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Module 1

The document provides an overview of sensors and energy systems. It discusses the components, working principles and applications of various sensor types including conductometric, electrochemical, thermometric and optical sensors. It also discusses the working of electrochemical sensors for detecting dissolved oxygen, pharmaceuticals like diclofenac, and hydrocarbons like 1-hydroxypyrene. Energy systems like lithium-ion batteries and quantum dot solar cells are also briefly introduced.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
52 views12 pages

Module 1

The document provides an overview of sensors and energy systems. It discusses the components, working principles and applications of various sensor types including conductometric, electrochemical, thermometric and optical sensors. It also discusses the working of electrochemical sensors for detecting dissolved oxygen, pharmaceuticals like diclofenac, and hydrocarbons like 1-hydroxypyrene. Energy systems like lithium-ion batteries and quantum dot solar cells are also briefly introduced.

Uploaded by

gj7cpz4fzy
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Module -1

SENSORS AND ENERGY SYSTEMS

Sensors: Introduction, working principle and applications of Conductometric sensors,


Electrochemical sensors, Thermometric sensors, and Optical sensors. Sensors for the sensors of
dissolved oxygen (DO). Electrochemical measurement pharmaceuticals, surfactants, hydrocarbons.
Electrochemical gas sensors for SOx and NOx. Disposable sensors in the detection of biomolecules
and pesticides.

Energy Systems: Introduction to batteries, construction, working and applications of Lithium ion
and Sodium ion batteries. Quantum Dot Sensitized Solar Cells (QDSSC's) - Principle, Properties and
Applications.

What are sensors? Briefly describe the functions of main components of a sensor.
A chemical sensor is a device that is capable of giving real time analytical information about a test
sample. It interacts with a specific chemical or biological analyte, detects it and produces the signal
proportional to its quantity.

Components of a sensor are:


a) Receptor
Receptor is a chemical or biological recognition element which is capable of interacting with analyte
specifically and selectively. It produces a signal corresponding to interaction in the form of change in
potential, conductivity, current, mass, heat, pH, colour etc.
b) Transducer
Transducer is used to convert the signal created by the receptor-analyte interaction into a measurable
form.
c) Electrical signal and display
The electronic system analyzes the signal given by the transducer, helps in signal amplification and
converts the signal from analog to digital form. These amplified signals are then displayed.
A schematic diagram illustrating the major components of a standard sensor.
Briefly describe the working principle and applications of an electrochemical sensor.
Electrochemical sensors are made up of three essential components: a receptor that binds the sample,
the sample or analyte, and a transducer to convert the reaction into a measurable electrical signal. In
the case of electrochemical sensors, the electrode acts as the transducer.
The main steps involved in working of an electrochemical sensor are:
1. Diffusion of the analyte to the electrode/electrolyte interface (in the liquid phase).
2. Adsorption onto the electrode surface.
3. The electrode will either oxidize or reduce the analyte of interest.
4. The current that is produced from the reaction is monitored and used to calculate important data
such as concentrations from the sample.

Working principle
Electrochemical sensors involve the measurement of electric current generated by chemical reactions
in the electrochemical system.
Electrochemical sensor’s working mechanism involves the interaction of the target analyte material
with the electrode surface and bringing the desired change due to redox reaction, which generates an
electrical signal that can be transformed to explore the nature of the analyte species.
Applications of electrochemical sensors
1. The electro chemical oxygen sensor is used for detection of dissolved oxygen in water boiler and
to monitor dissolved oxygen concentration in metal melts, glasses and in hydrogen fuel.
2. Electrochemical sensors are used in security and defence applications like detection of toxic gas,
warfare agents etc.
3. Electrochemical sensors are used in water analysis and environmental monitoring, like
measurement of toxic metal concentration in water, detection of oxides of nitrogen and sulphur, CO,
pH of water etc.
4. They are used in diagnostic and health-care applications, like in situ monitoring of glucose serum
uric acid, blood Ca, Fe, Acetylcholine etc.

Briefly describe working principle the conductometric sensor.


In conductometric sensor, determination of the concentration of analyte is based on
measurement of changes in electrolytic conductance of solution. Conductance of a solution is based
on:
1. The concentration (number) of ions in solution.
2. Mobility of each type of ion in solution. Mobility of an ion depends on its size. Smaller the size
higher is mobility and higher is electrolytic conductance.
Electrode used in conductivity sensor is called as conductivity cell. It is made of two platinum foils
with unit cross sectional area and unit distance between them. Volume between two electrodes is 1
cm2. Conductance of unit volume of the solution is called as specific conductance. There will be
change in specific conductance of solution when there is change in number of ions. This change is
measured using conductivity cell.

Applications of Conductometric sensor


1. It is used to estimate acids, bases and their mixtures in a sample.
2. It is used to check the amount of ionic impurities in water samples.
3. Conductometric biosensors are used in biomedicine, environment monitoring, bio technology and
agriculture related applications.

What is optical sensors? Explain, detail working principle and any four application
Sensors based on the measurement of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with the
chemical species and converts light rays into an electronic signal are called optical sensors.
Optical sensors have the ability to detect light, typically at a specific range of the electromagnetic
spectra (ultraviolet, visible, and infrared). The sensor detects either wavelength, frequency, or
polarization of light and converts it into electric signal due to photoelectric effect.
The intensity of the radiation emitting from the analyte carries information on the concentration of
the analyte. Simple optical sensor consists of light source, a wavelength selector, a photodetector,
and a display of the output.

Schematic representation of a simple optical sensor


Applications of optical sensors
1. Used in mobiles to extend the battery life and enables easy-to-view displays that is optimized for
the environment.
2. Optical sensors can be used in the determination of any chemical species which can interact with
electromagnetic radiation.
3. Optical sensors find important and varied uses in evironmental, biotechnological, food, and
pharmaceutical.
4. Optical biosensors show greater potential for the detection of pathogens, pesticide and drug
residues, hygiene monitoring, heavy metals and other toxic substances
5. A LED shines through the skin, and an optical sensor examines the light that reflected back. Since
blood absorbs more light, fluctuations in light level can be translated into heart rate.
Briefly describe the working principle and applications of a thermometric sensor.
Thermometric sensor is a device that converts thermal energy into electric energy. The
amount of electric energy generated can be used to measure temperature.
A thermocouple is an example for thermometric sensor
The thermocouple works on the principle of see back effect. Thermocouple consists of two different
types of metals joined together at one end (hot junction) and terminated at another end (cold
junction). When these two junctions are exposed to two different temperatures, a net thermal emf is
produced. The output of a thermocouple can be measured directly by a millivoltmeter.

Applications of a thermometric sensor


1) The main application of these temperature sensors is in hazardous locations like nuclear power
plants.
2) Temperature sensors identify the heat of hydration in concrete structures in geothermal control.
3) Used to automobiles and computers ensure the system itself does not overheat
4) Used to control the heat on electric radiators
5) Temperature sensors are used to monitor the temperature of the melted chocolate for 3D printing.

Electrochemical gas sensor


Electronic devices that detect and identify different types of gasses present in atmosphere. They are
commonly used to detect toxic or explosive gasses and measure gas concentration.

Explain the working principle of an electrochemical sensor in the detection of dissolved


oxygen.
Dissolved oxygen sensor is used to measure the amount of oxygen that is dissolved in water.
In an electrochemical DO sensor, two electrodes used are of dissimilar metals, Zinc or Lead is used
as anode and silver metal is used as inert cathode. The difference in potential between the anode and
the cathode should be more than 0.5 V to reduce dissolved oxygen without an external applied
potential. The electrolyte solution used is sodium chloride, or any other inert electrolyte, when the
electrode assembly is dipped in water to measure its DO, anode undergoes oxidation liberating
electrons,
Zn Zn²+ +2e-
Oxygen enters the sensor through a permeable membrane by diffusion and is reduced at the cathode
1
O₂ + H₂O + 2e- 2OH-
2

The current produced by the reduction of oxygen at cathode is proportional to the partial pressure of
oxygen in the water sample.
Appications
1) O2 sensors help regulate your car engine's air-fuel ratio
2) Determines the concentration of oxygen in soil in IoT-based farming
3) The oxygen sensors are used in oxygen analyzers, anesthesia monitors and respirators

Describe the application of electrochemical sensor for the detection of pharmaceuticals taking
diclofenac as an example
Diclofenac, is one of the most frequently prescribed non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID)
with antipyretic and analgesic effects. In the electrochemical sensor used to detect diclofenac, the
sensing (working) electrode is graphite carbon coated with Multi walled carbon nanotubes and gold
nanoparticles. When the sample containing diclofenac is put in the sensor, the following oxidation
reaction of diclofenac occurs on the surface of the sensing electrode. The change in potential of the
reaction gives the concentration of diclofenac.

Describe the application of electrochemical sensor for the detection of hydrocarbons taking 1-
hydroxypyrene as an example
Detection of hydrocarbon pollutants, mainly polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) is essential to
monitor their toxicity and carcinogenic risk.
Electrochemical sensor used to detect 1-hydroxypyrene, consists of the sensing (working) electrode
made of graphite carbon coated with chromium containing metal Organic framework (Cr-MOF) and
graphene oxide.
1,6-hydroxypyrene structure contains electrochemically active hydroxyl groups, which can be
oxidized by the anode active material hydoxypyrene gets oxidised quinine. Concentration of 1,6-
hydoxypyrene is determined from the change in potential of the reaction.

Describe the application of electrochemical gas sensor for the detection of NOx.
Electrochemical sensors are made up of three essential components: a receptor that binds the sample,
the sample or analyte, and a transducer to convert the reaction into a measurable electrical signal. In
the case of electrochemical sensors, the electrode acts as the transducer.
NO is an important gas it becomes crucial in the diagnostics of cardiovascular complications.

Detection of NO, in an amperometric gas sensor in aqueous electrolyte is based on the following
electrochemical/reduction reaction on the surface of sensing electrode. Silver is used as sensing
electrode.

The direct electro oxidation of NO in solutions follows a 3 step reaction.


NO → NO+ + e−
NO+ + OH- → HNO2
HNO2+ H2O → NO3− + 2e− + 3H+

The reaction for the Ag/AgCl reference electrode is the following:


AgCl + e− → Ag + Cl−
Describe the application of electrochemical gas sensor for the detection of SOx.
Detection of SO, in an amperometric gas sensor in aqueous electrolyte is based on the following
electrochemical oxidation reaction on the surface of sensing electrode. Au/Nafion sensing electrode
with 0.5 M H₂SO4, is used as electrolyte.
SO2+ 2H₂O SO42- +4H+ +2e-

What is a disposable sensor? Describe the use of disposable sensor in detection of biomolecule,
ascorbic acid.
Portable sensors used for on-the-spot analysis using a disposable strip with receptor and electrodes
printed on it, is called as disposable sensor.
Disposable, pre-activated screen printing electrodes have been developed for a spot analysis of
ascorbic acid (Vitamin-C).

Screen printed paper strip disposable sensor


Active material casted on sensing electrode must be capable of oxidizing ascorbic acid on its surface.
The ascorbate oxidase enzyme immobilized on a screen-printed carbon electrode with polyethylene
glycol) and diglycidyl can be used as sensing (working). It oxidises ascorbic acid is to
dehydroascorbic acid. Concentration of ascorbic acid is determined from the change in potential of
the oxidation process

What is a disposable sensor? Describe the use of disposable sensor in detection of pesticide,
glyphosate.
Portable sensors used for on-the-spot analysis using a disposable strip with receptor and electrodes
printed on it, is called as disposable sensor.
Glyphosate [N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine] is an organophosphorus pesticide. It is extensively used
as herbicide in agriculture.
Glycine oxidase can cleave the C-N bond in glyphosate. The glycine oxidase enzyme immobilized
on a screen- printed carbon electrode can be used as sensing (working) electrode in glyphosate
disposable biosensor. It oxidizes glyphosate in to amidomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA) and
glyoxylate. Concentration of glyphosate is determined from the change in potential of the oxidation
process.

Explain the construction and working of lithium ion batteries and mention it applications

Anode Lithium dissolved as ions onto carbon


Cathode Lithium cobalt oxide
Electrolyte Lithium hexaflurophosphate dissolved in organic solvent
Electrode reactions

At anode: Cn LiX Cn + XLi+ + Xe-

At cathode: Li1-x CoO2 + XLi+ + Xe- Li CoO2

CnLiX + Li 1-x CoO2 Li CoO2 + Cn

During discharging lithium ions are dissociated from the anode and migrate across the electrolyte
and occupy the crystal lattice of the cathode.

During recharging the reaction get reversed.


discharging
CnLiX + Li 1-x CoO2 Li CoO2 + Cn
recharging

Advantages
Longest Life- Low self discharge
Ecofriendly- No gasses emitted
Temperature Tolerant
Charging - Fast & Safe.
Lightweight. 50-60% less weight than lead-acid equivalent.
Explain construction, working and application Sodium ion batteries and its application?
Anode Hard Carbon
Cathode Sodium inserted in layered metal oxide (MnO₂).
Electrolyte Sodium salt like NaPF, dissolved in binary organic solvent such as ethylene
carbonate-dimethyl carbonate.

At anode
C-Na C + Na+ + e-
Electrons flow from anode to cathode through external circuit. Sodium ions move through the
electrolyte and separator to reach cathode.
At cathode
Na+ + e- + MO2 Na-MO2
Sodium ions are reduced to sodium atoms and are inserted in to the layered structure of metal oxide
Reactions are reversed during charging of the battery.
Advantages:
1. Na is inexpensive, more abundant than Li by 2-3 orders of magnitude. Therefore cost of
production of SIB is lower than Lithium ion battery.
2. Processing of sodium is more environmentally friendly than lithium.
3. Sodium is less explosive and safer than lithium.

Explain the construction and working of Quantum dot sensitized solar cells (QDSSC'S).
Mention its applications
Solar cells are photovoltaic devices that directly convert a solar photon into electricity via the
photoelectric effect. QDSCs have high light absorption coefficient, tunable band gap, high stability,
and low-cost availability.
Construction
Photo anode: Photoanode is a conducting glass, over which a wide-band gap semiconductor like
TiO2, ZnO, SnO₂ is coated.
Cathode: Brass Plate
Electrolyte: Poly lead sulphide (S2-)
Working of Quantum dot sensitized solar photovoltaic cell

1. QD's present on photo anode is exposed to sunlight.


2. QD's absorb solar energy and generate charge carriers (electrons) and causes electrons to move
from valence band to conduction band. These ejected electrons are transferred to semiconductor,
leaving holes on the surface of QD's.
3. Electrolyte takes up holes from the surface of QD's and gets reduced.
S2- + 2 h+ → S
4. Electrons flow from photoanode to cathode through external circuit generating an electric current.
5. At cathode, electrolyte is regenerated taking up electrons from cathode.
S + 2e- → S2-

Advantages of Quantum dot solar cell


 Increased electrical performance at low production costs.
 Lower power consumption

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