Introduction to Process

Control
Process Control
• The technology of controlling a series of events to transform a
material into a desired end product
Forms of Process Control
• Sequential
• Continuous
Sequential Process Control
• An event-based process in which one event follows another until a
process sequence is complete
Example of a Sequential Process Control
Process using a sequencer for mixing liquids
• Open valve A to fill tank A
• When tank A is full, a feedback signal from the level sensor tells the sequencer to turn
valve A Off.
• Open valve B to fill tank B.
• When tank B is full, a feedback signal from the level sensor tells the sequencer to turn
valve B Off.
• When valves A and B are closed, valves C and D are opened to let measured quantities
of liquids A and B into mixing tank C.
• When tanks A and B are empty, valves C and D are turned Off.
• After C and D are closed, start mixing motor, run for set period.
• Turn Off mixing motor.
• Open valve F to use mixture.
• The sequence can then be repeated after tank C is empty and Valve F is turned Off.
Continuous Process Control
• It is used to continuously control a physical output parameter of a
material
• The parameter is measured with the instrumentation or sensor and
compared to a set value
• It requires continuous monitoring and adjustment of the process
variables
• Continuous process control falls into two categories
• Elementary on/off action
• Continuous control action
Process
• A sequence of events designed to control the flow of materials
through a number of steps in a plant to produce a final utilitarian
product or material
Measurement
• The determination of the physical amplitude of a parameter of a
material
Error Detection
• The determination of the difference between the amplitude of the
measured variable and a desired set reference point
Controller
• A microprocessor-based system that can determine the next step to
be taken in a sequential process or evaluate the error signal in
continuous process control to determine what action is to be taken
PLC – Programmable logic controllers
• Ladder networks for programming the control functions
Control Element
• It is the device that controls the incoming material to the process
Instrumentation Parameters
• The choice of a measurement device is difficult without a good
understanding of the process.
• Accuracy
• Linearity
• Sensitivity
• Reproducibility
• Resolution
• Hysteresis
Accuracy
• Accuracy of an instrument or device is the error or the difference between the
indicated value and the actual value.
• Accuracy is determined by comparing an indicated reading to that of a known
standard.
• Standards can be calibrated devices
Linearity
• Linearity is a measure of the proportionality between the actual value of a
variable being measured and the output of the instrument over its operating
range.
• The deviation from true for an instrument may be caused by one or several of the
above factors affecting accuracy, and can determine the choice of instrument for
a particular application.
Sensitivity
• Sensitivity is a measure of the change in the output of an instrument for a change
in the measured variable, and is known as a transfer function.
Reproducibility
• Reproducibility is the inability of an instrument to consistently reproduce the
same reading of a fixed value over time under identical conditions, creating an
uncertainty in the reading.
Resolution
• Resolution is the smallest change in a variable to which the instrument will
respond. A good example is in digital instruments, where the resolution is the
value of the least significant bit.
Hysteresis
• Hysteresis is the difference in readings obtained when an instrument approaches
a signal from opposite directions.
• For example, if an instrument reads a midscale value beginning at zero, it can
give a different reading than if it read the value after making a full-scale reading.
• This is due to stresses induced into the material of the instrument by changing its
shape in going from zero to full-scale deflection.
Control System Evaluation
• A general criterion for evaluating the performance of a process control system is
difficult to establish. In order to obtain the quality of the performance of the
controller, the following have to be answered:
• Is the system stable?
• How good is the steady state regulation?
• How good is the transient regulation?
• What is the error between the set point and the variable?
Stability
• In a system that uses feedback, there is always the potential for instability. This is
due to delays in the system and feedback loop, which causes the correction
signal to be in-phase with the error signal change instead of out-of-phase.
• The error and correction signal then become additive, causing instability.
• This problem is normally corrected by careful tuning of the system and damping,
but this unfortunately comes at the expense of a reduction in the response time
of the system.
Regulation
• The regulation of a variable is the deviation of the variable from the set point or
the error signal.
• The regulation should be as tight as possible, and is expressed as a percentage of
the set point.
• A small error is always present, since this is the signal that is amplified to drive
the actuator to control the input variable, and hence controls the measured
variable.
• The smaller the error, the higher the systems gain, which normally leads to
system instability. As an example, the set point may be 120 psi, but the
regulation may be 120 ± 2.5 psi, allowing the pressure to vary from 117.5 to
122.5 psi.
Transient Response
• The transient response is the system’s reaction time to a sudden change in a
parameter, such as a sudden increase in material demand, causing a change in
the measured variable or in the set point.
• The reaction can be specified as a dampened response or as a limited degree of
overshoot of the measured variable, depending on the process, in order to return
the measured variable to the set point in a specified time.
Data Consideration
• Analog Data
• Digital Data
• Pneumatic Data
• Smart Sensors
Analog Data
• Signal amplitudes are represented by voltage or current amplitudes in analog
systems.
• Analog processing means that the data, such as signal linearization, from the
sensor is conditioned, and corrections that are made for temperature variations
are all performed using analog circuits.
• Analog processing also controls the actuators and feedback loops.
• The most common current transmission range is 4 to 20 mA, where 0 mA is a
fault indication.
Digital Data
• Signal amplitudes are represented by binary numbers in digital systems.
• Since variables are analog in nature, and the output from the sensor needs to be
in a digital format, an analog to digital converter (ADC) must be used, or the
sensor’s output must be directly converted into a digital signal using switching
techniques.
Pneumatic Data
• Pressure was used for data transmission before the use of electrical signals, and
is still used in conditions where high electrical noise could affect electrical signals,
or in hazardous conditions where an electrical spark could cause an explosion or
fire hazard.
• The most common range for pneumatic data transmission is 3 to 15 psi (20 to
100 kPa in SI units), where 0 psi is a fault condition.
Sensor Data
• The digital revolution also has brought about large changes in the methodology
used in process control.
• The ability to cost-effectively integrate all the controller functions, along with
ADCs and DACs, have produced a family of Smart Sensors that combine the
sensor and control function into a single housing.
• This device reduces the load on the central processor and communicates to the
central processor via a single serial bus (Fieldbus), reducing facility wiring
requirements and making the concept of plug-and-play a reality when adding
new sensors.
Process Facility Considerations
• Electrical Supply
• Grounding
• Air supply
• Water supply