SUBJECT: DCC CHAPTER:1ST

FUNDAMENTALS OF DATA COMMUNICATION

AND COMPUTER NETWORK

Mr. Samiran Maity,

Senior Lecturer,
Pravin Patil Polytechnic, Bhayander
E-mail: [email protected]
Contact No:7977649037
LEARNING OUTCOMES

➢ The Learners will be able to understand:

1. What is Fundamental of Computer Network? And its needs.
2. Process of Data Communication & its Components.
3. What is Protocols?
4. Modes of Communication.
5. Classification of Network & Network Architecture.
DEFINITION OF DATA COMMUNICATION

➢ Data Communication is defined as, “the exchange of information (in the form of 0’s and 1’s) between two
digital devices via some form of transmission medium.
OR
➢ The transfer of exchange of information from one computer to another is known as Data Communication.
PROCESS OF DATA COMMUNICATION

1. A data communication process is made up of five components namely message, sender, receiver,
transmission medium and protocol.
2. The functions of each components in data communication are as follows:

1. The Message is information in the form of data to be communicated. It can consists of text, numbers,
pictures, sound, video or any combination of these.

2. The Sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be computers, workstation, telephone
handset, video camera and so on.

3. The Receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be computer, workstation, telephone
handset, video camera and so on.

4. The Transmission Medium is the physical path by which a message travels from sender to receiver. It
can consists of twisted pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, laser or radio waves.

5. A Protocol is refers to a set of rules (agreed upon by sender and the receiver) that co-ordinates the
exchange of information. Without the protocol, the sender and receiver cannot communicate.
Process of Data Communication
Protocols

1. A Protocol is a set of rule and conventions. In other words, a protocol is a set of rules that governs data
communication.

COMMON PROTOCOLS

1) TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): It is a connection-oriented transport protocol. Connection-oriented

transport protocols provide reliable transport, in that if a segment is dropped, the sender can detect that
drop and retransmit that dropped segment.

2) FTP (File Transfer Protocol): It provides the uploading and downloading of files from a remote host running
FTP server software.

3) SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): It defines how mail messages are sent between hosts.

4) HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): It enables text, graphics, multimedia, and other material to be
downloaded from an HTTP server.
Modes of communication

1. The direction of data flow between two linked devices is called as mode of communication.
2. There are 3 types of direction of data flow namely simplex mode, half-duplex mode and full-duplex mode.
Simplex communication mode

• In Simplex communication mode, the communication can take place in only one direction i.e. data can be
sent only in one direction.

• The examples of Simplex Communication mode are Radio and T.V transmissions.
Advantages of simplex communication mode

1. Very simple and easy communication method.

2. Cheaper in cost.

Disadvantages Of Simplex Communication Mode

1. Only allows for communication in one direction.

2. Simplex transmission are not often used because it is not possible to send back error to the transmit end.
Half duplex communication mode

• In half duplex communication mode, the communication can take place in both directions, but only in one
direction at a time.

• Internet browsing & walkie-talkie is an example of half duplex communication mode.

Advantages of Half duplex communication mode

1. Enables 2 way communication.

2. Low cost than full duplex communication mode.

Disadvantages Of Half Duplex Communication Mode

1. Only one device can transmit at a time.

2. High cost than simplex communication mode.
Full duplex communication mode

• In full duplex communication mode, the communication can take place in both directions simultaneously, i.e.
at the same time on the same channel.

• The telephone communication system is an example of full duplex communication mode.

Advantages of full duplex communication mode

1. Enables two-way communication simultaneously.

2. Fastest method of data communication.

Disadvantages Of Full Duplex Communication Mode

1. More expensive and complex method.

2. Two bandwidth channels is required for data transmission .

 Comparison of analog and digital signals

Terms Analog signal Digital Signal

1. Basic 1. An analog signal is a continuous wave 1. A digital signal is a discrete wave that
that changes over a time period. carries information in binary form.

2. Range 2. Analog signal has no fixed range. 2. Digital signal has a finite range i.e.
between 0 and 1.
3. Example 3. Human voice in air, analog electronic
devices. 3. Computers, CDs, DVDs, and other digital
electronic device.
4. Flexibility 4. Analog hardware is not flexible.
4. Digital hardware is flexible.
5. Can be used in analog devices only. Best
5. Uses
suited for audio and video transmission. 5. Best suited for computing and digital
electronics.
6. Applications 6. Thermometer
6. PCs, PDAs
7. Requires large power.
7. Power 7. Requires negligible power.
8. Low cost and portable.
8. Cost 8. Cost is high and not easily portable.
9. low
9. High order of 100 megaohm
9. Impedance
Definition of computer network

• Two or more computers connected together through a communication media (coaxial cable, fiber optics or
satellite) is called as computer network.

Need Of Computer Network

1. Sharing of information and data over the geographically wide areas.

2. Communication from one computer to other computer.
3. Sharing the resources such as printers among the network users.
4. Exchange of data and information amongst the data and users, via the network.
5. Sharing of expensive software’s and database.
Characteristics of computer network

1. Cost: Includes the cost of the network components, their installation, and their ongoing maintenance.

2. Security: Includes the protection of the network components and the data they contain and/or the data
transmitted between them.

3. Speed: Includes how fast data is transmitted between network end points, (the data rate).

4. Topology: Describes the physical cabling layout and the logical way data moves between components.

5. Sharing: Computer networks enable sharing of files, software, hardware resources and computing capabilities.
Advantages of computer network

1. File Sharing: The major advantages of a computer network is that allows file sharing and
remote file access. A person sitting at one workstation that is connected to a network can
easily see files present on another workstation, provided he/she is authorized to do so.

2. Resource Sharing: A computer network provides a cheaper alternative by the provision of

resource sharing. All the computers can be interconnected using a network, and just one
modem and printer can efficiently provide the services to all users.

3. Inexpensive Set-up: Shared resources mean reduction in hardware costs. Shared files mean
reduction in memory requirement, which indirectly means reduction in file storage expenses.

4. Increased Storage Capacity: Since, there is more than one computer on a network which can
easily shares files, the issue of storage capacity gets resolved to a great extent.

5. Speed: Sharing and transferring files within networks is very rapid (fast), depending on the
type of network. This will save time while maintaining the integrity of files.
Disadvantages of computer network

1. Security Concerns: One of the major drawbacks of computer networks is the security issues that are involved.

2. Expensive To Build: Building a network is a complex and time consuming for large scale organizations.

3. Virus and Malware: Viruses can spread on a network easily, because of the inter-connectivity of workstations.
APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER NETWORK

1. Financial Services

2. Directory Services

3. Electronic Data Interchange(EDI)

4. Electronic Mail

5. E-Commerce
FILE SHARING

1. Network file sharing is the process of copying files from one computer to another using a live network
connection.
2. Any file can be centrally stored and can be used by more than one user by sharing it. File sharing requires a
shared directory or disk drive to which many users can access over a network.
3. Fig shows a simple computer network for file sharing. In a network two computer make a connection with each
and communicate across a wire or cable. Simple network like this have existed for decades. A common use for
these network is file sharing
ADVANTAGES OF FILE SHARING

1. Easily and simply share data and information on network.

2. Easy access of information data.

DISADVANTAGES OF FILE SHARING

1. Less secure.
2. Conflicting problem arises.
SHARING RESOURCES

1. One of the benefits of a network is that it allows group of computer users to share data, share software and
even share hardware(such as, printer or a modem).

2. Here, network users can share 2 types of resources as:

1. Sharing hardware resources, and resources sharing the goal is to make all programs, equipment and
especially data available to anyone on the network without regard to the physical location of resource and
the user.

2. Sharing software resources.

SHARING HARDWARE RESOURCES

1. Network facilitate the sharing of hardware devices. Peripherals such as printers, modems and backup storage
devices can be connected and utilized by everyone in the office.
2. For example: Instead of giving each of four employees in a department an expensive laser printer. One printer
can be placed on the network for everyone to share, in Fig
all the users of network can use printer to take printouts from their own work-stations without talking data in
floppy and physically moving to the printer.
SHARING SOFTWARE RESOURCES

1. With standard computers, software used on the computers must be present on each computer’s hard disk i.e.
each computer on network needs a separate copy of software separately installed on them.
2. In such cases you need to buy those many copies of software for each computers, which increases the cost.
3. It is also difficult and time consuming to install software on each computer. To overcome this problem software
resources can be shared among all computers on network.
PRINTER SHARING

1. Printer sharing is best example of network resource sharing. It allows you to share costly higher quality printer
among network users. The most common way of sharing printer is to use printer queue on a server.

2. The printer server function can be done in many ways. Some of them are:

1. By a computer connected to the network, with the printer connected to that computer. The computer runs
special print server software to perform this job.

2. Through the use of a built-in print server in a printer’s network interface card.
ADVANTAGES OF PRINTER SHARING

1. It allows to share costly network.

2. It reduces cost.
3. It allows user to place printer at any convenient place.

DISADVANTAGES OF PRINTER SHARING

1. Each user must wait its turn.

2. Server performance is reduced when printer is connected to server.
CLASSIFICATION OF NETWORK

1. Network are classified depending on their geography and their component role as shown below
PAN (Personal Area Network)
CAN(Campus Area Network)
LAN (Local Area Network)
DIFFERENECE BETWEEN LAN, MAN & WAN

Parameter LAN WAN MAN

Stand For Local Area Network Wide Area Network Metropolitan Area
Network
Meaning A computer network that A computer network that A computer network
interconnects PCs within a interconnects user with that extends over a
limited area such as computer resources in large geographical
office, school or building geographical area larger area.
than LAN.

Area covered Covers small geographical Covers large Covers larger than LAN
area geographical area but smaller than Wan

Error rates Lowest Highest Moderate

Ownership Owned by private Established under Ownership can be
companies or individual distributed ownership private or public
Equipment cost Inexpensive equipment Expensive equipment Moderately equipment

Design Easier to design Difficult to design Difficult to design

Example Offices, cyber cafe Internet ATM, FDDI etc
Set-up cost Lower set-up cost Higher set-up cost Moderate costs.
PEER-TO-PEER NETWORK
SERVER-BASED NETWORK
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PEER-TO-PEER & SERVER-BASED ARCHITECTURE

Peer-to-Peer Architecture Server-based Architecture

In peer-to-peer architecture all the computers In clint-server architecture all communication is

just communicate directly with any other via a central server to which all clients connect.
computer.

Low cost Very high cost

Decentralized form of networking architecture. Centralized form of networking architecture.

Peer-to-Peer are best suited to home or very Client-server works best for large set-ups, such
small office set-ups. as full-scale or school

In a Peer-to-Peer architecture, access to the In client-server architecture, network access

network is not centrally controlled. and security are centrally controlled.

Are generally simpler and less expensive. Are generally more complex but give user more
control and more expensive.

Each user needs to take his/her own backup. Centralized backup can be taken.

Poor performance for large number of users. Better performance for large number of users.
SUBJECT: DCC CHAPTER:2ND

TRANSMISSION MEDIA AND SWITCHING

Mr. Samiran Maity,

Senior Lecturer,
Pravin Patil Polytechnic, Bhayander
E-mail: [email protected]
Contact No:7977649037
LEARNING OUTCOMES

➢ The Learners will be able to understand:

1. What is communication media? And its types.
2. Difference between Guided & Unguided Media.
COMMUNICATION MEDIA

1. Transmission media means a communication signal is carried from one computer system to another.

Need of Transmission/Communication Media:

1. Without transmission media communication cannot take place.

2. Communication media is the middle part of sender and receiver.

3. Transmission media is needed for faster communication.

4. Transmission media is needed for secure transmission of data.

CRITERIA TO SELECTION OF TRANSMISSION MEDIA

1. Attenuation: Attenuation refers to loss of energy as signal propagates outwards. The amount of energy lost
depends on frequency.

2. No. of Users (Density): It is the concurrent number of users supported/connected by the communication
media.

3. The Cost: The cost of transmission media.

CATEGORIES OF TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Transmission
Media

Guided Unguided
Media media

Twisted Coaxial Radio

Fiber-optic cable Microwave Infrared
pair cable cable waves

Shielded Unshielded
twisted pair twisted pair
cable cable
GUIDED TRANSMISSION MEDIA

1. Guided transmission media uses a cabling system that guides that data signals along a specific path.

2. Guided media also knows as bounded media which include twisted pair cable, coaxial cable, & fiber-optic
cable.

3. Twisted pair & coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductor that accept and transport signal in the form of
electric current.

4. Optical fiber is cable that accept and transport signal in the form of light.
UNSHIELDED TWISTED PAIR CABLE
SHIELDED TWISTED PAIR CABLE
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN UNSHIELDED AND SHIELDED TWISTED PAIR CABLES

Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable Shielded Twisted Pair Cable

Ordinary telephone wire Shielded with a metallic braid or sheath

Subject to external electromagnetic interference. Reduces interference.

Low performance at higher data rates. Better performances at higher data rates.

Less expensive More expensive and difficult to work.

Cheaper in cost. Cost is more.

Easy to install. Difficult of install.

Flexible Not flexible

COAXIAL CABLE
COMPARISON OF GUIDED MEDIA

Twisted Pair Cable Coaxial Cable Fiber Optic Cable

It uses electrical signal for It uses electrical signal for It uses optical signal for
transmission. transmission. transmission.
Affected by EMI and noise. Less affected by EMI and noise Not affected by EMI and noise.

Bandwidth is low which is 3 to 4 Bandwidth is high which is 300 to Bandwidth is very high which is 2
MHz 400 MHz to 3 GHz
Used for analog and digital Used for analog and digital Used for analog and digital
transmission transmission transmission
Supports low data rates up to 4 Supports high data rates up to Supports very high data rates up
Mbps. 400 to 500 Mbps. to3 Gbps.
Cost is very less. Cost is moderate. More costly.

Signal attenuation is more. Signal attenuation is moderate. Signal attenuation is least.

Installation is easiest. Installation is easy. Installation is difficult.

Signal to noise ratio is less. Signal to noise ratio is moderate. Signal to noise ratio is high.

Crosstalk is more. Crosstalk is moderate. No crosstalk is present.

MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION

1. Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called microwaves. Microwaves are
unidirectional.

2. Microwave communication is widely used for long distance telephone communication cellular, telephones,
television distribution and other uses that a serve shortage of spectrum has developed.

3. Fig shows typical example of microwave link using dish antenna and satellite.
4. Microwave transmission is line of sight transmission. The transmitter station must be in visible contact with the
receiver station.
5. This sets a limit on the distance between stations depending on the local geography.
ADVANTAGES OF MICROWAVE

1. They can carry high quantities of information due to their high operating frequencies.
2. Low cost land purchase: each tower occupies small area.
3. High frequency/short wavelength signals require small antenna.

DISADVANTAGES OF MICROWAVE

1. Attenuation by solid objects: birds, rain, snow and fog.

2. Reflected from flat surfaces like water and metal.
SATELLITE TRANSMISSION

1. A satellite is a body that revolves around the earth just in same way earth revolves around the sun. a satellite
cab be artificial/manmade.
2. Satellite process microwaves with bi-directional antennas. Therefore the signal from a satellite is normally
aimed at a specific area called the footprint.
3. The signal power at the center of footprint is maximum. The power decreases as we move out from the
footprint center.
4. A communication satellite acts as a big microwave repeater in the sky.
5. Fig shows typical satellite communication system.
1. In case of satellite communication two different frequencies are used as carrier frequencies to
avoid interference between incoming and outgoing signals.
2. The signal which is being transmitted upwards to satellite is called as the uplink. Thus, uplink
frequency is the frequency used to transmit signal from earth station to satellite.
3. The signal which is being transmitted back to receiving earth station is called as downlink. Thus,
downlink frequencies is the frequencies used to transmit the signal from satellite to earth
station.
ADVANTAGES OF SATELLITE TRANSMISSION

1. Availability: The biggest advantage of satellite internet access is its availability compared to other internet
connection types.

2. Speed: Satellite internet access is much faster than dial-up.

3. Latency: Satellite internet connections are high latency, meaning that a great deal of time is required for
packets of information to travel to the satellite and back.

DISADVANTAGES OF SATELLITE TRANSMISSION

1. Communication through satellite is highly costly.

2. Security measures are required to prevent the unauthorized tapping of information.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GUIDED & UNGUIDED MEDIA

Guided Media Unguided Media

Guided media also called as bounded media. Unguided media also called as unbounded media.

Twisted pair cables, coaxial cables, optical fiber cables Radio and infrared light are the example of wireless
are example of wired media. media.

Additional transmission capacity can be obtained by It is not possible to obtain additional capacity.
adding more wires.

Wired media lead to discrete network topologies. Wireless media leads to continuous network topologies

Installation is costly, time consuming and complicated. Installation needs less time and money.
SUBJECT: DCC CHAPTER:3rd

ERROR DETECTION, CORRECTION &

WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

Mr. Samiran Maity,

Senior Lecturer,
Pravin Patil Polytechnic, Bhayander
E-mail: [email protected]
Contact No:7977649037
LEARNING OUTCOMES

➢ The Learners will be able to understand:

1. What is IEEE? & its standards.

2. What is Bluetooth Architecture?

3. Types of network in Bluetooth Architecture.

4. Difference between Piconet and Scatternet.

5. Comparison of 1G, 2G, 3G, 4G & 5G.

IEEE STANDARDS

1. IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers) was chosen to develop standard to enable all devices and
systems to communicate together.

➢ IEEE Standards:
1. IEEE 802.1
2. IEEE 802.2
3. IEEE 802.3
4. IEEE 802.4
5. IEEE 802.5

➢ WIRELESS LANs
1. IEEE 8802.11 Standard.
SUMMARY OF 802.11 STANDARDS

IEEE Frequency Speed Topology Transmission Access

Standards /Medium range method

802.11 2.4GHz RF 1 to 2Mbps Ad 20 feet indoors CSMA/CA

hoc/infrastruc
ture
802.11a 5GHz Up to Ad 25 to 75 feet CSMA/CA
54Mbps hoc/infrastruc indoors
ture
802.11b 2.4GHz Up to 11 Ad Up to 150 feet CSMA/CA
Mbps hoc/infrastruc indoors
ture
802.11g 2.4GHz Up to 54 Ad Up to 150 CSMA/CA
Mbps hoc/infrastruc indoors
ture
802.11n 2.4GHz/5GHz Up to 600 Ad 175 + feet CSMA/CA
Mbps hoc/infrastruc indoors
ture
BLUETOOTH ARCHITECTURE

1. Bluetooth is a short range wireless technology that lets you connect computers, mobile phones & hand held
devices to each other and to the internet.

2. Bluetooth technology eliminates the need for the cables that connect devices together.

3. Bluetooth Architecture defines 2 types of networks namely, Piconet & Scatternet.

PICONET
SCATTERNET
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PICONET AND SCATTERNET

Piconet Scatternet

It is one network of eight stations. Many piconets can be combined forms Scatternet.

A station is a member of only one network. A station can be member of more than one piconet.

Piconet can have up to 8 stations, one station is the A secondary station in one piconet can be a primary in
primary station. another piconet.

In this Bluetooth network, device can function either as In this Bluetooth network, device can function as master
master or slave. or slave or (master+slave)

It serves smaller coverage area. It serves large coverage area.

It supports maximum 8 nodes. It supports more than 8 nodes.

Comparison between 1G, 2G, 3G, 4G, 5G & 6G

Technology 1G 2G 3G 4G 5G

Start/deployment 1970-80 1990-2004 2004-10 Now Soon

Data bandwidth 2 Kbps 64 Kbps 2 Mbps 1Gbps Higher than 1
Gbps
Technology Analog Digital CDMA 2000, Wi-max, Wi-fi, WWWW
UMTS,EDGE LTE

Frequency 30 KHz 1.8 GHz 1.6-2.0 GHz 2-8 GHz 3-300 GHz
Multiplexing FDMA TDMA/CDMA CDMA CDMA CDMA

Switching Circuit Circuit packet Packet All packet All packet

Key differentiator Mobility Secure, Mass Better internet Faster Better coverage
adoption experience broadband and no dropped
internet calls, better
performance
Weakness Poor Limited data Real Battery use is ?
spectral rates, difficult performance fail more, requird
security to support to watch type, complicated and
issue failure of WAP expensive
SUBJECT: DCC CHAPTER:4th

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES & NETWORK

DEVICES

Mr. Samiran Maity,

Senior Lecturer,
Pravin Patil Polytechnic, Bhayander
E-mail: [email protected]
Contact No:7977649037
LEARNING OUTCOMES

➢ The Learners will be able to understand:

1. What is Network Topology? And its types.

2. Which are Network connecting devices?

3. Comparison of Hub & Switch.

NETWORK TOPOLOGY

1. Network topology describe the ways in which the elements of a network are mapped. They describe the
physical and logical arrangement of the network nodes.

Classification Of
Topologies

Physical Logical
Topology Topology

Token Shared
Bus Star Mesh Tree Ring Hybrid
based media
Topology Topology Topology Topology Topology Topology
Topology Topology
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PHYSICAL & LOGICAL TOPOLOGY

Physical Topology Logical Topology

Physical Topologies refer to the physical layout of Logical Topologies refer to the logical paths in which
devices and network media. data accesses the media and transmits packets across it

How the wires is connected. How the data is transferred.

Types include: Bus Topology, Ring Topology, Star Types include: Shared Media topology & Token Bases
Topology, Tree Topology, Mesh Topology. topology

A physical topology describes the way in which the The logical topology describes how the devices
devices are connected together. communicate or the shape of the communication shape.
TOPOLOGY

1. The way of connecting the computers in a network is called as topology.

BUS TOPOLOGY

1. In networking, a topology that allows all network nodes to receive the same message through the network
cable at the same time is called as bus topology.

2. All the data that travel over the network is transmitted through a common transmission medium knows as the
bus or the backbone of the network.
WORKING OF BUS TOPOLOGY

1. The central cable is the backbone of the network and is knows as Bus. Every workstation or node
communicates with the other device through this bus.
2. A signal from source is broadcasted and it travels to all workstations connected to bus cable. Although the
message is broadcasted but only the intended recipient, whose MAC address or IP address matches, accepts it.

3. If the MAC/IP address of machine does not match with intended address, machine discards the signal.
4. A terminator is added at ends of the central cable, to prevent bouncing of signals. A barrel connector can be
used to extend it.
ADVANTAGES OF BUS TOPOLOGY

1. Requires less cabling length, so cheaper.

2. Fast as compare to ring topology and sufficient for small network.
3. Easy to expand joining two cables together.

DISADVANTAGES OF BUS TOPOLOGY

1. Cable has a limited length, so it cannot connect a large number of computers.

2. Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
RING TOPOLOGY

1. Ring topology is a network topology that is set-up in circular fashion.

2. It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computers is connected to another computer, with
the last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbours for each device.
WORKING OF RING TOPOLOGY

1. In ring topology network arrangement, a signal is transferred sequentially using a ‘token’ from one node to
the next. If a node wants to transmit, it “grabs” the token, attaches data and a destination address to it, and
then sends it around the ring.

2. The token travels along the ring until it reaches its destination. Once, token reaches destination, receiving
computer acknowledge receipt with a return message to the sender. The sender then releases the token for
the token for use by another computer.

3. A signal from the source is broadcasted and it travels to all workstations connected to bus cable.

4. Although the message is broadcasted but only the intended recipient, whose MAC address or IP address
matches, accepts it.

5. If the MAC/IP address of machine does not match with the intended address, machine discards the signal.

6. A terminator is added at ends of the central cable, to prevent bouncing of signals. A barrel connector can be
used to extends it.
ADVANTAGES OF RING TOPOLOGY

1. Require less cabling.

2. Less expensive.
3. Each computers has equal access to resources.

DISADVANTAGES OF RING TOPOLOGY

1. Traffic is unidirectional.
2. Slow in speed.
3. Difficult for troubleshooting the ring.
STAR TOPOLOGY

1. Star topology is one topology in which a central unit is called a hub or concentrator host a set of network
cables that radiate out to each node on the network.

2. Unlike Bus topology, where nodes were connected to central cable, here all workstations are connected to
central devices i.e. hub or concentrator with a point-to-point connection.
ADVANTAGES OF STAR TOPOLOGY

1. Easy to install.
2. Centralized management. It helps in monitoring the network.
3. Robustness i.e. if one link fails, only that link is affected.
4. Fast as compare to ring topology.

DISADVANTAGES OF STAR TOPOLOGY

1. If central node (hub or switch) goes down, then entire network goes down.
2. More cabling is required than bus topology.
TREE TOPOLOGY

1. As it name implies in this topology devices make a tree structure. Tree topology integrates the characteristics
of star and bus topology.

2. In tree topology, the number of star networks are connected using bus. This main cable seems like a main
stem of tree, and other star network as the branches.

3. It is also called expanded star topology.

ADVANTAGES OF TREE TOPOLOGY

1. Easy to install and wire.

2. Fast as compare to other topologies.
3. Multiple devices can transfer data without Collison.
4. Eliminates traffic problem.

DISADVANTAGES OF TREE TOPOLOGY

1. More expensive than bus topologies because of the cost of the concentrators(hub or switch).
2. Failure in the central hub brings the entire network to a halt.
HYBRID TOPOLOGY

1. Hybrid, as the name suggest, is mixture of two different things. A hybrid topology is combination of two ore
more network topologies.

2. Two common examples for hybrid network are star ring network and star bus network.

3. Hybrid topology is used to connect a network that is divided into smaller sections also known as segments.

1. A Star-ring Network: It consists of two or more star topologies connected using a Multistation Access
Unit(MAU) as a centralized hub.

2. A Star-bus Network: It consists of two or more star topologies connected using a bus trunk (the bus trunk
serves as the network’s backbone).
HYBRID TOPOLOGY
ADVANTAGES OF HYBRID TOPOLOGY

1. Unlike other networks, fault detection and troubleshooting is easy in this type of topology.
2. It is easy to increase the size of network by adding new components, without disturbing existing architecture.

DISADVANTAGES OF HYBRID TOPOLOGY

1. One of the biggest drawback of hybrid topology is its design. It’s not easy to design this type of architecture
and it’s a tough job for designers.
2. The hubs used to connect two distinct networks, are very expensive.
NETWORK CONTROL/CONNECTING DEVICES

1. Network control devices are component used to connect computers or other electronic devices together so
that they can share files or resources like printers or fax machines etc.
2. The network devices are playing an important role in network communication, each device has different role.
3. Network hardware includes all computers, peripherals, interface cards and other equipment needed to
perform data-processing and communications within the network.
NEED OF NETWORK CONNECTING/CONTROL DEVICE

1. Hub: Hub is important because it broadcasts data from one port to all other ports in the network.
2. Repeater: The repeaters are used in places where amplification of input signal is necessary.
3. Router: When there are more than one computer at home or in an organization, and you have a single
internet connection, you need a Router. Router is a device which is used when multiple device need to
connect to the internet using the same IP.
4. Gateway: Needed when two different network technologies are being used. They acts as translator switch-
intelligent device which sends data to particular port.
5. Bridge: Same function as switch but much more primitive and has lesser ports.
6. Network Interface Cards(NIC): It is very important component installed in a computer which is responsible for
connecting a particular computer to a network.
HUB
TYPES OF HUB

1. Active Hub: As it name suggests, active hub is a hub which can amplify or regenerate the information signal.
This type of hub has an advantage as it also amplifies the incoming signal as well as forward it to multiple
devices. This hub is also known as Multiport Repeater.

2. Passive Hub: Passive hub works like a simple bridge. It is used for just creating a connection between various
devices. It does not have the ability to amplify or regenerate any incoming signal. It receives signal and then
forward it to multiple devices.

3. Intelligent Hub: It can perform tasks of both active and passive hub. Also, it can perform some other tasks
like bridging and routing. It increases the speed and effectiveness of total network thus make the performance
of whole network fast and efficient. An intelligent hub help in troubleshooting by pinpointing the actual
location of the problem and help identify the root cause and resolution.
SWITCH
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HUB AND SWITCH

HUB SWITCH

To connect a network of personal computers Allow to connect multiple device and port can be
together, they can be joined though a central hub. manage, VLAN can create security also can apply.

Supports half-duplex communications. Supports full-duplex communications.

Hub is less expensive. Switch is more expensive.

Hub is less intelligent. Switch is more intelligent.

Hub is passive device. Switch is active device.

It send the received packet to all ports. It only send packet to only destination port.

It uses broadcast technology. It uses point-to-point technology.

Cheaper in cost. Cost is high.

ROUTER

1. A network router is a network control device with interfaces in multiple networks whose task is to copy
packets from one network to another.
2. Router gives path to data packet to destination. Routers provide connectivity inside enterprises, between
enterprises and the internet, and within an internet service provider.
TYPES OF ROUTER

1. Static Routers: This router is hard coded in the routing table. The administrator has no configure and set up
all routes manually. Static routing is the process of predefining route paths across data networks and can be
used to conserve LAN and WAN bandwidth and optimize processing time.

2. Dynamic Routers: Only the first route has to be manually configured. After that additional routes are
automatically discovered.
ADVANTAGES OF ROUTERS

1. Provide high network fault tolerance through redundant components.

2. Provides connectivity across Wide Area Network (WAN).

DISADVANTAGES OF ROUTERS

1. Router is more expensive than hub, bridge and switch.

2. They require considerable amount of initial configurations.

REPEATER

1. A repeater (or generator) is an electronic device that operates on physical layer of OSI model.
2. A repeater is a network device that retransmits a received signal with more power and to an extended
geographical or technological network boundary than what would be capable with the original signal.
3. A repeater is regenerator, not an amplifier. An amplifier cannot discriminate between the intended signal and
noise; it amplifies everything fed to it.
REPEATER CONNECTED WITH DIFFERENT LAN
TYPES OF REPEATER

1. Amplifier: Which simply amplifies entire incoming signals along with noise.
2. Signal Regenerating: It amplifies only data signals, (does not amplify noise signals.)

ADVANTAGES OF REPEATER

1. They passes all traffic in bi-directions.

2. Repeaters can reduce the effect of noise.
3. Repeaters can extends the network.

DISADVANTAGES OF REPEATER

1. They do not examine any destination address and they do not filter or translate any data.

2. If network traffic is heavy, then repeater is not support.

GATEWAY

1. Gateway work all 7 layers of the OSI model. Gateway is a network device which interconnects two
heterogeneous networks.
2. Gateway is a connectivity link between two networks that use dissimilar protocols and architecture.
3. A gateway is a network element that acts as an entrance point to another network, for example, an access
gateway is a gateway between telephony network and other network such as Internet.
WORKING OF GATEWAY

1. The fig shows the working of a gateway. Consider two networks, say in PUNE, and a network is MUMBAI. If data
has to be sent from one place to another, we need to ensure that the network technologies that are being used
by both the networks are the same. If not, we need to use a gateway.

2. A gateway is a node in a computer network, a key stopping point for data on its way to or from other networks.
ADVANTAGES OF GATEWAY

1. Used to expand the network and used to connect two different types of network.
2. Gateway is a server so it provides some security.
3. Effectively handles the traffic problems.

DISADVANTAGES OF GATEWAY

1. Gateway are slow because they need to perform intensive conversions.

2. Never filter out the data.
MODEM

1. Modem is abbreviation for Modulator-Demodulator. It is a hardware component that allows a computer or

other device, such as router or switch, to connect to the internet.
2. A modem acts as a sort of converter or translator. It allows digital data or information to be transmitted over
traditionally analog lines of transmission such as a telephone line.
3. The word “modem” is a mix of two transmission terms, “modulate” and “demodulate”, which are the two
main operations performed.
4. The digital signal from a computer is converted into analog form, sent over the analog medium and then
decoded back into its digital form at the receiving end.
5. Modems are used for data transfer from one computer network to another computer network though
telephone lines.
6. The computer network works in digital mode, while analog technology is used for carrying messages across
phone lines.
7. In modem modulator converts information from digital mode to analog mode at the transmitting end and
demodulator converts the same from analog to digital at receiving end.
SUBJECT: DCC CHAPTER:5th

REFERENCE MODELS
Mr. Samiran Maity,
Senior Lecturer,
Pravin Patil Polytechnic, Bhayander
E-mail: [email protected]
Contact No:7977649037
LEARNING OUTCOMES

➢ The Learners will be able to understand:

1. What is Encapsulation?
2. What is OSI Model? And its Layer.
3. What is TCP/IP Model?
4. What is IP Address? And its Types.
5. Difference between IPV4 and IPV6.
ENCAPSULATION

1. Encapsulation is the process of taking data from one protocol and translating it into another protocol, so the
data can continue across a network.
2. The process by which data is handled layer-to-layer through the OSI model is referred as data encapsulation.
3. As shown in fig the data layer 7 i.e. the Application layer along with the header added at layer 7 is given to
layer 6, the Presentation layer. This layer adds its header and passed the whole package to the layer below.
4. A packet (header and data) at level 7 is encapsulated in a packet at level 6. The whole packet at level 6 is
encapsulated in a packet at level 5, and so on.
5. In other words, the data portion of a packet at level N-1 carries the whole packet from level N. the concept is
called encapsulation.
6. Level N-1 is not aware of which part of the encapsulated packet is data and which part is the header or trailer. For
Level N-1, the whole packet coming from Level N is treated as one integral unit.
HORIZONTAL COMMUNICATION

1. Fig shows concept of horizontal communication. The horizontal communication is the logical connection
between the layers, there is no direct communication between them.
2. Information included in each protocol header by the transmitting system is a message that will be carried to
the same protocol in the destination system.
3. For two computers to communicate over a network, the protocol used at each layer of OSI model in the
transmitting system must be duplicated at the receiving system.
VERTICAL COMMUNICATION

1. Fig shows concept of vertical communication.

2. In addition to communicating horizontally with the same protocol in the other system, the header information
also enables each layer to communicate with the layer above and below it.

3. For example, the network layer will communicate with the data link layer
and transport layer. This interlayer communication is called communication
vertical.
OSI MODEL

1. Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a reference model developed by ISO (International Organization
for Standardization) in 1984.
2. OSI model logically groups the functions and set rules, called protocols, necessary to establish and conduct
communication between two or more parties.
3. The model consists of seven functions, often referred to as layers.

Application

Presentation

Session

Transport

Network

Data link

Physical

OSI Model
FUNCTIONS OF EACH LAYER IN OSI MODEL

1. Physical Layer: The lowest layer of the OSI model (Layer 1) is referred as physical layer. Physical layer deals
with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface and transmission medium.

2. Data Link Layer: The second layer is referred as the data link layer. This layer defines how frames of
information are constructed. Generally this mean defining how bytes are combined into units called frames.
Data Link Layer consists of following two sub-layers:

1. Logical Link Layer(LLC): LLC sublayer determines whether the communication is going to be
connectionless or connection oriented at the data link layer.

2. Medium Access Control(MAC): MAC sub layer is responsible for connection to physical media.
3. Network Layer: The third layer is in the OSI model the network layer. This layer defines how packets of data are
constructed. Network layer is responsible for addressing messages and translating logical addresses and names into
physical addresses. It determines the route from the source to the destination computer.

4. Transport Layer: Layer 4 of the OSI model is the transport layer. Transport layer is responsible for packet creation.
Transport layer ensures that packets are delivered error free, in sequence with no losses or duplications. Transport
layer provides flow control, error handling, and solves transmission problems.

5. Session Layer: The Session layer is 5th layer of OSI model. Session layer establishes, maintains the interactions
between communicating system. Session layer allows two applications running on different computers to establish
use and end a connection called a session. Session layer performs name recognition and security.
6. Presentation Layer: The 6th layer of OSI model is the presentation layer. It serves as a translator layer of the
OSI model and it is responsible for data conversion and encryption. The presentation layer may translate data from
a format used by application layer into a common format at sending station, and then translate the common
format to a format at known to the application layer at the receiving station.

7. Application Layer: Application layer is top most layer (Layer 7) of OSI model. Application layer provides the
interface and services that supports user applications and provides general access to the network, Application
layer serves as a window for application to access network services.

➢ The main benefits of the OSI model includes the following:

1. Helps users understand the big picture of networking.
2. Helps users understand how hardware and software elements function together.
3. Makes troubleshooting easier by separating networks into manageable pieces.
TCP/IP MODEL

1. TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. TCP/IP model was developed by the U.S.
Department of Defense (DoD) to connect multiple networks and preserve data integrity.
2. TCP/IP protocol suite also called as Internet protocol suite. TCP/IP provides end-to-end connectivity specifying
how data should be formatted, addressed, transmitted, routed and received at the destination.
3. TCP/IP protocol model came after the OSI model and the number of layers in TCP/IP differ from that of the OSI
model. TCP/IP model comprises of 4 layers namely, network access (also called host-to-network layer), internet,
transport and application layer.
4. The network access layer of TCP/IP model corresponds to the combination of physical and data link layer of OSI
model. The internet layer corresponds to network layer of OSI model and the application layer perform tasks of
session, presentation and application layer of OSI model with the transport layer of TCP/IP performing a part of
responsibilities of session layer of OSI model
LAYERED STRUCTURE OF TCP/IP

APPLICATION LAYER

HOST-TO-HOST TRANSPORT LAYER

INTERNET LAYER

NETWORK ACCESS LAYER

OSI Model TCP/IP Model

APPLICATION

PRESENTATION APPLICATION

SESSION

TRANSPORT HOST-TO-HOST TRANSPORT

NETWORK INTERNET

DATA LINK
NETWORK
PHYSICAL
ADDRESS RESOLUTION PROTOCOL(ARP)

1. Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a protocol for mapping an internet protocol address(IP Address) to a
physical machine address.
2. ARP converts an Internet Protocol (IP) address to its corresponding physical network address. ARP is a low-
level network protocol, operating at Layer 2 of the OSI model.
3. ARP provides the interface between the IP addressing system used by IP and the hardware addresses used by
the data link layer protocols.
4. When IP constructs a datagram, it known the IP address of system that is packet’s ultimate destination.
5. That address may identify a computer connected to the local network or a system on another network.

IP Address Input

ARP

Physical/Hardware
address
Output
DYNAMIC HOST CONFIGURATION PROTOCOL(DHCP)

1. DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) is a protocol used to provide quick, automatic and central
management for the distribution of IP addresses within a network.

2. A DHCP server is used to issue unique IP addresses and automatically configure other network information. In
most homes and small business, the router acts as the DHCP server. In large networks, a single computer might
act as the DHCP server.

3. DHCP is a protocol that automatically assigns a unique IP address to each device that connects to a network.

4. DHCP runs in a client/server mode, where server sets up a pool of available IP addresses for a network.

5. When you connect to a network, your device is considered a client and the router is the server. In order to
successfully connect to a network via DHCP, the following steps must take place:
STEPS

1. When a client detects it has connected to a DHCP server, it sends a DHCPDISCOVER request.
2. The router either receives the request or redirects it to the appropriate DHCP server.
3. If the server accepts the new device, it will send a DHCPOFFER message back to the client, which contains the
client device MAC’s address and IP address being offered.
4. The client returns a DHCPREQUEST message to the server, confirming it will use the IP address.
5. Finally, the server responds with a DHCPACK acknowledgement message that confirms the client has been given
access for a certain amount of time.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CONNECTION-ORIENTED & CONNECTIONLESS SERVICES

Basis of Comparison Connection Oriented Service Connectionless Services

Prior connection requirement Necessary Not Required

Reliability Ensures reliable transfer Not Guaranteed

Congestion Unlikely Occur Likely

Lost data retransmission Feasible Practically, not possible

Suitability Suitable for long & steady Suitable for bursty transmission
communication

Signaling Used for connection establishment There is no concept of signaling.

Resource Allocation Need to be allocated No prior allocation of resource is

required.

Protocol Used TCP UDP

INTRODUCTION TO INTERNET ADDRESSING

1. Internet, in order to provide universal communication services, must follow a uniform addressing mechanism
which identifies machines in a network.

2. The addressing mechanism should be universally accepted and uniquely identify and source and destination
host computers existing in a network.

3. Each host on the internet is assigned unique 32-bit internet address, which is placed in the IP header and used
to route packets to their destinations.

4. In general, internet addressing is a systematic way to identify people, computers and internet resources.
IP ADDRESS

1. IP addressing is the method used to identify host and network devices.

The number of hosts connected to the internet continues to grow, and
the IP addressing scheme has been adapted over time to cope this
growth. 32 bits
Network ID Host ID
2. In short IP address, IP address = Network identifier + Host identifier.

3. IP stands for Internet Protocol, and its primary purpose is to enable

communications between networks, as a result, a 32-bit IP address
actually consists of 2 parts:
1. Network ID (or Network Address): Identifies the network on which a host
computer can be found.
2. Host ID (or Host Address): Identifies a specific device on the network
indicated by the network ID.

145.25.10.100
Network ID Host ID
IP Address can be displayed in 3 typical formats:

1. Binary Notation (Base 2): Binary notation is the format that systems on the network use to process the
address. In binary notation, the IPV4 address is displayed as 32 bits. An example of binary notation is
01110101.10010101.00011101.11101010.

2. Hexadecimal Notation (Base 16): We sometimes see an IP Address in hexadecimal notation. Each
hexadecimal digit is equivalent to 4 bits. This means that a 32-bit address has 8 hexadecimal digits. An
example of hexadecimal notation of an IPV4 address is CO.A8.01.64.

3. Dotted-Decimal Notation (Base 256): To make the IPV4 address more compact and easier to read, internet
addresses are usually written in decimal point separating the bytes. An example of dotted-decimal notation is
192.168.1.100.
IP ADDRESS CLASSES

1. IP Address structure is divided into 5 address

2. Classes: Class A
1. Class B
2. Class C
3. Class D
4. Class E

Class A 0-127 0
Class B 128-191 10
Class C 192-223 110
Class D 224-239 1110
Class E 240-255 1111
CLASS ADDRESSINGS

7 bits 24 bits
CLASS A

14 bits 16 bits
CLASS B

21 bits 8 bits

CLASS C

CLASS D

CLASS E
CLASSLESS IP ADDRESSING

1. Address is a block & must be contiguous.

2. No of address in a block must be a power of 2 [1,2,4,8,16, . . . .]
3. The first address must be evenly divisible by the no of address.
4. E.g. Block:- 205.16.37.32 First
205.16.37.33
205.16.37.34
.
.
205.16.37.47 Last
IPV4

1. Packets in IPv4 layer are called datagrams.

2. A datagram is a variable length packet consisting of two parts: “Header & Data”.
1. VER:- Is the field that contains the IP protocol version.
2. HLEN:- Is the length of IP header in multiples of 32 bits without data field.
3. Source Types:- The type of service is an indication of the quality of service requested for this IP datagram.
4. Total Length:- It specifies the total length of datagram header & data in octets.
5. Identification:- Is a unique number assigned by the sender used with fragmentation.
6. Flags:- This is a 3-bit field more fragment Bit 1 is
reserved
this don’t
fragment it

7. Fragment Offset: Is used to reassemble the full datagram.

8. TTL (Time to live):-Specifies the time the datagram is allowed to travel.

9. Protocol:- Indicates the higher level protocol to which IP should deliver the data in this datagram.

10. Header Checksum:- Is a checksum for the information contained in the header. If it doesn’t match the contents,
the datagram is discarded.

11. Source/Destination IP address:- These are 32 bit source/destination IP address.

12. IP Options:- Is a variable length field used for control or debugging & measurement.
IPV6
1. It is of 128 bits or 16 bytes. Length is 4 times the length of IPV4.
2. It means 2128.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN IPV4 AND IPV6
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN OSI REFERENCE & TCP/IP MODEL

OSI REFERENCE MODEL TCP/IP MODEL

OSI refers to open system Interconnection. TCP refers to Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol.

OSI model had seven layers. TCP/IP model has four layers.

OSI is less reliable. TCP/IP is more reliable.

OSI is a conceptual model. TCP/IP is a client-server model, i.e. when the client
requests for service it is provided by the server.

OSI follows a horizontal approach. TCP/IP follows a vertical approach.

OSI model follows a bottom-up approach. TCP/IP follows top to bottom approach.