UNIT - 1

INTRODUCTION

Modern power system (or) electric energy

system Over view of power system analysis
Power system consists of

Generation Transmission Distribution system

Components of power system

Components of power system are
 Generators
 Transformers
 Transmission Lines
 Distribution Lines
 Loads
 Compensating Devices - Shunt compensators , Series compensators, Static
VAR compensators

Definition of Power System

The evalution of Power system is called as Power system analysis

Functions of Power System analysis:

 To maintain the voltage at various buses real and reactive power flow between
buses
 To design the circuit breakers
 To plan the future expansion of existing system
 To analyze the system under different fault conditions (three phase fault, L-G,
L-L, L-L-G faults)
 To study the ability of the system for large disturbance (Sudden application of the
large load)
 To study the ability of the system for small disturbance

Natural Sources
 Coal
 Water flow
 Uranium & Thorium
 Fossil Fuel
 Wind
 Tidal
 Solar
 Bio-Gas
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 Analysis for system planning and operational studies
Needs for system analysis in planning and operation of power system
 Planning and operation of power system - Operational planning covers the whole
period ranging from the incremental stage of system development

 The system operation engineers at various points like area, space, regional & national
load dispatch of power
N
 Power balance equation PD = PGi This equation is satisfied it gives good
i1
economy and security
 Power system planning and operational analysis covers the maintenance of
generation, transmission and distribution facilities

Implementation of Monitorin
Plannin plans g
Comparing
g plans
with result

Corrective
action

Steps:
 Planning of power system
 Implementation of the plans
 Monitoring system
 Compare plans with the results
 If no undesirable deviation occurs, then directly go to planning of system
 If undesirable deviation occurs then take corrective action and then go to planning ofthe system

Planning and operation of power system

Planning and operation of power system the following analysis are very
important (a). Load flow analysis
(b). Short circuit
analysis (c). Transient
analysis

Load flow analysis

 Electrical power system operate - Steady state mode

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 Basic calculation required to determine the characteristics of this state is called as
Load flow
 Power flow studies - To determine the voltage current active and reactive power
flows in given power system
 A number of operating condition can be analyzed including contingencies. That
operating conditions are
(a). Loss of generator
(b).Loss of a transmission
line
(c).Loss of transformer (or) Load
(d). Equipment over load (or) unacceptable voltage levels
 The result of the power flow analysis are stating point for the stability analysis and
power factor improvement
 Load flow study is done during the planning of a new system or the extension of an
existing one

Short circuit studies

 To determine the magnitude of the current flowing through out the power system at
various time intervals after fault
 The objective of short circuit analysis - To determine the current and voltages at
different location of the system corresponding to different types of faults
(a). Three phase to ground
fault (b). Line to ground fault
(c). Line to line fault
(d). Double line to ground
fault (e). Open conductor fault

Transient stability analysis

 The ability of the power system consisting of two (or) more generators to continue to
operate after change occur on the system is a measure of the stability
 In power system the stability depends on the power flow pattern generator
characteristics system loading level and the line parameters

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 Basic components of a power system.
Structure of Power system

Components of power system

Components of power system are
 Generators - Convert mechanical energy in to electrical energy
 Transformers - Transfer Power or energy from one circuit to another circuit with
out change in frequency
 Transmission Lines - Transfer power from one place another place
 Control Equipment: Used for protection
purpose Concept of Real & Reactive power
Let ‘V’ be the Instantaneous
voltage Let ‘i’ be the Instantaneous
current V = Vm sin ωt
I = im sin (ωt - Φ)
Radian frequency ω =
2Πf Transmitter power P
=Vi
= Vm sin ωt * im sin (ωt - Φ)

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 Vmim
= (cos Φ - cos (2ωt - Φ)
2
RMS value of voltage |V| V max
= 1.414
i max
RMS value of voltage |i| = 1.414
P = |V| |i| [cos Φ - cos (2ωt - Φ)]
=|V| |i| cos Φ - |V| |i| cos (2ωt - Φ)
= |V| |i| cos Φ - |V| |i| (cos 2ωt cos Φ + sin 2ωt sin Φ)
= |V| |i| cos Φ (1 - cos 2ωt) - |V| |i| sin Φ sin 2ωt
P = P (1 -cos 2ωt) - Q sin 2ωt
Where active or useful or real power P=|V| |i| cos Φ
watts Non - active (or) Reactive power Q = |V| |i| sin Φ
VAR

Types of load Phasor Diagram Angle Real power Reactive power

R Load Φ=0 P>0 Q=0

L Load V

Φ = 90 (lags) P=0 Q>0

C Load Φ = 90 (Leads) P=0 Q<0

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RL Load V 0 < Φ < 90 P>0 Q>0

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RC Load I -90 < Φ < 0 P>0 Q<0

Inductive Load - Absorbs reactive power

Capacitive Load - Generate reactive power
Apparent Power:The product of RMS value of voltage and current

Modeling of components for load flow

analysis Generator models
Generators:
The thevenins equivalent circuit of the generator i.e. The voltage source in series with
the thevenins equivalent impedance. Z = R + jX

The Norton form equivalent circuit of the generator i.e. The current source in parallel
with the admittance

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 Transformer model

Transmission system
model Transmission Line
Transmission line are modelled as (i). Short line model (ii). Medium line model (iii).
Long line model
(i). Short line model : Resistance & inductance are assumed to be lumped

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 Vs Is A B Vr
C D Ir
Medium line model (lines between 80 to 250km)
Resistance &inductance are assumed to be lumped &the total shunt admittance is
divided in to two equal parts & placed at the receiving and sending ends.
The Π model

Vs Is A B Vr
C D Ir
X=
Lω
Y/2 = Cω/2
A = 1+ZY/2
B=Z
C=Y(1+ZY/4)
D=1+ZY/4

Long line model (lines above 250)

Z’=Z sinhγL / γ L
Y’/2 = 1/Zc tan h (γL/2)
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 cosh
Vs Is l Zc sinh l Vr
Zc
1/ sinh l cosh l Ir
Shunt Elements:
The shunt capacitor is connected to bus i. If S is MVAR rating of shunt capacitor. So is
base MVA admittance P.u. Y P.u. = 0+jS/S0

Shunt reactors is connected io bus i. If S is MVAR rating of shunt capacitor. So is base

MVA admittance P.u. Y P.u. = 0-jS/S0

Load representation

Load:
Load is represented by a constant power representation. Both MW (P) & MVAR (Q)
- constant

Single line diagram

Single line diagram

In general electrical power systems are represented by a one line diagram (or) single
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line diagram

A single line diagram of a power system shows the main connections & arrangements
of components in a simplified manner

Pictorial representation of the entire power system from generating end to the
consumer premises is known as single line diagram

Standard symbols

Sl.no Components Symbol

1 Rotating M/c(or) armature

2 Bus

3 Two winding power

Transfomer

4 Three winding power

Transformer

5 Delta connection (3Φ, 3

wire)

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6 Wye connection (3Φ,
neutral un grounded)

7 Wye connection (3Φ,

neutral grounded)

8 Transmission lines

9 Static load

10 Circuit Breaker

11 Circuit Breaker (air)

12 Disconnect

13 Fuse

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 14 Capacitor

15 Current transformer

16 Potential transformer

17 Lighting arrester

1.8.1. Single Line diagram of an Electrical system

 One line diagram of a very simple power system

 Two generators one grounded through a reactor and one through a resister connected
to a bus and through a step up transformer to a transmission lines
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 Another generator grounded a reactor is connected a bus and through a transformer
to the opposite end of the transmission line
 A load is connected to each bus
 On the diagram information about the loads the ratings of the generators and
transformers and reactance of different components of the circuit is often given
 It is important to know the location of points where a system is connected to ground
to calculate the amount of current flowing when an unsymmetrical fault involving ground
occur
Equivalent circuit for various power system components:
(i). Generators

(ii). Transmission lines

(iii). Transformer

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 (iv). Static load

(v). Rotating load (motor)

Impedance diagram:
The impedance diagram on single-phase basis for use under balanced conditions can be
easily drawn from the SLD. The following assumptions are made in obtaining the
impedance diagrams.
Assumptions:
1. The single phase transformer equivalents are shown as ideals with impedance on
appropriate side (LV/HV),
2. The magnetizing reactance of transformers are negligible,
3. The generators are represented as constant voltage sources with series resistance
or reactance,
4. The transmission lines are approximated by their equivalent -Models,
5. The loads are assumed to be passive and are represented by a series branch
of resistance or reactance and
6. Since the balanced conditions are assumed, the neutral grounding impedance do
not appear in the impedance diagram.

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Example system
As per the list of assumptions as above and with reference to the system of figure 2, the
impedance diagram can be obtained as shown in figure

1.8.4. Reactance Diagram

With some more additional and simplifying assumptions, the impedance diagram can
be simplified further to obtain the corresponding reactance diagram. The following are
the assumptions made.
Additional assumptions:
(i). The resistance is often omitted during the fault analysis. This causes a
very negligible error since, resistances are negligible
(ii). Loads are Omitted
(iii). Transmission line capacitances are ineffective &
(iv). Magnetizing currents of transformers are
neglected.
Example system
as per the assumptions given above and with reference to the system of figure 2
and Figure, the reactance diagram can be obtained as shown in figure

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 Per phase and per unit representation
During the power system analysis, it is a usual practice to represent current, voltage,
impedance, power, etc., of an electric power system in per unit or percentage of the base
or reference value of the respective quantities. The numerical per unit (pu) value of any
quantity is its ratio to a chosen base value of the same dimension. Thus a pu value is a
normalized quantity with respect to the chosen base value.

Definition: Per Unit value of a given quantity is the ratio of the actual value in any given
unit to the base value in the same unit. The percent value is 100 times the pu value. Both
the pu and percentage methods are simpler than the use of actual values. Further, the
main advantage in using the pu system of computations is that the result that comes out of
the sum, product, quotient, etc. of two or more pu values is expressed in per unit itself.

Per unit value.

The per unit value of any quantity is defined as the ratio of the actual value of the any
quantity to the base value of the same quantity as a decimal.
Advantages of per unit system
i. Per unit data representation yields valuable relative magnitude information.
ii. Circuit analysis of systems containing transformers of various transformation ratios is
greatly simplified.
iii. The p.u systems are ideal for the computerized analysis and simulation of complex
power system problems.
iv. Manufacturers usually specify the impedance values of equivalent in per unit of the
equipment rating. If the any data is not available, it is easier to assume its per unit value
than its numerical value.
v. The ohmic values of impedances are refereed to secondary is different from the value
as referee to primary. However, if base values are selected properly, the p.u impedance is
the same on the two sides of the transformer.
vi. The circuit laws are valid in p.u systems, and the power and voltages equations are
simplified since the factors of √3 and 3 are eliminated.

In an electrical power system, the parameters of interest include the current, voltage,
complex power (VA), impedance and the phase angle. Of these, the phase angle is
dimensionless and the other four quantities can be described by knowing any two of
them. Thus clearly, an arbitrary choice of any two base values will evidently fix the other
base values.

Normally the nominal voltage of lines and equipment is known along with the complex
power rating in MVA. Hence, in practice, the base values are chosen for complex power
(MVA) and line voltage (KV). The chosen base MVA is the same for all the parts of the
system. However, the base voltage is chosen with reference to a particular section of the
system and the other base voltages (with reference to the other sections of the systems,
these sections caused by the presence of the transformers) are then related to the chosen
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one by the turns-ratio of the connecting transformer.

If Ib is the base current in kilo amperes and Vb, the base voltage in kilo volts, then the
base MVA is,
Sb = (VbIb).
Then the base values of current & impedance are given by
Base current (kA), Ib = MVAb/KVb
= Sb/Vb
Base impedance, Zb = (Vb/Ib)
= (KVb2 / MVAb)
Hence the per unit impedance is given by
Zpu = Zohms/Zb
= Zohms (MVAb/KVb2)

In 3-phase systems, KVb is the line-to-line value & MVAb is the 3-phase MVA. [1-
phase MVA = (1/3) 3-phase MVA].

Change of base.
It is observed from equation (3) that the pu value of impedance is proportional directly to
the base MVA and inversely to the square of the base KV. If Zpunew is the pu impedance
required to be calculated on a new set of base values: MVAbnew & KVbnew from the
already given per unit impedance Zpuold, specified on the old set of base values,
MVAbold & KVbold , then we have

Zpunew = Zpu old (MVAb new/MVAbold) (KVbold/KVbnew)2

On the other hand, the change of base can also be done by first converting the given pu
impedance to its ohmic value and then calculating its pu value on the new set of base
values.

Merits and Demerits of pu System

Following are the advantages and disadvantages of adopting the pu system
of computations in electric power systems:

Merits:
(i). The pu value is the same for both 1-phase and & 3-phase systems
(ii). The pu value once expressed on a proper base, will be the same when refereed
to either side of the transformer. Thus the presence of transformer is totally
eliminated
(iii). The variation of values is in a smaller range 9nearby unity). Hence the
errors involved in pu computations are very less.
(iv). Usually the nameplate ratings will be marked in pu on the base of the name
plate ratings, etc.
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Demerits:
If proper bases are not chosen, then the resulting pu values may be highly absurd (such as
5.8 pu, -18.9 pu, etc.). This may cause confusion to the user. However, this problem can
be avoided by selecting the base MVA near the high-rated equipment and a convenient
base KV in any section of the system.

PU Impedance / Reactance Diagram

For a given power system with all its data with regard to the generators, transformers,
transmission lines, loads, etc., it is possible to obtain the corresponding impedance or
reactance diagram as explained above. If the parametric values are shown in pu on the
properly selected base values of the system, then the diagram is referred as the per unit
impedance or reactance diagram. In forming a pu diagram, the following are the
procedural steps involved:
1. Obtain the one line diagram based on the given data
2. Choose a common base MVA for the system
3. Choose a base KV in any one section (Sections formed by transformers)
4. Find the base KV of all the sections present
5. Find pu values of all the parameters: R,X, Z, E, etc.
6. Draw the pu impedance/ reactance diagram.

1.11 Formation of Y BUS & Z BUS

The performance equations of a given power system can be considered in three different
frames of reference as discussed below:
Frames of Reference:
Bus Frame of Reference: There are b independent equations (b = no. of buses) relating
the bus vectors of currents and voltages through the bus impedance matrix and bus
admittance matrix:
EBUS = ZBUS IBUS
IBUS = YBUS EBUS

Bus Frame of Reference: There are b independent equations (b = no. of buses) relating
the bus vectors of currents and voltages through the bus impedance matrix and bus
admittance matrix:
EBUS = ZBUS IBUS
IBUS = YBUS EBUS
Branch Frame of Reference: There are b independent equations (b = no. of branches of a
selected Tree sub-graph of the system Graph) relating the branch vectors of currents and
voltages through the branch impedance matrix and branch admittance matrix:
EBR = ZBR IBR
IBR = YBR EBR

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Loop Frame of Reference: There are b independent equations (b = no. of branches of a
selected Tree sub-graph of the system Graph) relating the branch vectors of currents and
voltages through the branch impedance matrix and branch admittance matrix:
ELOOP = ZLOOP ILOOP
ILOOP = YLOOP ELOOP
Of the various network matrices refered above, the bus admittance matrix (YBUS) and
the bus impedance matrix (ZBUS) are determined for a given power system by the rule of
inspection as explained next.

Rule of Inspection
Consider the 3-node admittance network as shown in figure5. Using the basic branch
relation: I = (YV), for all the elemental currents and applying Kirchhoff’s Current Law
principle at the nodal points, we get the relations as under:
At node 1: I1 =Y1V1 + Y3 (V1-V3) + Y6 (V1 –
V2) At node 2: I2 =Y2V2 + Y5 (V2-V3) + Y6 (V2
– V1) At node 3: 0 = Y3 (V3-V1) + Y4V3 + Y5
(V3 – V2)

These are the performance equations of the given network in admittance form and they
can be represented in matrix form as:

In other words, the relation of equation (9) can be represented in the form IBUS = YBUS
EBUS

Where, YBUS is the bus admittance matrix, IBUS & EBUS are the bus current and bus
voltage vectors respectively.
By observing the elements of the bus admittance matrix, YBUS of equation (9), it is
observed that the matrix elements can as well be obtained by a simple inspection of the
given system diagram:

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Diagonal elements: A diagonal element (Yii) of the bus admittance matrix, YBUS, is
equal to the sum total of the admittance values of all the elements incident at the bus/node
Off Diagonal elements: An off-diagonal element (Yij) of the bus admittance matrix,
YBUS, is equal to the negative of the admittance value of the connecting element present
between the buses I and j, if any.
This is the principle of the rule of inspection. Thus the algorithmic equations for the rule
of inspection are obtained as:
Yii = yij (j = 1,2,…….n)
Yij = - yij (j = 1,2,
…….n)
For i = 1,2,….n, n = no. of buses of the given system, yij is the admittance of element
connected between buses i and j and yii is the admittance of element connected between
bus i and ground (reference bus).

Bus impedance matrix

In cases where, the bus impedance matrix is also required, then it cannot be formed by
direct inspection of the given system diagram. However, the bus admittance matrix
determined by the rule of inspection following the steps explained above, can be inverted
to obtain the bus impedance matrix, since the two matrices are inter-invertible.

Note: It is to be noted that the rule of inspection can be applied only to those power
systems that do not have any mutually coupled elements.

EXAMPLES ON RULE OF INSPECTION:

Problem #1: Obtain the bus admittance matrix for the admittance network shown aside
by the rule of inspection

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Problem #2: Obtain YBUS and ZBUS matrices for the impedance network shown aside
by the rule of inspection. Also, determine YBUS for the reduced network after
eliminating the eligible unwanted node. Draw the resulting reduced system diagram.

EXAMPLES ON PER UNIT ANALYSIS:

Problem #1:
Two generators rated 10 MVA, 13.2 KV and 15 MVA, 13.2 KV are connected in parallel
to a bus bar. They feed supply to 2 motors of inputs 8 MVA and 12 MVA respectively.

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The operating voltage of motors is 12.5 KV. Assuming the base quantities as 50 MVA,
13.8 KV, draw the per unit reactance diagram. The percentage reactance for generators is
15% and that for motors is 20%.
Solution:
The one line diagram with the data is obtained as shown in figure P1

EXAMPLES ON PER UNIT ANALYSIS:

Problem #1:
Two generators rated 10 MVA, 13.2 KV and 15 MVA, 13.2 KV are connected in parallel
to a bus bar. They feed supply to 2 motors of inputs 8 MVA and 12 MVA respectively.
The operating voltage of motors is 12.5 KV. Assuming the base quantities as 50 MVA,
13.8 KV, draw the per unit reactance diagram. The percentage reactance for generators is
15% and that for motors is 20%.

Solution:
The one line diagram with the data is obtained as shown in figure P1

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Selection of base quantities: 50 MVA, 13.8 KV
(Given) Calculation of pu values:

XG1 = j 0.15 (50/10) (13.2/13.8)2 = j 0.6862 pu.

XG2 = j 0.15 (50/15) (13.2/13.8)2 = j 0.4574 pu.
Xm1 = j 0.2 (50/8) (12.5/13.8)2 = j 1.0256 pu.
Xm2 = j 0.2 (50/12) (12.5/13.8)2 = j 0.6837 pu.

Thus the pu reactance diagram can be drawn as shown in figure P1

Problem #2:
Draw the per unit reactance diagram for the system shown in figure below. Choose a base
of 11 KV, 100 MVA in the generator circuit.

Solution:
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The one line diagram with the data is considered as shown in
figure. Selection of base quantities:
100 MVA, 11 KV in the generator circuit(Given); the voltage bases in other sections are:
11 (115/11.5) = 110 KV in the transmission line circuit and 110 (6.6/11.5) = 6.31 KV in
the motor circuit.

Calculation of pu values:
XG = j 0.1 pu, Xm = j 0.2 (100/90) (6.6/6.31)2 = j 0.243 pu.
Xt1 =Xt2 = j 0.1 (100/50) (11.5/11)2 = j 0.2185 pu.
Xt3 =Xt4 = j 0.1 (100/50) (6.6/6.31)2 = j 0.219 pu.
Xlines = j 20 (100/1102) = j 0.1652 pu.

Thus the pu reactance diagram can be drawn as shown in figure P2

Problem #3:
A 30 MVA, 13.8 KV, 3-phase generator has a sub transient reactance of 15%. The
generator supplies 2 motors through a step-up transformer - transmission line – step down
transformer arrangement. The motors have rated inputs of 20 MVA and 10 MVA at 12.8
KV with 20% sub transient reactance each. The 3-phase transformers are rated at 35
MVA, 13.2 KV- -Y with 10 % leakage reactance. The line reactance is 80
ohms. Draw the equivalent per unit reactance diagram by selecting the generator ratings
as base values in the generator circuit.
Solution:
The one line diagram with the data is obtained as shown in figure P3

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Selection of base quantities:
30 MVA, 13.8 KV in the generator circuit
(Given); The voltage bases in other sections are:
13.8 (115/13.2) = 120.23 KV in the transmission line circuit and
120.23 (13.26/115) = 13.8 KV in the motor circuit.

Calculation of pu values:
XG = j 0.15 pu.
Xm1 = j 0.2 (30/20) (12.8/13.8)2 = j 0.516 pu.
Xm2 = j 0.2 (30/10) (12.8/13.8)2 = j 0.2581
pu.
Xt1 =Xt2 = j 0.1 (30/35) (13.2/13.8)2 = j 0.0784 pu.
Xline = j 80 (30/120.232) = j 0.17 pu.

Thus the pu reactance diagram can be drawn as shown in figure P3

Problem #4:
A 33 MVA, 13.8 KV, 3-phase generator has a sub transient reactance of 0.5%. The
generator supplies a motor through a step-up transformer - transmission line – step-down
transformer arrangement. The motor has rated input of 25 MVA at 6.6 KV with 25% sub
transient reactance. Draw the equivalent per unit impedance diagram by selecting 25

transmission line data as under:

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Step up transformer bank –Y, each rated 10 MVA,
13.2/6.6 KV with 7.7 % leakage reactance and 0.5 % leakage resistance;
Transmission line: 75 KM long with a positive sequence reactance of 0.8 ohm/ KM and a
resistance of 0.2 ohm/ KM; and
Step down transformer bank –Y, each rated 8.33
MVA, 110/3.98 KV with 8% leakage reactance and 0.8 % leakage resistance;
Solution:
The one line diagram with the data is obtained as shown in figure P4

3-phase ratings of transformers:

V, X = 0.077, R = 0.005 pu.

Selection of base quantities:

25 MVA, 6.6 KV in the motor circuit (Given); the voltage bases in other sections are: 6.6
(110/6.8936) = 105.316 KV in the transmission line circuit and 105.316 (13.2/115) =
12.09 KV in the generator
circuit. Calculation of pu values:

Zt1 = 0.005 + j 0.077 (25/30) (13.2/12.09)2 = 0.005 + j 0.0765 pu. (ref. to LV side)
Zt2 = 0.008 + j 0.08 (25/25) (110/105.316)2 = 0.0087 + j 0.0873 pu. (ref. to HV
side) Zline = 75 (0.2+j 0.8) (25/ 105.3162) = 0.0338 + j 0.1351 pu.
Thus the pu reactance diagram can be drawn as shown in figure

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1.13. Exercises for Practice

Problems
1. Determine the reactances of the three generators rated as follows on a common base of
200 MVA, 35 KV: Generator 1: 100 MVA, 33 KV, sub transient reactance of 10%;
Generator 2: 150 MVA, 32 KV, sub transient reactance of 8% and Generator 3: 110
MVA, 30 KV, sub transient reactance of 12%.
[Answers: XG1 = j 0.1778, Xg2 = j 0.089, Xg3 = j 0.16 all in per unit]

2. A 100 MVA, 33 KV, 3-phase generator has a sub transient reactance of 15%. The
generator supplies 3 motors through a step-up transformer - transmission line – step down
transformer arrangement. The motors have rated inputs of 30 MVA, 20 MVA and 50
MVA, at 30 KV with 20% sub transient reactance each. The 3-phase transformers are
rated at 100 MVA, 32 KV- -Y with 8 % leakage reactance. The line has a
reactance of 50 ohms. By selecting the generator ratings as base values in the generator
circuit, determine the base values in all the other parts of the system. Hence evaluate
the corresponding pu values and draw the equivalent per unit reactance diagram.
[Answers
Em1 =

Em2

3. A 80 MVA, 10 KV, 3-phase generator has a sub transient reactance of 10%. The
generator supplies a motor through a step-up transformer - transmission line – step-down
transformer arrangement. The motor has rated input of 95 MVA, 6.3 KV with 15% sub
transient reactance. The step-up 3-phase transformer is rated at 90 MVA, 11 KV-Y /110
KV-Y with 10% leakage reactance. The 3-phase step-down transformer consists of three
single phase Y-
leakage reactance. The line has a reactance of 20 ohms. By selecting the 11 KV, 100
MVA as base values in the generator circuit, determine the base values in all the other
parts of the system. Hence evaluate the corresponding pu values and draw the equivalent
per unit reactance diagram.
[Answers

=j
0.114 and Xline = j 0.17 all in per unit]

4. For the three-phase system shown below, draw an impedance diagram expressing all
impedances in per unit on a common base of 20 MVA, 2600 V on the HV side of the
transformer. Using this impedance diagram, find the HV and LV currents.

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[Answers

0.107,
Zcable = 0.136 +j 0.204 and Zload = 5.66 + j 2.26, I = 0.158 all in per unit, I
(hv)= 0.7 A and I (lv) = 7.5 A]

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 2 MARK QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS

1. What is single line diagram?

A single line diagram is a diagrammatic representation of power system in which
the components are represented by their symbols and the interconnection between them
are shown by a single straight line.

2. What are the components of a power system?

The components of a power system are Generators, Power transformers,
Transmission lines, Substation transformers, Distribution transformers and Loads.

3. Define per unit value.

The per unit value of any quantity is defined as the ratio of actual value of the
quantity to base value of the quantity.
Per unit = Actual value
Base value

4. What is the need for base value?

The components or various sections of power system may operate at
different voltage and power levels. It will be convenient for analysis of power
system if the voltage, power, current and impedance ratings of components of power
system are expressed with a common value called base value. Hence for analysis purpose
a base value is chosen for voltage, power, current and impedance.

5. Write the equation for converting the p.u. impedance expressed in one base to
another. Zp.u,new = Zp.u,old * (kVb,old / kVb,new) * (MVAb,new / MVAb,old)

6. What are the advantages of per unit computations?

a. manufacturers usually specify the impedance of a device or machine in per unit on the
basis of the name plate details.
b. The p.u. values of widely different rating machines lie within a narrow range
eventhough the ohmic values has a very large range.
c. The p.u. impedance of circuit element connected by a transformer expressed on a
proper base will be same if it is referred to either side of a transformer.
d. The p.u. impedance of a 3-phase transformer is independent of the type winding
connection.

7. What are the approximations made in impedance diagram?

a. The neutral reactances are neglected.
b. The shunt branches in equivalent circuit of induction motor are neglected.

8. What are the approximations made in reactance diagram?

a. The neutral reactance are neglected.
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 b. The shunt branches in equivalent circuit of induction motor are neglected.
c. The resistances are neglected.
d. All static loads and induction motor are neglected.
e. The capacitances of the transmission lines are neglected.

9. Give the equations for transforming base kV on LV side to HV side and

viceversa. Base kV on HT side = Base kV on LT side * (HT voltage rating / LT
voltage rating) Base kV on LT side = Base kV on HT side * (LT voltage rating /
HT voltage rating)

MODELLING OF VARIOUS COMPONENTS/ACCESSORIES

1. What is a bus?
The meeting point of various components in a power system is called a bus.

2. What is bus admittance matrix?

The matrix consisting of the self and mutual admittance of the network of a
power system is called bus admittance matrix.

3. Name the diagonal and off-diagonal elements of bus admittance matrix.

The diagonal elements of bus admittance matrix are called self admittances of the
matrix and off-diagonal elements are called mutual admittances of the buses.

4. Write the equation to find the elements of new bus admittance matrix after eliminating
nth row and column in a n*n matrix.
Yjk = Yjk-(YjnYnk / Ynn)

5. What is bus impedance matrix?

The matrix consisting of driving point impedances and transfer impedances of the
network of a power system is called bus impedance matrix.

6. Name the diagonal and off-diagonal elements of bus impedance matrix.

The diagonal elements of bus impedance matrix are called driving point
impedances of the buses and off-diagonal elements are called transfer impedances of the
buses.

7. What are the methods available for forming bus impedances matrix?
(1) Form the bus admittances matrix and then take its inverse to get bus impedance
matrix.

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 (2) Directly form the bus impedance matrix from the reactance
diagram. This method utilizes the techniques of modification of existing
bus impedance matrix due to addition of new bus.

8. Write the four ways of adding an impedance to an existing system so

as to modify bus impedance
matrix.
Case 1:Adding a branch impedance Zb from a new bus P to the
reference bus. Case 2:Adding a branch impedance Zb from a new
bus P to the existing bus
q. Case 3:Adding a branch impedance Zb from a existingbus q
to the reference
bus.
Case 4:Adding a branch impedance Zb between two existing bus h and q.

9. What is off-nominal transformer ratio?

When the voltage or turns ratio of a transformer is not used to
decide the ratio of base kV then its voltage or turns ratio is called off-
nominal turns ratio.

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