When the charge is
becomes positive They spread evenly since too large, it is
particles repel each other earthed via the air
Same charges
repel
Results in lightning
strikes
EDEXCEL
 Magnetic monopoles Has its own
(one without the other) magnetic field
not discovered
Iron
All magnets have a Steel
Opposite poles North and South pole Permanent magnet
Same polls Cobalt
attract repel
Magnetic poles Magnetic materials Nickel
Attraction
Repulsion Becomes magnetic
when in a field
Objects don’t need to be physically
Types of Magnets
Attractive forces
touching to experience force Induced magnet always

Non-contact force 12.1: MAGNETISM AND Place magnet on paper and move compass
THE MOTOR EFFECT around the page, marking the direction it
points each time, then join the lines

Uniform Fields Plotting compasses

Magnetic field strength
Magnetic Fields
the same everywhere Used to plot field lines
Direction Strength Strongest at poles
Point from North to South
Depends on distance
from magnet
Equally spaced
field lines Concentration of Field lines more concentrated
Field Lines in stronger field regions
EDEXCEL
 Current and field are
perpendicular to each other
Outside, fields cancel to
produce a weak field Turns into an electromagnet
Thumb: Force
Inside, fields add to
First Finger: produce a strong field
Magnetic field Strength can be increased
Fields from each by adding an iron core
Second Finger: Conventional coil combine
current flow Strength
Field
Fleming's Left Coil of wire with current
Hand Rule Solenoids flowing through
Works out direction of force
for a conductor in a field 12.2: MAGNETISM AND Produces a magnetic
field around itself
THE MOTOR EFFECT Current-carrying wire
Current carrying conductor in Motor Effect Wires
a field experiences a force Strength
Electric Motor
force (N) = magnetic flux density (T) Field Depends on size of
x current (A) x length (m) Coil of current carrying current and distance
wire in a magnetic field Concentric circular from the wire
lines about wire
KEY Force causes rotation about an axis
Right Hand Grip Rule
‘Higher tier only’
written in green. Current flows in opposite Thumb in direction of current, the
directions on each side so each direction your fingers wrap around
‘Physics only’
written in clouds.
side experiences opposite forces
the wire shows field direction EDEXCEL
 Decreases voltage of a supply The direction of current flow
continually switches direction
Increases voltage of a supply
V₁ > V₂
n₁ > n₂ V₁ < V₂

Step-Up transformers n₁ < n₂ Alternating Currents

Step-Down transformers

Metal core with primary and Relative motion between

secondary coil of wire on each side field and conductor
AC in primary coil
Efficiency
Transformers
If 100% efficient, input
power = output power

V₁ x I₁ = V₂ x I₂ 13.1: ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Generates Moving a magnetic field
alternating current Induced Potential relative to a conductor
induces a PD across conductor
Difference
Alternators
Moving a conductor relative to a
magnetic field induces a PD across it
Dynamos

KEY Generates PD will cause current to flow

in a loop shaped conductor
‘Higher tier only’ direct current
written in green.
‘Physics only’ Induce PD with a conductor
written in clouds.
and magnetic field EDEXCEL
 Voltage is lowered to safe usable levels
(230V) before being used in homes This makes the national grid
more efficient

Voltage is increased before being Power lines transfer electricity

transported through power lines Local substations at very high voltages

Efficiency
Power stations
High voltages result in lower currents
A series of power stations, wires and so the wires heat up less
and substations that produce and
transport electricity National Grid

13.2: ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Loudspeakers
Microphones
A cone with wire wrapped around it, Use the generator effect to turn vibrations in the
connected to an AC power supply and microphone coil (caused by the pressure variations of
placed in a permanent magnetic field sound) into current variations in a circuit

Current flows through wire, creating

a second magnetic field

This interacts with the permanent field,

producing a force which vibrates the cone
EDEXCEL
 Most Kinetic Particles can flow
Energy over each other

Particles can
move freely
Particles can only
Lowest vibrate about fixed
Measured in kg/m³ density
Gases Liquids positions

ρ = m/v Highest
States of density
Matter Solids
Mass per Density Least Kinetic Energy
unit volume

14.1: PARTICLE MODEL Solid changes to a gas without

becoming a liquid

Sublimation
Changes of state are Changes of State
physical changes
MELTING Chemical changes
Internal energy Solid → Liquid Cannot easily
Physical hhanges recover its original
The total kinetic and Mass is always EVAPORATION properties
potential energies of the conserved in Liquid → Gas If change is reversed the
particles in a system material’s properties can
changes of state CONDENSATION be recovered
Gas → Liquid EDEXCEL
 Changing from
Temperature increases depend solid to liquid Changing from
on material type, mass and the Energy needed to change the liquid to vapour
energy supplied state of 1kg of a substance Latent Heat of
without a change in temperature Fusion
Measured in J/ Latent Heat of
The energy needed to raise Measured in J/ Vaporisation
the temperature of 1kg of a kg
kg°C
substance by 1°C
Temperature increases
ΔE = m c Δ𝛉 with kinetic energy
Specific heat capacity Specific latent heat
Temperature is determined
ΔE = m L by kinetic energy
Can cause temperature
to increase Molecules are in constant
14.2: PARTICLE MODEL random motion
Increases internal
energy Particle motion
Work done
P₁ x V₁ = P₂ x V₂
A force
Pressure in gases
transfers energy
Bike pump Force exerted at right angles
Absolute zero to walls causes pressure
Energy transferred Lowest theoretical temperature,
when work is done to gas particles have no kinetic energy
KEY Compressing pump does work on
Temperature increases
For a fixed mass of gas held
at constant temperature,
‘Higher tier only’ with kinetic energy pV = constant
gas, increasing temperature
written in green.
‘Physics only’
written in clouds. EDEXCEL
 E = ½ k 𝑥²

Work done in stretching Compressing, stretching or

elastic objects Object returns to original shape bending always requires
Energy Stored as elastic PE when deforming forces removed multiple forces

Elastic Potential Elastic Deformation

Energy Plastic Deformation

The point beyond which plastic

deformation occurs 15.1: FORCES AND MATTER: Object does not return to
SOLIDS original shape when
Limit of proportionality
deforming shape removed
Extension is directly
proportional to force applied, up Hooke’s Law
to the limit of proportionality
Loading
F=k𝑥 Force /N
E
Spring Constant P
Force /N
Gradient = Spring Constant Extension /m
Measured in Nm⁻¹
Extension /m EDEXCEL
 Submerged objects experience
greater pressure below than above Measured in
Causes resultant Force per unit area Pascals, Pa
upwards force
Weight = Mass x Gravitational Upthrust
Field Strength
Objects sink if weight Force (N)
> upthrust Pressure (Pa) =
Measured in Weight Area (m²)
Newtons, N
Sinking
Floating
Floating Pressure
Fluids
Objects float if upthrust and Sinking
> weight Causes a force normal
to any surfaces

Pressure decreases
15.2: FORCES AND MATTER:
with altitude FLUIDS More particles above
you in denser fluids
Air particles Pressure in
collide with Atmospheric Pressure
surfaces, exerting
a Column p=h⍴g
pressure Thin layer of air
around the Earth
The pressure in a column of liquid
depends on depth and density
KEY Number of particles
decreases with height
‘Higher tier only’ Particles above you
written in green. increases with depth, and
‘Physics only’ Becomes less dense so does the force exerted
written in clouds. with altitude EDEXCEL