Benjamin Griffiths (160159871)

BIPOLAR JUNTION TRANSISTOR | REPORT

Introduction:

Background:
The aim of this lab is to investigate the properties of a Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) and understand its behaviour in order to
construct an audio amplifier. Understanding the characteristics of a BJT and knowing how it performs in different conditions is
important to be able to apply it to certain circuits such as amplifiers and have it operate as intended.

Aims:
 To plot graphs of a BJT’s key characteristics to understand is operational behaviour.
 To extract specific performance information from the characteristic graphs.
 To define the operating point of a BJT.
 To identify the difference between “small” and “large” signal models in the context of this experiment.
 To use the characteristic graphs to calculate the BJT’s small signal model parameters and construct a working amplifier.

Theory:
Operation:
A BJT is a device that can regulate the current going through it,
controlled by the bias voltage applied to its base terminal.
IE = IC + IB
1 - Collector Bipolar junction transistors can operate in 3 different regions,
which enable them to act as switches for digital electronics or
amplifiers for analogue electronics.
2 - Base
These 3 regions are the “Active Region” where the transistor acts
like an amplifier along with “Saturation” and “Cut Off”, where the
transistor is fully ON and fully OFF. [1]
3 - Emitter

Figure 1: BJT pin layout. [7]

Configurations:
The configuration used in the context of this laboratory experiments is common
Collector
emitter. (see figure 2)

Base A common emitter configuration provides both voltage and current gain, where the
Output input signal is between the base and emitter and the output signal is between the
emitter and collector. In this configuration, the emitter is connected to both the
Input
input and output signal. [2]
Emitter
Small changes in the base-emitter current cause large changes in the collector-
Figure 2: Basic common emitter circuit. [2]
emitter current, irrespective of VCE above a certain point, which makes this
configuration a current amplifier. However, to achieve voltage amplification, a load resistance is connected at the collector, so that
there is a in voltage across the load resistor due to a change in the collector current. The voltage gain of the amplifier is
determined by the resistance of the load resistor. [3]

The quiescent point or operating point of a BJT is in the active region and allows the maximum change in output voltage without
saturating/entering switched-on mode. This can be found on the output characteristics graph shown in figure 4 along the DC load
line, represented by the resulting DC current and DC voltage across the BJT when no input AC signal is applied. Generally, it is at
the point where the base current, IB, is proportional to the collector current, IC, making it suitable for amplification purposes. [3]

The load line is drawn on certain characteristics graphs and is used to analysis non-linear systems in order to represents its linear
region. In the context of this experiment, the load line in figure 6 intersects the operating point and the inverse of its gradient
represents the load resistance at the operating point. A DC load line represents when there is no AC input signal.

To use a BTG as an amplifier, an AC bias, is applied to the input which sets the amplifier to operate between a certain maximum
and minimum point about the operating point. If the bias is set correctly, an input signal can only be amplified between these two
points and therefore prevents or reduces distortion of the output signal. However, the input wave form will be in anti-phase
(180°) to the output. [4]
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Input Characteristics:
The input characteristic of a BJT is the relationship between the input voltage and
input current, while keeping the output voltage constant. From figure 3 it can be
seen that almost no base current flows until the base-emitter voltage has
Base Current, IB (µA)

surpassed the threshold voltage (the voltage where the BJT begins to conduct,
which is 0.7V). [5]

Operating Point The inverse gradient of the curve around the operating point is the dynamic
resistance, rbe, in Ohms (Ω).

Δ𝑉𝐵𝐸 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 − 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (𝑉)

𝑟𝑏𝑒 = =
Δ𝐼𝐵 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐴)
Base-Emitter Voltage, VBE (V)
Figure 3: Input characteristics graph.
Output Characteristics:
The output characteristic of a BJT is the relationship between the output current
Load Line and output voltage with a constant input current. In figure 4, each of the lines
Collector Current, IC (mA)

represent different values of the base current, IB.

The inverse gradient of the load line around the operating point is the output
resistance, rout, in Ohms (Ω). [6]
𝑉𝐶𝐸 𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 − 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (𝑉)
Operating Point 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑡 = =
𝐼𝐶 𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐴)
The current gain, β (= hfe at low frequencies) can be calculated from the output
characteristics graph by finding the change in the collector-current between a
Collector-Emitter Voltage, VCE (V) few of the lines representing different values of the base-current.
Δ𝐼𝐶 𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐴)
Figure 4: Output characteristics graph. 𝛽= =
Δ𝐼𝐵 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐴)
Transfer Characteristics:
The transfer characteristic of a BJT is the relationship between the output
current and the input voltage with a constant output voltage. From figure 5, the
Collector Current, IC (mA)

BJT only begins to conduct and allow current to flow when the base-emitter
voltage is above the threshold (0.7V).

Operating Point The gradient of the curve around the operating point is the Transconductance, gm
of the BJT, which is a measure of its gain (the greater the Transconductance, the
greater the amplification is can provide).
𝐼𝐶 𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐴)
𝑔𝑚 (𝑆𝑖𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠, 𝑆) = =
𝑉𝐵𝐸 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 − 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (𝑉)
Base-Emitter Voltage, VBE (V)
Figure 5: Transfer characteristics graph.

Alternatively, to calculate the Transconductance and current gain using technical data:
𝑞𝐼𝐶 𝛽 = 𝑔𝑚 × 𝑟𝑏𝑒
𝑔𝑚 =
𝐾𝑇
β = Current gain
gm = Transconductance, Siemens, S gm = Transconductance, Siemens, S
q = Charge of an electron, Coulombs, C rbe = Dynamic resistance, Ohms, Ω
IC = Collector Current, Amps, A
K = Boltzmann Constant
T = Temperate, Kelvin, K

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Theoretical Data: (The following data is taken from the manufacturers data sheet of the BJT (BC-549C)

When the BJT is in its active region, at an ambient temperature of 298K (25° C), the minimum and maximum current gain, hfe (=β at
low frequencies) is 450 and 900 respectively. Also, the potential barrier of the BJT is typically 0.62V, so it should be expected to
start conducting when VBE between 0.62 and 0.7V. [7]

Method:
Equipment: Specification: Equipment: Specification:
NI Elvis Board (with software) N/A Oscilloscope (10:1 Probe) N/A
Digital Multimeter (DMM) +/- (0.05% reading + 0.015% range) Function Generator N/A
Handheld Multimeter x2 Precision: 0.01V 68kΩ + 7.32kΩ resistors. Tolerance: +/-1%
15V DC Power Supply Programming Accuracy: +/-0.25% Electrical wire N/A
Earphones (32Ω load) 32Ω impedance

The first experiement yields the data needed to plot the output characterics:

J203

Figure 6: Output characteristics circuit.

To set up the NI Elvis board as in figure 6:

1) Connect a 15V DC power supply between the terminals J200 (+15V) and J201 and set the switch (SW200) to GND.
2) Connect together terminal J204 to J205 and terminal J203 to J201.
3) Connect a digital multimeter between terminals J207 and J210 to measure DC current (Base current, IB) and set the range
to 100µA.
4) Connect the NI Elvis digital multimeter between terminals J215 and J216 to measure DC voltage (collector – emitter
voltage, VCE) and set the range to 60V.
5) Connect a handheld multimeter between terminals J220 and J219 to measure DC current (collector current, IC) and set
the range to 20mA.

IB (μA) VCE (V) IC (mA) IB (μA) VCE (V) IC (mA)

5 0 10 0
5 0.05 10 0.05
Figure 7: Example data tables.
6) Construct data tables such as in figure 7 for different values of IB ranging from 5μA to 30μA in steps of 5μA.
7) Use RV1 and RV2 to keep the current IB constant and adjust VCE to a range of values from 0V to 10-13V, starting with
many small increments such as 0V to 0.05V to get an accurate graphical representation of the data.
8) Repeat step 7 for each of the different values of IB record data into the different tables.

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The second experiment yields the results needed to plot the input and transfer characteristics:

J203

Figure 8: Input & Transfer characteristics

To set up the NI Elvis board as in figure 8: circuit.

1) Connect a 15V DC power supply between the terminals J200 (+15V) and J201 and set the switch (SW200) to GND.
2) Connect together terminal J204 to J205 and terminal J203 to J201.
3) Connect a digital multimeter between terminals J207 and J210 to measure DC current (Base current, IB) and set the range
to 100µA.
4) Connect the NI Elvis digital multimeter between terminals J206 and J209 to measure DC voltage (base – emitter voltage,
VBE) and set the range to 1V.
5) Connect a handheld multimeter between terminals J220 and J219 to measure DC current (collector current, IC) and set
the range to 20mA.
6) Connect a second handheld multimeter between terminals J215 and J216 to measure DC voltage (collector – emitter
voltage, VCE) and set the range to 20V.
IC (mA) VCE (V) IB (μA) VBE (mV)
0 2.5
0.1 2.5
Figure 9: Example data tables.
7) Construct data tables such as in figure 9 for different values of IC ranging from 0mA to 13mA, with smaller increments in
the 0mA to 1mA region to get a more accurate graphical representation at the point of interest.
8) Use RV1 to keep VCE constant at 2.5V and use RV2 to adjust VBE to achieve the IC value stated in the table in figure 9.
9) Measure values of IB and VBE that for each set of IC and VCE values and record data in the table in figure 9, but allow some
time for the readings to settle after making adjustments.

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Before moving onto further experiments, small signal parameters need to be calculated.

1) Plot the output (IC against VCE), input (IB against VBE), and transfer (IC
against VBE) characteristics graphs. IB = 20μA

Collector Current, IC (mA)

2) On the output characteristics graph mark the point VCE = 14.3V, IC = 0mA
and the point VCE = 7.5V, IC = 5mA (this is the operating point). Draw a IB = 15μA
straight line through both these points, this is the load line.
3) Calculate the inverse gradient of this line to calculate the output Operating Point
IB = 10μA
resistance, rout and then calculate the current gain, β, by measuring the
change in the collector current, IC, between several lines of IB at the
operating point (figure 10 demonstrates this). IB = 5μA
4) Calculate the gradient of the tangent at the operating point on the
transfer characteristics graph, which represents the Transconductance, Collector-Emitter Voltage, VCE (V)
gm, of the BJT.
Figure 10: Current Gain calculation example.
5) Calculate the gradient of the tangent at the operating point on the input
characteristics graph, which represents the dynamic resistance, rbe.
6) To estimate the small signal circuit voltage gain of the BJT, find the change in IC along the load line about the operating
point for a small change in VCE using the output characteristics graph. Then, using the transfer characteristics graph, find
the change in VBE that corresponds to the change in IC about the operating point.
𝑉𝐶𝐸
Finally use the equation to calculate the voltage gain.
𝑉𝐵𝐸

The third experiment investigates the use of the BJT as an audio amplifier.

J215

Oscilloscope J216

Figure 11: Audio amplifier circuit.

To set up the NI Elvis board as in figure11:

1) Connect a 15V DC power supply between the terminals J200 (+15V) and J201 and set the switch (SW200) to GND.
2) Connect together terminal J207 to J210.
3) Connect a 7.32kΩ (R2) resistor between terminal J212 and J213 then connect a 68kΩ (R1) resistor between terminal J208
and J211.
4) Connect the sync out terminal on the function generator to the trig input terminal and set the oscilloscope trigger to
external.
5) Connect a calibrated 10:1 between J203 and ground, and another between J218 and ground to measure V in and Vout
respectively. Also connect a digital multimeter between J215 and J216 to measure VCE.
6) Inject a 2V pk-pk, 10kHz sine wave between J203 and ground.
7) Set VCE to 7.5V using RV1. Measure and record Vin and Vout, then connect the 32Ω load (earphones) at J218 and measure
and record Vin and Vout again. Calculate the gain for both of these conditions.
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Calculations:

Δ𝑉𝐶𝐸 14.3
Output resistance, rout, from output characteristics = = = 1.362 𝑘Ω
Δ𝐼𝐶 10.5×10−3

Δ𝐼𝐶 10×10−3 −3.18×10−3

Current gain, β, from the output characteristics = = = 682
Δ𝐼𝐵 15×10−6 −5×10−6

𝑞×𝐼𝐶 1.6×10−19 ×5×10−19

Calculated Transconductance at 25°C and IC at 5mA = = = 0.1945 𝑆
𝑘×𝑇 1.38×10−23 ×(25+273)

𝐼𝐶 12.6×10−3
Measured Transconductance, gm, from the transfer characteristics = = = 0.1826 𝑆
𝑉𝐵𝐸 0.695−0.626

𝛽 450
Calculated minimum input resistance, rbe = = = 2.314 𝑘Ω
𝑔𝑚 0.1945

𝛽 900
Calculated maximum input resistance, rbe = = = 4.267 𝑘Ω
𝑔𝑚 0.1945

Δ𝑉𝐵𝐸 226.5×10−6
Measured input Resistance, rbe, from the input characteristics = = = 2.745 𝑘Ω
Δ𝐼𝐵 0.695−0.6305

𝑉𝐶𝐸 2
Predicted AC voltage gain with no load from the output + transfer characteristics = = = 246.31
𝑉𝐵𝐸 8.12×10−3

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 2
Measured AC Voltage gain with no load = = = 157.48
𝑉𝑖𝑛 12.7×10−3

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 137×10−3
Measured AC Voltage gain with 32Ω load = = = 3.26
𝑉𝑖𝑛 42×10−3

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Results:

Output characteristics:
IB = 30µA

IB = 25µA

IB = 20µA

IB = 15µA

IB = 10µA

Operating Point IB = 5µA

AC Load Line DC Load Line

Figure 12: Output Characteristics Graph.

As seen in figure 12, as VCE initially increases above 0V, IC increases rapidly before levelling off. The region before IC levels off is the
saturation region, and after this region, it can be seen that IC is essentially independent of VCE, and is proportional to IB, which is the
active region. This is exactly how the BJT was expected to behave.

The operating point can also be seen at VCE=7.5V, IC=5mA, with the DC load line and AC / dynamic load line intersecting it. It can be
observed that the AC load line has a much steeper gradient compared to the DC load line, which is due to a 32Ω load being applied
at the output. When the load is applied, the amplifier considers it to be in parallel with the output resistance of 1.362kΩ at the
collector, hence resulting is a big reduction in output impedance and therefore a much lower voltage gain. This is evident in the
calculations of voltage gain before and after the 32Ω load is applied, 157.48 before and 3.26 after. This is what is expected to
happen and is why impedance matching loads and amplifiers together in practice is very important to get the ideal behaviour.

Furthermore, the small signal current gain, β, calculated from the graph in figure 12 was 682, which is a suitable value since the
lower and upper limit of the current gain from the manufactures data sheet is 450 to 900.

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Transfer Characteristics:

Operating Point

Figure 13a: Transfer Characteristics Graph.

As seen in figure 13b, the BJT does not appear to conduct

initially and IB remains zero as VCE initially increases. However,
upon closer inspection of the region where the base current IB
begins to increase in figure 13a, is can be seen that the BJT
begins to conduct between 0.63V and 0.66V, which are in the
correct region when comparing to the stated 0.62V to 0.7V
conduction voltage in the data sheet.

Furthermore, the transconductance around the operating point Conduction or

by taking the gradient of the curve gave a result of 0.1826 S Turn on point
compared to the theoretical value of 0.1945 S.

Both these measured results are very similar to their theoretical

counterparts, therefore the BJT worked exactly as predicted in
this part of the experiment.

Figure 13b: Transfer Characteristics Graph.

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Input Characteristics:

Operating Point

Figure 14a: Input Characteristics Graph.

As seen in figure 14b, similar to figure 13b, the BJT does not
conduct until VBE is between 0.63V and 0.66V and that it also
follows the same shape as the transfer characteristics graph,
indicating that IB is proportional to IC in the active region as
predicted.

Furthermore, calculating the gradient of this curve in figure 14b

about the operating point shows that the input resistance is
2.756kΩ, which is between the calculated minimum and maximum Conduction or
input resistances, 2.314kΩ and 4.267kΩ respectively. Turn on point

The relative phase difference between the input and output signal
was 179.9°, which is almost exact to the theoretical 180° value.

Lastly, the voltage gain with no load, calculated from the output
and transfer characteristics graph gave a gain of 157.48 compared
to the calculated theoretical value of 246.31. The reasons behind
this value not being close to its theoretical value are expressed in
the error analysis. Figure 14b: Input Characteristics Graph.

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Discussion:

Characteristics:
This experiment successfully obtained the data needed to construct the characteristic graphs needed, with all of them showing
the predicted shape. Also, the accuracy of these graphs was evident through physical calculations which could be compared to
their predicted theoretical values.

Amplifier:
The experiment also successfully showed the working principles of how to use a BJT as an audio amplifier through the use of
biasing and the theory behind the significance of the active region. Physical testing also enabled comparisons between calculated
and theoretical data, while using the amplifier in different operating conditions such as applying a load shows how its
characteristics and behaviour changes.

Error Analysis:
Possibly the most dominant reasoning behind errors during this experiment were to do with uncertainty within the testing
equipment’s, the conditions in which the experiment was conducted and human error.

Firstly, all of the equipment used in this experiment has a tolerance or certain precision to the accuracy of the data it is
measuring. For example, the tolerances and precision in the equipment such as the DMM, oscilloscope and function generator
and the tolerance of the resistors used (1%) can add up to produce minor but significant fluctuations in results.

Secondly, the conditions in which the BJT operates in, especially temperature can have a large impact on its characteristics, since
BJT’s are very temperature sensitive. For example, the ambient temperature of the surroundings when the BJT was tested from
the manufacturers data sheet was 25°C, so the results from the experiments described in this report may have some uncertainty
compared to the datasheet because of different testing temperatures. One of the theoretical calculations in this experiment that
is partly defined by temperature is transconductance (𝑔𝑚 = 𝑞×𝐼𝐶 ⁄𝑘×𝑇), where even a slightly change in temperature can have a
big effect on the output results. Asides from ambient temperatures, the internal temperature also causes fluctuations in readings.
In the experiments to calculate the characteristics graphs, it is recommended to wait after making changes to allow the
measurements on the bench equipment settle. This is because high currents of IC cause the internal materials to heat up every
time its value is adjusted. Allowing the BJT to settle allows this heat to dissipate and for the BJT to return to a steady state, hence
providing more accurate data.

Lastly, human error could have also had an effect on the accuracy and reliability of the recorded data and measurements. The
major human error that may have caused some uncertainty in these experiments is not taking enough data points when measuring
the data needed to construct the characteristics graphs. This could cause the trend line to not be accurate which when calculating
the gradient and other parameters will give inaccurate data.

In conclusion, the aims of the experiment were understood as well that the ability to apply the theory and techniques used in
other applications. Furthermore, the results yielded have been proven to be accurate by comparing them to theory and the
reasons behind uncertainty in the data have been addressed.

References:
[1] Electronics Tutorials. (2016). Bipolar Transistor [Online]. Available:
http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/transistor/tran_1.html
[2] Eric Coates. (Unknown Date). How a transistor is connected to make an amplifier [Online]. Available:
http://www.learnabout-electronics.org/Semiconductors/bjt_06.php
[3] R. Victor Jones. (2001, November 1st). Basic BJT Amplifier Configurations [Online]. Available:
https://people.seas.harvard.edu/~jones/es154/lectures/lecture_3/bjt_amps/bjt_amps.html
[4] Electronical4u. (Unknown Date). Biasing of BJT [Online]. Available:
http://www.electrical4u.com/biasing-of-bipolar-junction-transistor-bjt-or-bipolar-transistor-biasing/
[5] Electronic Hub. (2015, January 23rd). Different Configurations of Transistors [Online]. Available:
http://www.electronicshub.org/different-configurations-of-transistors/
[6] J O. Bird. (2014). Electrical and electronic principles and technology [Online]. Volume (5), pp. 167-171. Available:
https://www.dawsonera.com/readonline/9781315882871
[7] Semiconductor Components Industries. (2007, March). “BC549C Bipolar Junction Transistor datasheet” [Online]. Available:
http://www.farnell.com/datasheets/727135.pdf
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Appendix:

Data tables from output characteristics graph in figure 12.

Table 1 Table 2 Table 3

IB (µA) VCE IC (mA) IB (µA) VCE IC (mA) IB (µA) VCE IC (mA)
5 0.00 0.00 10 0.00 0.00 15 0.00 0.00
5 0.05 0.19 10 0.05 0.35 15 0.05 0.52
5 0.10 0.95 10 0.10 1.82 15 0.10 2.60
5 0.50 2.87 10 0.50 5.73 15 0.50 8.52
5 1.00 2.91 10 1.00 5.83 15 1.00 8.67
5 4.00 3.02 10 4.00 6.07 15 4.00 9.25
5 7.00 3.14 10 7.00 6.47 15 7.00 9.84
5 11.00 3.26 10 11.00 6.82 15 11.00 10.62
5 13.00 3.31

Table 4 Table 5 Table 6

IB (µA) VCE IC (mA) IB (µA) VCE IC (mA) IB (µA) VCE IC (mA)
20 0.00 0.00 25 0.00 0.00 30 0.00 0.00
20 0.25 10.01 25 0.25 11.77 30 0.25 13.36
20 0.50 11.25 25 0.50 13.81 30 0.50 16.23
20 0.75 11.39 25 0.75 14.08 30 0.75 16.77
20 1.00 11.48 25 1.00 14.27 30 1.00 16.97
20 4.00 12.40 25 4.00 15.58 30 4.00 18.86
20 8.00 13.77 25 7.00 16.85 30 6.00 19.93

Data table from the input and transfer characteristics graphs in figure 13 and figure 14.

Table 7
IC (mA) VCE (V) IB (µA) VBE (mV)
0.0 2.5 0.00 0.03
0.1 2.5 0.20 553.62
0.2 2.5 0.35 570.54
0.4 2.5 0.70 589.91
0.6 2.5 1.02 599.83
0.8 2.5 1.36 607.41
1.0 2.5 1.69 613.21
1.5 2.5 2.51 623.82
2.0 2.5 3.32 631.02
3.0 2.5 4.99 641.95
5.0 2.5 8.30 653.38
7.0 2.5 11.62 661.69
9.0 2.5 14.95 666.50
11.0 2.5 18.21 671.19
13.0 2.5 21.61 674.84

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