Temperature and Heat
Temperature:
Macroscopically: is a relative measure for the degree of
hotness or coldness of bodies.
Microscopically: temperature is a measure of the average
kinetic energy of the molecules of a substance
There is no upper limitation of the temperature, however
there a lower limit named as absolute zero (0 k)
At the beginning of the universe (just after big bang),
the temperature was very high (about 1039 k , as the
universe expanded the temperature lowered and
lowered, now the average temperature of the
universe is about 3 k 1
Measuring the temperature
• The temperature is measured by a thermometer
• the idea of temperature measurement is based on
the variation of a certain property linearly with the
temperature. This property is called thermoprorety
• Examples for the thermo properties : thermal
expansion (Linear, volume, surface), pressure,
resistance,…..etc
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The general equation for determine the unknown
temperature using a thermometer is
XT − X0
T= 100
X 100 − X 0
Where Xt, X100 and X0 is the termoproperty at the unknown
temperature, the upper point and the lower point ( usually
the boiling (steam) point and the freezing (ice) point of water)
Examples of thermometers:
❑ Liquid- glass thermometer
❑Pressure thermometer (constant volume gas thermometer)
❑Platinum resistance thermometer
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Liquid-glass thermometer
Constant volume gas thermometer
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Resistance thermometer
Temperature scales
• Fahrenheit scale has an ice point of 32° and a steam point of 212°.
The interval between the ice point and the steam point is evenly
divided into 180 units. Each unit is called a degree. Thus a degree
Fahrenheit, abbreviated °F, is of the temperature change between
the ice point and the steam point.
• Celsius scale is based on an ice point of 0° and a steam point of 100°,
and there are 100 equal units or divisions between these points. A
degree Celsius, abbreviated °C, is 1/100 of the temperature change
between the ice point and the steam point
• Kelvin scale has its zero temperature at the absolute limit It is
sometimes called the absolute temperature scale. The unit on the
Kelvin scale is the Kelvin, abbreviated K (not °K), and is the same size
as a degree Celsius
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Relation between Kelvin, Celsius and Fahrenheit scales
373 100 212 Kelvin and Celsius scales
T K - 273 TC - 0
373 - 273 100 - 0
363 90 194
T K - 273 TC - 0
=
373 - 273 100 - 0
T K - 273 TC
353 80 176 =
100 100
T C = T K - 273
Kelvin and Fahrenheit scales
343 70 158
T K - 273 T F - 32
TK TC TF
373 - 273 212 - 32
333 60 140
T K - 273 T F - 32
=
373 - 273 212 - 32
T K - 273 T F - 32
323 50 122 =
100 180
180 (T - 273)
T F - 32 = K
100
9 (T - 273) + 32
313 40 104 TF = K
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Celsius and Fahrenheit scales
303 30 86 TC - 0 T F - 32
100 - 0 212 - 32
293 20 68 TC - 0 T F - 32
=
100 - 0 212 - 32
TC T F - 32
=
100 180
283 10 50 180 T
T F - 32 = C
100
9 T + 32
TF = C
6
273 0 32 5
The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
Everybody has a property called temperature. When two bodies are in
thermal equilibrium, their temperatures are equal.
Example
The normal human body temperature is usually taken as 98.6°F. What is
the equivalent temperature on the Celsius scale?
Solution
•Problem
At what temperature is the Fahrenheit scale reading equal to (a) same as
Celsius scale, (b) twice that of the Celsius scale and (c) half that of the
Celsius scale?
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Thermal Expansion
When a material is subjected to heat, its
dimensions changed due thermal expansion
Atoms are held together by inter atomic forces looks like
as assembled by springs.
These atoms are not fixed tightly to its atomic sites, but it
vibrate around its equilibrium positions
As the temperature increased the amplitude of these
vibrations increase leading to elongation of the materials
Importance of thermal expansion
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Linear Expansion
α × 10-6 α × 10-6
Substance Substance
(oC-1) (oC-1)
Ice (at 0oC) 51 Brass 19
Lead 29 Copper 17
α is the coefficient of linear expansion. Aluminum 23 Concrete 12
The units of α are K-1 or (oC-1)
Diamond 1.2 Steel 11
Invarb 0.7 Glass 9
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quartz 0.5 Pyrex 3.2
Volume Expansion
Increasing temperature usually causes increases in volume for both
solid and liquid materials
V V0 , T
V = V0 T
V = V0 + V
V = V0 + V0 T
V = V0 (1 + T )
β is the volume expansion coefficient of a particular material; its unit is K-1 or (oC-1).
Problem:
A glass flask with volume 200 cm3 is filled to the brim with mercury at 20 oC. How
much mercury overflows when the temperature of the system is raised to 100°C?
The coefficient of volume expansion of the glass is 1.2 × l0-5 K-1 and for mercury is 18
× l0-5 K-1. 10
Relation between Linear and Volume Expansion Coefficients
Consider a solid cube of edge length L0
Initial state (At temperature To)
Final state (The temperature increases by an amount ΔT)
Since α is very small compared to 1 , then all higher orders of α will be ignored
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Thermal Expansion of Water
Water, in the temperature range from 0oC to 4°C, decreases in volume with
increasing temperature. In this range its coefficient of volume expansion is
negative. Above 4°C, water expands when heated. Hence water has its greatest
density at 4°C. Water also expands when it freezes, which is why ice humps up in
the middle of the compartments in an ice cube tray. By contrast, most materials
contract when they freeze.
Report 1:
The importance of the anomalous behavior of water with the
temperature
Report 2:
How the thermal expansion phenomenon was used to control the
temperature (thermostat)?
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Thermal Stress
If we clamp the ends of a rod rigidly to prevent expansion or contraction and then
change the temperature, tensile or compressive stresses called thermal stresses
develop Stress
Y=
Strain
L = Lo + Lo α∆T F
Stress =
L − Lo = Lo α∆T A
∆L
Strain =
∆L = Lo α∆T Lo
F
∆L Y= A
= α∆T ∆L
Lo thermal
Lo
∆L F
=
Lo tension
AY
If the length is to be constant, the total
fractional change in length must be zero
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Chapter 2
Heat and temperature
• Heat “Q” is a form of energy flow from hot bodies to
cold bodies.
• Temperature “T” is a measure for the heat energy
content of bodies
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Units of heat
❑The SI units is Joule (J), but the common unit used is the calorie (cal)
A calorie (cal) is defined as the amount of heat necessary to raise one
gram of pure water by one Celsius degree at normal atmospheric
pressure. In terms of the SI energy unit, Joules (J) are used
❑ nutrition units
One food calorie= Cal= kcal=1000 cal=4186 J
❑ British system
British Thermal Unit (BTU)
One Btu is the amount of heat necessary to raise one pound of water
one Fahrenheit degree at normal atmospheric pressure.
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Specific heat
dQ dT , m
dQ = s.m.dT
dQ
s=
m.dT
Where s is the specific heat = the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of unit mass by one degree
The units of s is cal/ gm. 0c or kcal/ kg. 0c
Example 1. A liter of water at room temperature (20 °C) is placed in a refrigerator with a
temperature of 5 °C. How much heat in kcal must be removed from the water for it to reach the
refrigerator temperature? Given that the specific heat of water is 1 kcal.kg-1.°C-1.
Example 2You are designing an electronic circuit element made of 23 mg of silicon. The electric
current through it adds energy at the rate of 7.4 × 10-3 J.s-1. If your design doesn't allow any heat
transfer out of the element, at what rate does its temperature increase? The specific heat of
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silicon is 705 J.kg-1.K-1.
Heat Capacity
The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of the body by one degree
dQ
C= = m.s
dt
For gases; there are two ways of heating: under constant volume and under constant pressure.
Consequently; there are two kinds of hat capacity Cv nad Cp
Cp>Cv
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Phase Changes
Solid state Liquid state plasma
Gaseous
state
heat
T0
Q=mssdT Q=mLf Q=msLdT Q=mLev Q=msgdT Q=mLio
Q=msPdT
Ti 0
Tv 0
Tf 0
Q or time
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❑During the phase change; the amount of heat supplied is
Q=m L
Where is the latent heat = the amount of heat required to change a
unit mass of the substance from phase to another phase.
❑ during the phase change the temperature does not changed and all
heat supplied is used to change the phase by breaking the bonds
between atoms or molecules
Energy conservation low and heat transfer
If two bodies of different temperatures are mixed (brought in contact),
the body of higher temperature will loss some heat, this energy will
gained by the body of lower temperature. Such that:
Heat lost= heat gained
m.sT + mL loss
= m.sT + mL gaind
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Example 1. Calculate the amount of heat necessary to change 0.20 kg of
ice at 0°C into water at 0 °C. The heat of fusion of ice is 3.34 × 105 J.kg-1
Example 2 : A quantity of steam (0.2 kg) at 110 °C is condensed, and the resulting
water is frozen into ice at 0 °C. How much heat was removed?
Example 3. A physics student wants to cool 0.25 kg of Diet Cola (mostly water),
initially at 25 °C, by adding ice initially at – 20 °C. How much ice should she add so
that the final temperature will be 0 °C with all the ice melted if the heat capacity of
the container may be neglected, the specific heat of ice is 2.10 ×103 J.kg-1.K-1, the
specific heat of water is 4190 J.kg-1.K-1and the heat of fusion of ice is 3.34 ×105 J.kg-1
Problem 4: (a) Two 50 g ice cubes are dropped into 200 g of water in a thermally
insulated container. If the water is initially at 25 °C, and the ice comes directly from a
freezer at -15 °C, what is the final temperature at thermal equilibrium?
(b) What is the final temperature if only one ice cube is used? 20
Heat transfer mechanisms
1. Conduction
Energy is transferred from the hot region to the cooled one by thermal conduction along the
length of the body. The heat energy is transferred by vibrational motion of the atoms and
electrons
A
T1 T2
The heat current H
is called the temperature gradient, and K is the thermal conductivity coefficient
The thermal resistance R is defined as R=dx/K
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2. Convection
The energy is transferred by the actual movement of the molecules of the fluid due to the
different densities of different regions
The convection current is
H is the convection coefficient
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3- Radiation
The energy is transferred as an electromagnetic waves
The rate of radiated energy is
σ= 5.67 × 10-8 W.m-2.K-4 is called the Stefan-
Boltzmann constant
e represents the emissivity of the object's surface, which
has a value between 0 and 1, depending on the composition
of the surface. A surface with the maximum emissivity of 1
is said to be a blackbody
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