Fundamentals

of
Air Pollution
FOURTH EDITION

DANIEL A. VALLERO
Civil and Environmental Engineering Department
Pratt School of Engineering
Duke University
Durham, North Carolina

AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD

PARIS • SAN DIEGO • SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
 Contents

Preface to the Third Edition xvii

Preface to the Fourth Edition xxi

Part I
Air Pollution Essentials

1 The Changing Face of Air Pollution

I. Defining Air Pollution 3
II. The Emergence of Air Pollution Science, Engineering, and
Technology 7
III. Air Pollution Before the Industrial Revolution 37
IV. Air Pollution and the Industrial Revolution 40
V. Recent Air Pollution 42
VI. The 1980s 47
VII. Recent History 48
VIII. The Future 49
Further Reading 49
Suggested Reading 51
Questions 51

vii
viii Contents

2 The Earth’s Atmosphere

I. The Atmosphere 52
II. Baseline Conditions: Unpolluted Air 53
III. What is Air Pollution? 58
IV. Particulate Matter 59
V. Concepts 71
References 76
Suggested Reading 76
Questions 76

3 Scales of the Air Pollution Problem

I. Local 77
II. Urban 78
III. Regional 79
IV. Continental 80
V. Global 85
Suggested Reading 86
Questions 87

Part II
The Physics and Chemistry of Air Pollution

4 Air Pollution Physics

I. Mechanics of Air Pollution 93
II. Fluid Properties 95
Questions 122

5 The Physics of the Atmosphere

I. Energy 123
II. Motion 131
III. Energy-Motion Relationships 137
IV. Local Wind Systems 141
V. General Circulation 148
References 152
Suggested Reading 152
Questions 153

6 Air Pollution Systems and Processes

I. Chemical Processes in Air Pollution 154
 Contents ix

II. Air Pollution Chemodynamics 160

References 197
Suggested Reading 197
Questions 198

7 Characterizing Air Pollution

I. Relationship Between Physics and Chemistry 199
II. Basic Chemical Concepts 200
III. Expressions of Chemical Characteristics 207
IV. Electromagnetic Radiation, Electron Density, Orbitals,
and Valence 210
V. Organic Chemistry 238
VI. Introduction to Atmospheric Chemistry 248
VII. Heterogeneous Reactions 259
VIII. Scavenging and Removal from the Atmosphere 259
References 260
Suggested Reading 261
Questions 261

8 Air Quality
I. Averaging Time 267
II. Cycles 270
III. Primary and Secondary Pollutants 273
IV. Measurement Systems 275
V. Air Quality Levels 277
References 295
Suggested Reading 295
Questions 295

9 The Philosophy of Air Pollution Control

I. Strategy and Tactics: The Air Pollution System 296
II. Episode Control 301
III. Air Quality Management Control Strategy 306
IV. Alternative Control Strategies 309
V. Economic Considerations 310
References 311
Suggested Reading 311
Questions 311

10 Sources of Air Pollution

I. General 313
II. Combustion 319
III. Stationary Sources 325
x Contents

IV. Mobile Sources 336

V. Air Toxics Sources 337
VI. Emission Inventory 343
VII. An International Perspective: Differences in
Time and Space 346
VIII. ODORS: More than just a Nuisance 351
References 353
Suggested Reading 353
Questions 354

Part III
Risks from Air Pollution

11 Effects on Health and Human Welfare

I. Air–Water–Soil Interactions 359
II. Total Body Burden 365
III. The Human Respiratory System 378
IV. Impact of Air Pollution on Humans 381
V. Impact of Odor on Humans 394
References 395
Suggested Reading 395
Questions 396

12 Effects on Vegetation and Animals

I. Injury versus Damage 397
II. Effects on Vegetation and Crops 399
III. Effects on Forests 403
IV. Effects on Animals 408
References 411
Suggested Reading 412
Questions 412

13 Effects on Materials and Structures

I. Effects on Metals 413
II. Effects on Stone 416
III. Effects on Fabrics and Dyes 417
IV. Effects on Leather, Paper, Paint, and Glass 419
V. Effects on Rubber 420
References 421
Suggested Reading 422
Questions 422
 Contents xi

14 Effects on the Atmosphere, Soil, and Water Bodies

I. The Physics of Visibility 423
II. Formation of Atmospheric Haze 430
III. Effects of Atmospheric Haze 433
IV. Visibility 434
V. Acidic Deposition 435
VI. Effects of Acidic Deposition 438
References 439
Suggested Reading 440
Questions 441

15 Long-Term Effects on the Planet

I. Global Climate Change 442
II. Ozone Holes 451
References 453
Suggested Reading 454
Questions 454

Part IV
The Measurement and Monitoring of Air Pollution

16 Ambient Air Sampling

I. Elements of a Sampling System 457
II. Sampling Systems for Gaseous Pollutants 459
III. Sampling Systems for Particulate Pollutants 463
IV. Passive Sampling Systems 466
V. Sampler Siting Requirements 468
VI. Sampling for Air Toxics 469
References 470
Suggested Reading 470
Questions 470

17 Ambient Air Pollutants: Analysis and Measurement

I. Analysis and Measurement of Gaseous Pollutants 472
II. Analysis and Measurement of Particulate Pollutants 487
III. Analysis and Measurement of Odors 490
IV. Analysis and Measurement of Visibility 492
V. Analysis and Measurement of Acidic Deposition 496
References 497
Suggested Reading 498
Questions 498
xii Contents

18 Air Pollution Monitoring and Surveillance

I. Stationary Monitoring Networks 500
II. Mobile Monitoring and Surveillance 503
III. Remote Sensing 505
IV. Personal Monitoring 506
V. Quality Assurance 508
VI. Data Analysis and Display 510
References 513
Suggested Reading 513
Questions 513

19 Air Pathways from Hazardous Waste Sites

I. Introduction 515
II. Multimedia Transport 516
III. Contaminant Fate Analysis 516
IV. Modeling 524
V. Assessment of a Hazardous Waste Site 525
References 533
Suggested Reading 533
Questions 533

Part V
Air Pollution Modeling

20 The Meteorological Bases of Atmospheric Pollution

I. Ventilation 537
II. Stagnation 539
III. Meteorological Conditions during Historic Pollution
Episodes 540
IV. Effects of Pollution on the Atmosphere 546
V. Removal Mechanisms 547
References 550
Suggested Reading 551
Questions 551

21 Transport and Dispersion of Air Pollutants

I. Wind Velocity 552
II. Turbulence 554
III. Estimating Concentrations from Point Sources 557
IV. Dispersion Instrumentation 566
 Contents xiii

V. Atmospheric Tracers 571

VI. Concentration Variation with Averaging Time 576
References 578
Suggested Reading 579
Questions 579

22 Air Pollution Modeling and Prediction

I. Plume Rise 582
II. Modeling Techniques 585
III. Modeling Nonreactive Pollutants 587
IV. Modeling Pollutant Transformations 590
V. Modeling Air Pollutants 593
VI. Model Performance, Accuracy, and Utilization 627
References 633
Suggested Reading 636
Questions 637

23 Air Pollution Climatology

I. Sources of Data 638
II. Representativeness 641
III. Frequency of Atmospheric Stagnations 646
IV. Ventilation Climatology 647
V. Wind and Pollution Roses 650
References 654
Suggested Reading 655
Questions 655

Part VI
The Regulatory Control of Air Pollution

24 Air Quality Criteria and Standards

I. Air Quality Criteria 659
II. Conversion of Effects Data and Criteria to Standards 659
III. Conversion of Physical Data and Criteria to Standards 669
IV. Conversion of Biological Data and Criteria to Standards 671
V. Air Quality Standards 672
Suggested Reading 677
Questions 678

25 Indoor Air Quality

I. Changing Times 679
II. Factors Influencing Indoor Air Quality 680
xiv Contents

III. Indoor Air Pollutants 682

IV. Effects of Indoor Air Pollutants 685
V. Control of Indoor Air Pollutants 687
References 692
Suggested Reading 692
Questions 692

26 Regulating Air Pollution

I. Introduction 696
II. Titles 697
References 706
Suggested Reading 706
Questions 706

27 Emission Standards
I. Subjective Standards 707
II. Objective Standards 709
III. Types of Emission Standards 713
IV. Variant Forms of Emission Standards 713
V. Means for Implementing Emission Standards 715
References 721
Suggested Reading 721
Questions 722

28 The Elements of Regulatory Control

I. Control of New Stationary Sources 724
II. Control of Existing Stationary Sources 725
III. Control of Mobile Sources 726
IV. Air Quality Control Regions 727
V. Tall Stacks and Intermittent and Supplementary Control
Systems 728
References 729
Suggested Reading 729
Questions 729

29 Organization for Air Pollution Control

I. Functions 730
II. Organization 733
III. Finance 736
IV. Advisory Groups 737
Suggested Readings 738
Questions 739
 Contents xv

Part VII
Preventing and Controlling Air Pollution

30 Preventing Air Pollution

I. Introduction 743
II. Sustainability 743
III. Green Engineering and Sustainability 744
IV. Life Cycle Analysis 753
V. Pollution Prevention 756
VI. Motivations for Practicing Green Engineering 761
VII. Future People 767
References 770
Suggested Reading 772
Questions 772

31 Engineering Control Concepts

I. Introduction 774
II. Process Change 776
III. Fuel Change 777
IV. Pollution Removal 778
V. Disposal of Pollutants 780
References 784
Suggested Reading 784
Questions 784

32 Control Devices, Technologies, and Systems

I. Introduction 786
II. Removal of Dry PM 794
III. Removal of Liquid Droplets and Mists 807
IV. Removal of Gaseous Pollutants 810
V. Removal of Odors 821
References 822
Suggested Reading 823
Questions 823

33 Control of Hazardous Air Pollutants

I. Air Quality and Hazardous Wastes 825
II. Pre-control Considerations 830
III. Contaminant Treatment and Control Approaches 832
IV. Thermal Treatment Processes 835
V. Thermal Destruction Systems 839
xvi Contents

VI. Destruction Removal 844

VII. Other Thermal Processes 845
VIII. Indirect Air Impacts 848
References 849
Suggested Reading 850
Questions 850

34 Control of Stationary Sources

I. Introduction 852
II. Energy, Power, and Incineration 853
III. Chemical and Metallurgical Industries 859
IV. Agriculture and Forest Products Industries 872
V. Other Industrial Processes 878
References 883
Suggested Reading 884
Questions 885

35 Control of Mobile Sources

I. Introduction 886
II. Gasoline-Powered Vehicles 886
III. Diesel-Powered Vehicles 889
IV. Gas Turbines and Jet Engines 889
V. Alternatives to Existing Mobile Sources 891
References 893
Suggested Reading 893
Questions 894

36 Source Sampling and Monitoring

I. Introduction 895
II. Source Sampling 895
III. Statistics of Sampling 897
IV. The Source Test 899
V. Source Monitoring 910
References 915
Suggested Reading 915
Questions 915

37 The Future of Air Pollution

I. The Good News 917
II. Stubborn Problems and Innovative Solutions 917

Index 919