Unit-III

MOTIVATION
AND LEARNING

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 MOTIVATION
⚫ The term Motivation is originated from a Latin word
movere which means to move .

⚫ Motivation is the process of arousing or initiating

movement in the organism.

⚫ Motivation is defined as the process that initiates,

guides and maintains goal oriented behaviours.

⚫ Motivation is the process of arousing, sustaining and

regulating activity (Good)

⚫ Motivation is a combination of forces which initiate,

direct and sustain behaviour towards a goal
(Lindsey) 2
 Types of Motivation
1) Intrinsic Motivation / Natural Motivation
2) Extrinsic Motivation / Artificial Motivation.

Intrinsic Motivation / Natural Motivation

⚫ The act of being motivated by internal factors to
perform certain actions and behaviour is called
Intrinsic motivation.

⚫ There is neither pressure nor any sort of reward

for the actions one perform due to intrinsic
motivation.

⚫ Motivation depends upon the needs of a person3

 Types of Motivation
⚫ Extrinsic Motivation / Artificial

Motivation.

Extrinsic means that originating from outside.

In Extrinsic type of motivation, the motives
originate from outside the human body.
The driving force exists outside the human
body that stimulates the individual to perform
certain actions.
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 MOTIVES
• Motives generally refer to biological, social and
learned factors that initiate, sustain and stop goal
directed behaviour of organisms.

• A motive is May particular internal factor or

condition that tends to imitate and sustain
activity (JP. Guilford)

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 CLASSIFICATION OF MOTIVES

⚫ Primary motives (Physiological Motives)

⚫ Secondary motives

⚫ Psychological motives

⚫ Social motives.

⚫ Personal motives.

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 Factors Influencing Motivation
⚫ Interests

⚫ Personal desires

⚫ Goals

⚫ Success

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 Theories of Motivation
Maslow’s Self Actualisation Theory
⚫ In 1954, Abraham Maslow proposed that a
motivational behaviour may satisfy many
needs as the act is multi-motivated.

⚫ They are closely related to each other and may

be arranged from the lowest to the highest
development of the personality.

⚫ Maslow proposed seven sets of basic needs.

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 Maslow’s Self Actualisation Theory

1) Physiological needs

2) Safety and security needs

3) Affiliation needs

4) Self esteem

5) Achievement needs

6) Aesthetic needs

7) Self actualisation needs

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 Educational Implications
❖ Physiological, safety and affiliation needs are to
be satisfied to enable them to function at a higher
level of motivation which has to be borne in
mind when dealing with economically and
culturally disadvantaged children.

❖ Looking after ventilation, lighting, furniture,

blackboard, provision of midday meals for the
needy, classroom arrangement for physical and
psychological safety and showing interest in
every pupil .
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 Educational Implications
❖ The teacher should enhance attraction and
minimize the dangers of growth needs.

❖ Stimulus variation by the Teacher

❖ Attractive physical and Environmental condition

❖ Individual difference of the children

❖ Reward and punishment

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 Level of Aspiration

▪ The level of aspiration often determines

out behaviour.

▪ The term Level of Aspiration was

propounded by the psychologist named
Hoppe.

▪ The standard he wants to achieve in any

task is described by psychologist as his
level of Aspiration.
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 Methods of studying levels of
aspiration
⚫ Hurlock suggests four ways to find out about an
adolescents aspiration.
⚫ Studies of Wishes

⚫ Studies of Ideals

⚫ Studies of Resolutions

⚫ Laboratory Experiments

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 Factors influencing levels of
Aspirations
⚫ Family training

⚫ Parental ambitions

⚫ Expectations of significant outsiders

⚫ Competition with siblings and pears

⚫ Cultural traditions

⚫ Mass media

⚫ Past experiences

⚫ Interests and values

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 Learning
⚫ The process of learning is continuous which
starts right from the time of birth of an
individual and continues till the death.
⚫ We all are engaged in variety of learning
experiences in order to develop our adaptive
capabilities as per the requirements of the
changing environment.
⚫ Learning involves a behavioural change which
can be negative or positive/ better or worse.
⚫ This behavioural change must be relatively
permanent and last for a relatively long time
enough.
 Definitions
⚫ The process of acquiring new knowledge and
new responses is the process of learning.
(Woodworth)

⚫ learning as the process of acquisition of

knowledge, habits and attitudes. (Crow and
Crow)

⚫ Learning can be described as a change in the

individual which takes place as a result of the
environmental change (E.A, Peel)
 Characteristics of Learning
1. Learning is a continuous change in behaviour. It
is a lifelong process.

2. It is comprehensive. It affects every aspects of

human life

3. Learning is universal all living beings learn

4. Learning is purposive

5. It is development

6. Learning results in improved performance

7. Learning is contingent upon experience

Factors influencing the learning
⚫ Conductive situation or environment for
learning
⚫ Physical and mental health of the learner
⚫ Appropriate learning methods and techniques
of teaching
⚫ Use of motivation and reinforcement
⚫ Potentialities, attitude of a teacher
⚫ Level of maturation of learner or growth of the
learner
⚫ Interests, attitude and need of the learners
⚫ Learning will to learn
⚫ Practice for the learnt behaviour.
 Theories of Learning
⚫ Theories of learning attempt to explain the
mechanism of behaviour involved in the
learning process.
⚫ Learning theories may broadly be divided into
three categories.
1) Bhevaviourist Theories

2) Cognitive Theories

3) Constructivist Theories
 Jean Piaget (1896 – 1980)
• Born : Augest 9, 1896, Switzerland.

• Died : September 16, 1980, ( Age: 84)

• Education : Received Ph.D in 1918.

• One of the most influential 20th century

researchers in the area of developmental
psychology.
 STAGES OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
⚫ Sensory- motor stage ( 0 – 2 years)

⚫ Pre – operational stage ( 2 – 7 years)

⚫ Concrete – operational stage ( 7 – 11

years)

⚫ Formal operational stage (11 Years

above)
Sensory – motor stage (0 to 2)
• Pre language period.
• Marked by motor actions and sensation.

• Object permanence.
[ Objects continue to exist even if they are hidden
from view]
 PRE- CONCEPTUAL STAGE
(Pre – operational stage)
(2 to 7)

⚫ The term operation refers to mental

manipulation and transformation of objects
and information.
⚫ Language development is one of the hallmark
of this period.
⚫ Symbolic play.
⚫ Ego - centrism
 PRE- CONCEPTUAL STAGE
(Pre – operational stage)
(2 to 7)
⚫ Thinking is not logical

⚫ Child can grasp one relationship at a time.

⚫ Animistic thinking .

⚫ Artificialism.
 CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE
(7 to 12)
⚫ Operations is possible only when concrete
objects or experiences are available.
⚫ Child develops the ability for logical thinking.
⚫ Pure abstract thinking is not possible
⚫ Inductive – deductive reasoning.
⚫ Flexibility in thinking.
⚫ Classification and serialisation.
⚫ Transitivity.{Ability to recognize relations
among elements in a series}
⚫ Reversibility of thought.
 Formal Operational Stage
(12 to Adulthood)
⚫ Child’s thought process becomes quite
systematic and reasonably well integrated.

⚫ Development of abstract thinking.

⚫ Ability to form hypotheses.

⚫ Development of Experimental spirit.

⚫ Ability to transfer of knowledge.

 Piajet theory of Learning
⚫ According to Piaget knowledge must be
constructed and reconstructed by the learner.
⚫ Four stages of cognitive development.
⚫ Schema: Unit of one’s mental structure in the
form of intellectual ability to perform
something. It is the building block of
knowledge.
⚫ According to Piaget, intellectual growth
involves three fundamental process.
⚫ Assimilation
⚫ Accommodation
⚫ Equilibration
 Piajet theory of Learning
⚫ Assimilation: In Assimilation, the learner
transforms incoming information so that it fits
within his existing schemes or thought process. The
process by which an unfamiliar schema is made
familiar by linking it with familiar schemas already
existing in the cognitive structure.
⚫ Accommodation: It is the process in which the
learner adapts his thought patterns to include
incoming information ( Modification of
existing cognitive structure to hold the new
information ).
⚫ Equilibration : When the new schemas involved in
the problematic situation are thus assimilated and
accommodated the disequilibrium disappears and
equilibrium is regained. This process is known as
Characteristics of Behaviourism
• All behaviors are learned through interaction
with the environment with an exclusion of
innate or inherited factors.
• Behavior is simply a response to
environmental stimuli.
• Behaviorism is only concerned with
observable stimulus-response behaviors
• There's no fundamental distinction between
human and animal behavior. Therefore, rats
and pigeons became the primary source of
data for behaviorists, as their environments
could be easily controlled.
• All behavior can be taught
 Theory of Classical Conditioning
⚫ Pavlovian conditioning was discovered
accidentally. Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849–1936)

⚫
was a physiologist, not a psychologist.
During the 1890s, Pavlov was researching
salivation in dogs in response to being fed with

⚫
meat
Pavlov knew that the dogs would salivate in
response to the food placed in front of them,
But he accidently noticed that his dogs begin
to salivate whenever they heard the footsteps
of his assistant who was bringing them the
food.
 The Experiment
• Pavlov set up an experiment in which he rang
a bell (metronome) shortly before presenting
food to the dogs. At first, the dogs elicited no
response to the bells. However, eventually, the
dogs began to salivate at the sound of the bell
alone.
 Pavlovian concepts in conditioning

• Food is an unconditioned stimulus and salivation is an

unconditioned response. (a stimulus-response connection
that required no learning).
• Unconditioned Stimulus (Food) > Unconditioned
Response (Salivate)
• Neutral Stimulus (Metronome) > No Conditioned Response
• Next, Pavlov began the conditioning procedure, whereby
the clicking metronome was introduced just before he
gave food to his dogs. After a number of repeated trials
he presented the metronome on its own.
• The sound of the clicking metronome on its own now
caused an increase in salivation.
• Conditioned Stimulus (Metronome) > Conditioned
Response (Salivate)
• The dog had learned an association between the
metronome and the food and a new behavior had been
 PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
⚫ Law of temporal contiguity (Law
of Causation)
Pavlov found that for associations to be made, the
two stimuli had to be presented close together in
time. If the time between the conditioned
stimulus (bell) and unconditioned stimulus (food)
is too long, then learning will not occur.
Law of Experimental Extinction
Extinction occur when there is complete absence
of conditioned response, when the subject is
exposed to conditioned stimulus.
Lack of reinforcement will break the link
between CS-UCS and CR.
 Law of Generalisation
⚫ After an organism has been conditioned to a
response for a particular stimulus after
repeated trials, it may respond in the similar
way to other similar stimuli or situations.
 Law of Discrimination
The process in which an organism learns to
differentiate between different stimuli in order to
restrict their response to one stimulus in
particular is known as Stimulus Discrimination.
Law of Higher order Conditioning
⚫ The bell sound used formally can be used to
another neutral stimulus . Pavlow called this as
higher order conditioning
Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
⚫ Learning which is due to voluntary behaviour
is called operant conditioning.
⚫ Skinner called his theory operant conditioning
as it is based on certain operations or actions
which an organism has to carry out.
⚫ Operant conditioning refers to a kind of
learning process where a response is made
more probable or more frequent by
reinforcement.
 Law of operant conditioning

Process of operant reinforcement

⚫ The operant conditioning is that, if the

occurrence of an operant is followed by
presentation of reinforcing stimulus, the
strength- probability is increased
Process of operant extinction
⚫ In operant conditioning, an operant is
strengthened through its reinforcement or
weakened through its extinction. Extinction is
the reverse of reinforcement. When a
reinforcing stimulus no longer occurs
following a response, the response less and less
frequent, this is operant extinction.
Process of science behaviour
⚫ Skinner visualizes a great and crucial future
for a science of behaviour. Skinner's goal in
Psychology is to achieve the degree of
prediction and control with regard to human
behaviour that has achieved by the physical
sciences.
 Process of generalization
⚫ Skinner designed some experiments and
observation for studying human learning.
Human beings are capable of generalizing
experiences, acquired in one situation and
other situations. Generalization according to
him may be of two types:
⚫ i) Response Generalization: It refers to the fact
that when responses are repeated, they are
likely to vary over the range of more or less
similar acts. The principle of generalization is
the one that allows the individual to get nearer
to the acts.
⚫ ii) Stimulus Generalization: It occurs when a
particular response elicited by a particular
stimuli. Example of the principle is, a boy who
has the fear with a teacher may generalize fear
 Educational Implication of
operant conditioning
⚫ Reinforcement for the right responses makes
teaching learning effective.
⚫ The immediate feedback is a key for effective
learning as well as any other behaviour.
⚫ This developed system of learning is known as
programmed learning or programmed
instruction.
⚫ The schools should practice the principles of
operant conditioning namely to destroy the
elements of fear from school atmosphere by
using positive reinforcement.
⚫ Desired behaviours of students should be
reinforced at once to increase the likelihood or
reoccurrence of the behaviour in future.
 Trial and Error Learning Theory
(Thorndike)

In his experiments, Thorndike utilized what

is known as puzzle box to study how animals
learn.
The boxes were enclosed but contained a
small lever that, when pressed, would allow
the animal to escape. Thorndike placed a cat
inside the puzzle box and then place a piece
 Trial and Error Learning Theory
(Thorndike)
• He then observed the animal’s efforts to
escape and obtain the food. The cat made many
random movements to get out of the box. At
last it succeeded in pressing the lever, and the
door was opened so that the animal could
receive the reward. Even though first pressing
the lever occurred simply by accident, the cats
became likely to repeat it because they had
received an award immediately after
performing the action.
• Thorndike noted that with each trial, the cat
became much faster at opening the door.
Because pressing the lever had led to a
favorable outcome, the cats were much more
 Three Laws of Learning
⚫ Laws of Readiness
⚫ Law of Exercise
⚫ Law of Effect
 Laws of Readiness

⚫ This law refers that learning taking place only

when the learner is ready to learn. If one is not
prepared to learn, learning cannot be
automatically instilled in him
 Law of Exercise

⚫ The second law of learning is the ‘Law of

Exercise’, which means that drill, or practice
helps in increasing efficiency and durability of
learning and according to Thorndike’s S-R
Bond Theory, the connections are strengthened
with trail or practice and the connections are
weakened when trial or practice is
discontinued.
 Law of Effect

Trial or steps leading to satisfaction stamps in the

bond or connection. Satisfying states lead to
consolidation and strengthening of the
connection, whereas dissatisfaction, annoyance
or pain leads to the weakening or stamping out of
the connections.
 Educational Implications
⚫ After learning anything, adequate practice or
drill should be undertaken to ensure that
learning becomes stable and effective.
Periodical review of d habits can be eliminated
⚫ Periodical review of learning material is
necessary.
⚫ Bad habits can be eliminated through disuse,
leading to atrophy or forgetting.
⚫ Mere drill or exercise is not enough.
⚫ Most of the human learning is based on trial
and error method at least at the childhood
level.
⚫ Reward punishments can be used better for
effective learning.
⚫ Working of arithmetical problems is done
 Learning by Insight (Kohler)
⚫ This theory is related to the cognitive type of theory
of learning.
⚫ It was developed by Gestalt psychologists.
⚫ The theory of learning by insight is the
contribution of Gestalt psychologists namely Kohler,
Kofka and Wertheimer.
⚫ They consider learning as the development of
insight.
⚫ This theory advocates that when a particular
situation is being learnt, it does not help to learn it
in parts but it helps to learn it as a whole.
⚫ Learning is creative activity but not a trial and
error method of activity.
⚫ Learning means, 'Reorganization of the perceptual
 Basic concepts

1. Learning is a purposive, exploratory and

creative enterprise, in which the total situation
is taken into account by the learner.
2. A learning situation is a problem situation and
the learner can deduce the solution by insight
if he perceives the situation as a whole.
3. Learner, while learning, perceives the
situation as a whole and after seeing and
evaluating the relationship between different
parts, takes the proper decision in an
intelligent way.
 Basic concepts

4. While learning, the learner always responds to

the proper relationship rather than specific
stimuli.

5. Learning occurs spontaneously and suddenly

by the development of insight.

⚫ Insight: Insight means sudden grasping of the

solution for a problematic situation, a flash of
understanding which comes to us all on a
sudden.
 Factors of Insight Learning
⚫ Experience

⚫ Intelligence

⚫ Learning situation

⚫ Initial Efforts

⚫ Repetition and generalisation

 Constructivism
⚫ Constructivism is basically a theory based on
observation and scientific study about how people
learn.
⚫ It says that people construct their own
understanding and knowledge of the world,
through experiencing things and reflecting on
those experiences.
⚫ In the most general sense, it usually means
encouraging students to use active techniques
(experiments, real-world problem solving) to create
more knowledge and then to reflect on and talk
about what they are doing and how their
understanding is changing.
 Characteristics
⚫ Learning is an active process
⚫ Knowledge is constructed from and shaped by
experience
⚫ Learning is personal interpretation of the world
⚫ Emphasizes problem solving and understanding

⚫ Uses authentic tasks, experiences, settings,

assessments
⚫ Content presented holistically-not in separate
parts
 Characteristics
⚫ Dewey called for education to be grounded in
real experience.
⚫ He wrote, "If you have doubts about how
learning happens, engage in sustained inquiry:
study, ponder, consider alternative possibilities
and arrive at your belief grounded in evidence.
"
⚫ Inquiry is a key part of constructivist learning.
⚫ Constructivist learning theory says that all
knowledge is constructed from a base of prior
knowledge.
⚫ Children are not a blank slate
⚫ Children learn best when they are allowed to
 Role of Teacher
⚫ The teacher's role in a constructivist classroom
is to act as an expert learner who can guide
students into adopting cognitive strategies
such as self testing, articulating understanding,
asking probing questions, and reflection.
⚫ The role of the teacher in constructivist
classrooms is to organize information around
big ideas that engage the students' interest
⚫ To assist students in developing new insights,
and to connect them with their previous
learning.
⚫ The activities are student-centered, and
students are encouraged to ask their own
questions, carry out their own experiments,
make their own analogies, and come to their
 Humanistic Psychology
⚫ Humanistic Psychology is a recent school, which
emerged in 1980's and is related to Gestalt
psychology and cognitive in flavor.
⚫ .Humanistic psychology is a psychological
perspective that arose in the mid-20th century in
answer to two theories: Sigmund Freud's
psychoanalytic theory and B. F. Skinner's
behaviorism. Thus, Abraham Maslow established
the need for a "third force" in psychology.
⚫ The humanistic approach of American
psychologists such as Carl Rogers (1902-1987),
Rollo May (born 1909) and Abraham Maslow
(1916-1972) assists that we are basically free to
determine our own behaviour.
⚫ Thisapproach seeks to understand events, or
 Humanistic Psychology
⚫ The fundamental beleif of humanistic
psychology is that people are innately good
and that the mental and and social problems
result from deviations from this natural
tendency.
⚫ It is a belief that people have an unlimited
potential for growth and development and that
they are inherently good. Individuals have the
ability to determine for themselves truth and
falsehood through rational and empirical
thought.
 Humanistic Psychology
⚫ Humanistic psychology assumes the existence
of the self and emphasizes the importance of
consciousness and self awareness.
⚫ Humanist psychologists prefer to believe that
we are responsible for our actions.
⚫ Their emphasis is on understanding the
individual's inner file and experiences.
⚫ They emphasize those qualities that
distinguish people from animals-primarily
their free will and their drive toward self-
actualization.
⚫ According to humanistic theories, an
individual's main motivational force is a
tendency toward growth and self-actualization.
THANK YOU

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