GENERAL PHYSICS

PHYSICS: Is the study of how matter behaves - from very large objects like stars and planets, to very small
atoms and molecules. Physics is also about different kinds of energy such as heat, light and electricity, and
how energy behaves.

LENGTH, MASS AND TIME

There are three basic physical quantities of measure - length, time, and mass. This means that all the other
measures were derived from one or a combination of these basic measures. Length has given rise to:
perimeter, area and volume. Time has given rise to period etc. Mass is the basis for weight. A combination of
these gives: speed, velocity, acceleration, force, density etc
The basic measures are given units which are an internationally agreed unit of measure. The scientifically
agreed system is called SI units (Systeme Internationale).

measurement SI unit Other units and multiples

1cm = 0.01 m
Length metre (m) 1mm = 0.001 m
1km = 1000 m
1 minute (min) = 60 s
time seconds(s) 1 hour (hr) = 3600 s
1day = 86400 s
1g = 0.001 kg
mass kilogram (kg) 1000 g = 1 kg
1 tonne (t) = 1000 kg

Common prefixes used for larger or smaller quantities include the following;

prefix symbol number Standard notation Examples

μ 1 microseconds(μs)
micro 6 microgram(μg)
1000000 10
m 1 milliliters (ml)
milli 3 millimeters (mm)
1000 10
c 1 centimeters (cm)
centi 2 centiseconds (cs)
100 10
k kilometer(km)
kilo 1000 3 kilogram(kg)
10 kilojoules (kJ)
M megawatts (MW)
mega 1000000 6 megahertz(MHz)
10
LENGTH
The international unit of length is metre (m).

Instruments used for measuring length

Metre rule - A meter rule is divided into centimetres (cm), and millimetres (mm). This instrument can be
used for measuring distances with less accuracy. When we need to measure the length with greater accuracy
we use instruments like vernier callipers or micrometer screw gauge.
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 Ruler: A ruler can measure up to the nearest 1mm; it is
accurate to the nearest mm. While using a ruler or any other
measuring instrument make sure that your eye is kept
vertically above the mark you are reading. This is to avoid
parallax error.

Vernier callipers: it is used in the laboratory to measure small lengths and can measure length correct to
0.1mm or 0.0lcm, which is also called the accuracy of the instrument (smallest possible reading given by the
instrument)
This instrument is used for measuring lengths of
smaller objects and also the internal (using inner
jaws) and external diameters (using outer jaws) of
cylinders.

The value of one division on the main scale is 1 mm.

The value of one division on the sliding scale is
0.1mm.
This means that we can use this instrument to measure
lengths correct to 0.1 .mm or 0.01cm

How to take reading with a Vernier calliper

The main scale reading is 6.3 cm. You can see that the 7
vernier scale reading coincides with a main scale division.
The vernier scale reading is 7. Multiply the vernier scale
reading by the least count and add this product to the main
scale reading. Thus the total reading is 6.37 cm.

Micro metre screw gauge: used to measure thickness of an

object, it measures lengths correct to 0.01 mm.
Linear scale or pitch scale is marked in 0.5mm
Head scale (circular) has 50 divisions on it.
When the gap is closed the zero mark on the circular scale stands over the linear scale and the ‘0’ mm mark is
just visible.
When the circular scale is given one full rotation the distance moved on the linear scale is 0.5mm.

Least count = 0.5/no of divisions on circular scale. = 0.5mm/50=0.01mm.

To find the thickness of an object it is griped in the gap. When the gap is closed one can hear the clicking
sound on turning the ratchet.
Use only the ratchet to tighten. Do not use the thimble to tighten; this will permanently damage the
Instrument.

How to read the micrometer screw gauge

 Note down the last visible reading of the linear scale as
your linear scale reading
 Note down the division on the circular scale that
coincides with centre line
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  Multiply this with 0.01mm to get the circular scale reading
 Add the two values of linear scale and circular scale to get the final reading e.g.
The reading on the linear scale is 7.5 mm. The reading of the circular scale is 14; the total reading is 7.5 mm
+14 x 0.01mm= 7.64mm

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ERRORS ASSOCIATED WITH MEASUREMENT

An error is a value of measured quantity which affects the correct value of the quantity being measured. The
error may over estimate or under estimate the correct value. It is advisable as a good practice to always repeat
measurements several times in experiments and then finding the average value to reduce possible random
errors. Example; when using a pair of vernier calipers to measure the thickness of a wire repeat the procedure
twice or thrice and use the two or three values to find the average thickness.

EXAMPLES OF POSSIBLE SOURCES OF ERRORS

1. Error due to the instrument used (instrumental error) that is the instrument may be having an error on its
calibration, therefore the scale used becomes incorrect. An error due to improperly marked instrument is
called systematic error. This error can also be caused by the environment

2. Random error- this error which arises from observer’s estimate because the instrument will not be having
any calibrations from certain section of the scale. Averaging would reduce/minimize this error.

3. Parallax error-it is an error that accumulates as the observer fails

to position his/her point of focus on the instrument being used
correctly. For example, the measurement of length using the rule note
this, when taking a reading from a rule the eye has to be positioned at
right angle to the place of the rule as shown below.

4. Zero error-this error which exists in an

instrument from manufacturer. The instrument will be giving a reading of a certain value before any object
has been placed/ button pressed to take a reading, which is not at a zero mark before the measurement of an
object. Negative zero error exists when the instrument gives a reading before the zero mark. Positive zero
error is when the instrument gives a reading after or beyond the zero mark. The positive zero error is always
subtracted from the reading given by the instrument, while the negative zero error is added to the reading.
Illustraton: Positive Zero error
The scales of the micrometer screw gauge shown has a
positive zero error of +0.83mm. The size of the object
measured = 4.43 mm – (+o.83 mm)
=4..43 mm – 0.83 mm
=3.60mm

5. Human reaction time error-this is the error that arises if the reading is taken earlier or after an event has
taken place. This error is caused by inconsistency in the reaction time of a person, ie a person may react too
soon or later than the actual event being observed/monitored has occurred. Examples of experiments which
involve human reaction error include using the stopwatch while observing another event. This error is treated
by taking several readings and then finding the average value.

MASS
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Mass is the amount of matter in an object.
SI unit is kilogram (kg)

Other units
milligrams (mg),gram (g),tonne=1000kg

Measuring instrument for mass

o Triple beam balance (correct to 0.1g)

o Electronic balance
o Bathroom scale etc

TIME
Time is measured using events which repeat themselves at fixed Intervals. Such events are said to be periodic.
e.g.
Earth spinning about its axis
Earth revolving about the sun
Water dripping through a pinhole at the bottom of a vessel.
Units
Sl unit is the second (s)

Other units
1 year-time the earth takes to revolve round the sun
1 day time the earth takes to complete one rotation about its axis. = 24 hours
1 hour = 60 mins
1 min = 60 secs
In the lab time is measured using a stop watch which has an
accuracy of 0.01s. Below is a face a stop watch
Examples1

When a stop watch reads as shown on the right,

the time shown in seconds is;

23sec+ 0.34sec = 23.34sec

Example2

Time shown in seconds is;

(5 x 60sec) + 45se + 0.23sec =345.23sec

5
 Determination of Period of a simple pendulum

A simple pendulum consists of a small bob attached to one end of a string and suspended from a rigid
support. The distance between the point of suspension and the centre of the bob is the length of the pendulum.
When the pendulum bob is at rest the string is vertical. If the bob is pulled through a small distance and then
released, it will move to and fro for a while before coming to rest. One complete to and fro motion is one
oscillation. The diagrams below show one complete oscillation.

The time taken to complete one oscillation is called the

period [T]. The period of a simple pendulum depends on
the length of the string and the gravitational field
strength. Usually these periods are very small. Therefore to
determine period it is helpful to measure the time taken to
complete a few oscillations and this time is divided by the
number of oscillations to calculate the period.

time taken for number of oscillatio ns (t N )

Period (T ) 
Number of oscillatio ns(N).

DETERMINATON OF PERIOD OF PENDULUM

Procedure:
a) Set up the experimental apparatus as shown above left.
b) Measure the length of the pendulum using a ruler to 50 cm.
c) Displace the bob through a small angle  and release it to set the bob in motion.
d) Using a stop-watch record twice the time it takes the bob to make 5 or 10 oscillations t5 or t10 in
seconds.
e) Calculate period T of the pendulum for each attempt and find the average period Tav.
f) Record all of your results in a suitable table. Include table headers with appropriate units.

Attempt Time for 10 oscillations/s Period T/s

1
6
2
3
4
5
Average period (Tav)

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TITLE: EFFECT OF LENGTH ON PERIOD OF PENDULUM
The effect of length on the period of a simple pendulum can be investigated by setting a simple pendulum
and then vary its length while recording the corresponding period.
AIM: To investigate how a change in length of string affects the period of a simple pendulum.
HYPOTHESES:
 Increase in length increase the period
 Decrease of length decreases the period
Variable control: length of pendulum is changed
mass of bob is kept constant
angle of displacement  of bob is also kept constant
Procedure:
g) Set up the experimental apparatus as shown above.
h) Measure the length of the pendulum using a ruler to 30 cm.
i) Displace the bob through a small angle  as shown above and release it to set it in motion.
j) Using a stop-watch record twice the time it takes the bob to make 10 oscillation t10 in seconds.
k) Increase the length of the pendulum at intervals of 10 cm and repeat steps b) to d) above until reaching
length equal to 100 cm.
l) Calculate period T1 and T2 of the pendulum for each length l and find the average T.
m) Record all of your results in a suitable table. Include table headers with appropriate units.
n) Draw a suitable conclusion from your results about the effect of changing length l on period T.

Length /cm Time for

10 oscillations Period (T1 & T2)/s Average period T /s

100.0

90.0

80.0

…….

Discussion:
The results show that period of the pendulum is affected by the length of the string. When the length of the
string is increased it takes a longer time for an oscillation to be completed but a shorter pendulum takes
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 less time to complete an oscillation. The time for 10 oscillations was recorded twice to minimize human
reaction error by finding the average period for each length. It must be noted that period does not depend
on the mass of the bob.
Conclusions:

An increase in length increases the period whereas a decrease in length decreases the period.

Period also depends on acceleration due to gravity g.

Note: Experiments have shown that Period does not depend on the mass of the bob.

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Area
Area is a measure of the surface. It tells you how big or small a surface is. SI unit is square meter (m2) i.e. the
area of a square of side 1m. You can think of a desk top 1m long and 1 m wide. The area of such a surface is 1
square meter.

We do use other units also to measure area. For instance we use square kilometer (km2) to express the area of
a country.

1Km2 = 1000000 m2
Do you know what the area of Botswana is?
For measuring smaller areas we use square centimeter (cm2) and square millimeter (mm2)
1cm2 is the area of a square of side 1 cm.
1mm2 is the area of a square of side 1mm
1m2=100x100 =10 000cm2
1km2 = 1000km x 1000km= 1000000m2= 106 m2
1cm2 = 10mmx10 mm = 1002mm

Volume
Volume is space occupied by an object.
SI unit is cubic metre m3.
Cubic metre is the space occupied by a block of length 1 m height I m and breadth lm.
i.e. 1m3 =1m x 1m x 1m
A cubic metre is quite a large volume. So other units may be used for smaller volumes.
Other units
Cubic centimetre (cm3) is the space occupied by a block of length 1cm height 1cm and breadth 1cm. How
many such blocks will fit into a box of length 1 m width 1 m and height 1m?
1m3 = 100cm x 100cm x100cm =106 cm3
1cm3 = 10mm x10mm x 10mm = 103cm3
To measure the volume of a liquid we often use litres.
Litres (1l) = 1000cm3 or 1L = l000ml

Volume of liquids

In the laboratory the volume of liquids is measured using a measuring

cylinder. They are available in different ranges and are calibrated in
cm3.

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Volume of irregular objects (such as stone)
Use measuring cylinders and/ or displacement can. Fill a
measuring cylinder with water to any specific mark you like.
Read the volume. Then tie the stone to one end of a string and
gently lower it into the measuring jar until it is completely
submerged. Take the new reading of the water level. The
difference between the two readings is the volume of the stone
In the above diagram the original water level is at the 50 cm3
mark. When the solid is submerged the level of water rises to the
73 cm3 mark. What is the volume of the solid?

If the solid object is large and cannot be introduced into the

measuring cylinder, use a displacement can to determine the volume,

Place the can on a flat surface and fill

it completely with water until you see
a few drops of excess water flows
out through the spout. NB Do not
shake the table. Wait until all the
excess water has come out. Then
keep a measuring cylinder below
the spout and gently lower the
object into the can until it is
completely below the water. Collect
all the displaced water in the
measuring cylinder. The volume of the liquid collected is equal to the volume of the object.

MASS
Mass is the amount of matter in an object.
SI unit is kilogram (kg)

Other units
Milligrams (mg)
Gram (g)
Tonne=1000Kg

Measuring instrument for mass

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 o Triple beam balance (correct to 0.1g)
o Electronic balance
o Bathroom scale etc

DEFINATION OF TERMS
Distance- is the change of position of a body (length traveled by a body between certain points).Distance is a
scalar because it has no direction.

Displacement-is defined as the distance moved in a stated direction. Displacement is a vector quantity since it
has direction. Determine the following for a person traveling from Kopong to Molepolole passing through
Metsimotlhabe.
Example 1.

a) Total distance traveled.

b) Displacement.

Example2. An athlete completes in 400m flat race and takes 44 seconds. Each of the section SP, PQ, QR and
RS is 100 m in length.
Determine the following;
a) Total distance traveled on completing the race is 400m.

b) Displacement of athlete on completing the race is 0m since the athlete has returned to the original
position.

c) The athlete has a greater displacement when at position Q than at P and R.

Speed (v)-is defined as the rate of change of distance moved. Speed is a scalar quantity.
The SI unit for speed is meter per second (m/s)
The speed of an object is given by the equation.

distance traveled( s)
Average speed( ) 
time taken (t)

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There is a reason why average is used. Imagine a journey in a car from Gaborone to Molepolole, a total
distance of 50km. if a journey took 2hrs then the speed would be

distance(s ) 5okm km
speed (v)    25
time(t) 2h h

The speed of the car was 25km/h.

But this does not mean that the speedometer will constantly be reading 25km/, the car may slow down for
goats on the road, it may speed up on an open and clear road or it may stop at Mmanoko. So this equation
gives us the average speed for the whole journey, not the speed at any specific point.

Velocity (v or u) -is defined as the rate of change of distance moved in a specified direction (or, the rate of
change of displacement). Velocity is a vector quantity, it has both size and direction.
The SI unit for velocity is meter per second (m/s)

If a body travels with a constant speed in a straight line then it has constant velocity. But if its direction
changes then its velocity also changes. If a man walking his dog in the park walks around a tree then his
velocity has changed even if his speed remains constant.
The equation for velocity is very similar to that for speed and is shown below

distance moved in stated direction (s)

Velocity(  ) 
time taken(t)

When stating velocity you should also give direction.

Acceleration ( a )-is defined as the rate of change of velocity. Acceleration is a vector.

The SI unit of acceleration is the metre per second per second or metre per second squared (m/s2 or ms-2)
But, acceleration can be found by using the equation

change in velocit y
Accelerati on 
time taken for the change

final velocity( v) initial velocity( u)

Accelerati on(a) 
time taken for change (t )

vu
a
t
Example1
An air Botswana aero plane accelerates from rest to a velocity of 100m/s just before take off. If it is on the
runway for 12s, find its acceleration

Stage 1: write all the given quantities and the related unknown quantities
initial velocity (u) = 0m/s
final velocity ( v ) = 100m/s
time (t ) = 12s
acceleration ( a ) =?

Stage 2:write appropriate equation

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 final velocity( v) initial velocity( u)
Accelerati on(a) 
time taken for change (t )
vu
a
t
Stage 3: Substitute the quantities and evaluate

100  0 100
a   8.33333......
12 12
=8.33 m/s2

Stage 4: Write the answer with SI unit(s)

The acceleration of the car is 8.33 m/s2 (correct to 3 sig. fig.)

Example 2
A car is traveling at a constant velocity of 80km/h, when suddenly a cow wanders into the road. The driver
steps on the brakes paddle and reduces her speed to 20km/h. If it took 5s to reduce her speed, find her
deceleration in m/s2.

1. initial velocity (u) = 80km/h

final velocity (v) = 20km/m

[realize that there is need to change the hours into seconds and the kilometers into meters]
Therefore
u = 80x100/3600 = 22.22m/s
v = 20x1000/3600 = 5.57m/s
t = 5s
vu
2. a 
t
5.57  22.22
3. a 
5
4. a= -3.33m/s2
The minus sign tells us the car is slowing down or it is decelerating.
Thus the deceleration is 3.33m/s2

14
 VELOCITY TIME-GRAPH

Velocity time-graphs give us information about the velocity of an object over a specified time. Such graphs
can tell how fast a car was moving, its acceleration, and its deceleration when it stopped and the distance
traveled.

The graph shows part of a journey from Molepolole to Mogonono taken by car driven by Rre Ntone.

First he uniformly accelerated to his maximum velocity. He then traveled at this maximum velocity until he
had to slow down uniformly to avoid some stray goats in the road. He again accelerated non-uniformly to a
higher maximum velocity and stayed at this speed until he had to stop at a police road block near Suping
junction.
Summary of motion sections
OA – car is accelerating uniformly to maximum velocity
AB - car is traveling at a constant velocity
BC - car decelerate uniformly to avoid the stray goats
CD - car accelerating non-uniformly to a higher maximum velocity
DE – car is traveling at constant velocity
EF – car decelerates uniformly to a stop at a police road block.

GRADIENT of Velocity/Speed- time graph = ACCELERATION

Gradient = change in y values / change in X values

= change in velocity/change in time
But change in velocity/time = acceleration

Therefore the gradient of the velocity/speed- time graph gives acceleration

of an object.

A steep gradient or slope gives a large acceleration and a shallow gradient

gives a small acceleration.

Line R represents the motion of an object moving with the greatest

acceleration whilst P is for an object with the least acceleration

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VELOCITY-TIME GRAPHS FOR UNIFROM AND NON UNIFROM MOTION

DISTANCE –TIME GRAPH

Another type of graph that you should be aware of is the distance-time graph. This shows the distance moved
by an object as time increases

AREA UNDER Velocity/Speed – time Graph = DISTANCE Traveled.

The area under the graph gives you the distance traveled by the moving body. It is very convenient to split
your graph into triangles, squares and rectangles as it is easier to find the area of this shapes

The example below gives the distance traveled in the 5s.

1 base  height 5s  50m / s
Distance =Area of triangle =   125m
2 2

*always make sure that your units are constant. If velocity is in m/s
then time should be in seconds. If velocity is in km/h then time should
be in hour

16
17
GRADIENT of distance-time graph = SPEED

Gradient = y/x = distance /time = (y2 –y1) /( x2 – x1 )

= (50 – 0) m / (5 -0)s
= 50m/5s
=10m/s
The unit of this gradient is the same as unit of speed. Hence

The gradient of a distance-time graph gives the speed of a body

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 EQUATIONS OF UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION

There are five fundamental quantities you can know about the motion of a
body. These are:

s – displacement (m)
u – initial velocity (m/s)
v – final velocity (m/s)
a – acceleration (m/s2)
t – time (s)

There are 4 equations of motion which relates the 5 fundamental quantities

you can know about the motion of a body. These equations are as follows;

Given value of 3 of the following quantities displacement (s), initial velocity (u), final velocity (v),
acceleration (a) and time (t) one can calculate the other two using the above equations.

NB: the equations apply only to uniform accelerating motion and the quantities should always be in SI units.
Example1

A motorcycle accelerate form rest to 5m/s in 5s

(a) What is its acceleration?

Solution

u = 0m/s, v = 5m/s, t = 2s, a =?

vu
a
t
5m / s  0 m / s 5 m / s
 
2s 2s
 2.5m / s 2

The acceleration of the motorcycle is 2.5 m/s2.

Example 2

A body starts from rest and moves with a uniform acceleration of 2m/s2 in a straight line.

(a) What is the velocity after 5s?

(b) How far has it traveled in this time?

Solution
a) u = 0m/s, v =?, t = 5s, a =2m/s2
v  u  at
 0m / s  (2m / s 2  5s)
 10m / s

The velocity after 5s is 10m/s.

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b) u = 0m/s, v =10m/s, t = 5s, a =2m/s2

1 2
s  ut  at
2
1
 (0  5)  (  2  5  5)
2
 0  25  25

It travels 25m in 5s.

ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY g

If an object is dropped from a great height its velocity increases. This increase in velocity is acceleration. So
what is it that makes a falling body accelerate?
Think about what happens when the accelerator pedal of a vehicle is pressed, the velocity increase. This is
because the engine is providing a force which increases the velocity. The same is true for a falling body.
There must be a force which increases the velocity. This force is called the force of gravity.
The force due to gravity is roughly the same at all points on the earth (g = 10N/kg). But it does varying a
small way. This is because the earth is not a true sphere, it is flattened near the poles. The acceleration due to
gravity does vary around the world. At the equator it is slightly less than at the poles.

NB: force of gravity makes things accelerate and whenever an object accelerates there is a change in velocity.

The force of gravity makes things accelerate at the same rate. Just as the engine of a car accelerates (change
in velocity), the force of gravity makes a falling body accelerate downwards. This acceleration is constant
near the Earth’s surface and it is 9.8 ms-2 usually rounded to 10ms-2 for easy calculations. All objects near the
Earth accelerate at this constant rate when the effect of air resistance (friction) is ignored. This is an ideal
situation called FREE FALL.

The equations of motion can be adjusted to solve motion problems under free fall as shown below. A falling
object accelerates thus a = g while a rising object decelerates hence a = -g.

Equation Falling object Rising object

v = u+at v = u+gt v = u -gt

s = 1/2(v+u)t s = 1/2(v+u)t s = 1/2(v+u)t

s = ut + 1/2at2 s = ut + 1/2gt2 s = ut - 1/2gt2

v2 = u2 + 2as v2 = u2 + 2gs v2 = u2 – 2gs

Example: A stone is projected vertically upwards

with a velocity of 40 ms-1. Ignoring air resistance and
taking g= 10ms-2, determine;

20
 a) the maximum height reached.
Sol: at maximum height object stops moving up; v= 0ms-1, but u= 40ms-1, g= 10ms-2, t=?, s =? ;
v2 = u2 – 2gs
s= (v2 - u2)/ (-2g)
= (02-402)/ (-2*10)
= -1600/-20
= 80m
Ans: the maximum height reached = 80m

b) the time taken to reach maximum height

sol: v= 0ms-1, but u= 40ms-1, g= 10ms-2, t=?,
v = u –gt
t= (v-u)/-g
= (0-40)/-10
= -40/-10
=4s
Ans: it takes 4s to reach maximum height.

c) velocity after 8 seconds.

Sol: v=?, but u= 40ms-1, g= 10ms-2, t=8s;
v = u –gt
= 40 – 10*8
= 40-80
= -40ms-1
The minus sign implies that the ball was now moving in the opposite direction.
Ans; velocity after 8 seconds is 40 ms-1 downwards. (remember to state direction of velocity)

Note the symmetry of the motion as shown above.

21
 Terminal Velocity

When a parachutist jumps out of airplane the force of gravity pulls him toward the earth. His initial velocity is
zero, but he soon speeds up. He starts to accelerate due to gravity.
A force is required to make a body accelerate (this an example of Newton’s first law)

The only force acting on the parachutist when he first just from plane is the gravity, or the weight.

This force makes him accelerate up to a terminal velocity of about 60m/s (216km/h). At this point he really
needs the help of his parachute.

As he accelerates the force due to air resistance starts to increase. But if

Weight > air resistance

Then there is a resultant force and he accelerates downwards. But after some time air resistance increases and
Weight = air resistance
There is no resultant force (again see Newton first law) and he stops accelerating. He moves with a
constant velocity

This is fastest velocity which the parachutist can move at, so we call this terminal velocity.

But remember that this velocity is about 60m/s! He still has to slow down. The way in which he decelerates is
to open his parachute.
Weight < air resistance

There is now a resultant force upwards so parachutist slows down or decelerates

Eventually the two forces are again equal to each other and he reaches a new terminal velocity of about 10m/s.
This the speed at which he will land and hopefully averting a fatal accident.

Air resistance is a form of friction, it is an upward force which opposes the downward force thus slowing
down the rate at which the parachutist accelerates.

Remember: if there is no resultant force then a body cannot accelerate. It

must therefore move with a constant velocity, in this case we call it the
terminal velocity or steady speed.

Illustration: Terminal velocity.

Note: Bodies falling through a liquid also experience resistive force due to
viscosity (viscous forces) of the liquid.

Therefore all bodies falling trough a fluid experience terminal or steady

velocity after sometime.
A racing car tested on a straight level track starts from rest and accelerates at a
constant rate to reach a velocity of 50 m/s in 2 seconds.

22
CENTRE OF GRAVITY/MASS

Centre of gravity/mass is a region in an object where the weight/mass seems to be concentrated.

Or
Centre of gravity is a position through which the Earth’s gravitational pull acts.

Centre of gravity for an REGULAR Object of UNIFROM Mass Distribution

The centre of gravity or mass of a regular object of uniform mass distribution lies exactly at its centre. This
centre of the object(centre of gravity) can be located by two methods t namely;
i) Balancing : The object is pivoted on a sharp edge until it balances. This shows that the moment of the
weight about the pivot is zero ie no turning effect since the weight acts directly at the pivot.

ii) Symmetry: the intersection of two lines of symmetre is the centre of the object and this is the position
of centre of gravity (cog). Perpendicular and or angular bisector can be used to locate the centre of a
regular object.

Centre of gravity for an IRREGULAR lamina- plumbline method

The centre of gravity for an irregular lamina can be determined by the PLUMBLINE method as illustrated
below.
Procedure:
1. set up the experiment as shown on the
right.
2. hang the lamina using pin inserted
through one of the pin hole 1. (the lamina
should be able to swing freely)
3. Attach a string supporting a small mass
from the other end.
4. Let lamina come to rest with the string
resting vertically downwards. (the centre
of gravity lies along the vertical line
represented by the string i.e. along the
c.o.g off the bob)
5. Mark by pencil point P directly under
the string on the lower side of the lamina.
6. Join the centre of the pin hole to point
P by a straight line.

7. Repeat steps 2 to 6 from another pin hole.

8. The centre of gravity of the lamina is the
intersection of the lines drawn from the pin holes
to their corresponding marks.

23
Stability
Stability is the ability of a body to maintain its balanced position. The object should always go back to its
original position when tilted to considerable angle without toppling.
The centre of gravity of an object in equilibrium always falls within the plane of its support or base. When the
centre gravity falls outside the base area the object topples or falls over. The restoring moment about the
edges of object providing the pivot should always be enough to turn back the object to its balanced position.
Factors Affecting stability

It can be demonstrated that stability of an object is affected by two factors namely;

a)Position of centre of gravity: An object with a higher centre of gravity is always less stable than one with a
lower c.o.g but having the same base area. An explanation can be made in terms of the restoring moments
provided by the weight of the objects taken by the edges which acts as the pivot. (this is left to the learner to
verify). Racing cars are made much lower than ordinary vehicles to make then more stable.

Bare area: The amount of base supporting an object is vital in improving its stability. Large based objects are
more stable than those with small base but having the same position of c.o.g.

Summary: the stability of an object can be improved by lowering its position of c.o.g and making its base
support large.

24
Forms of Equilibrium
There are three equilibrium positions for a objects
as shown in the diagram.
a) Stable equilibrium is where an object can go
back to its original stable position when tilted
slightly and then released.
b) Un-stable equilibrium is when an object
topples when tilted slightly.
c) Neutral equilibrium is where the position of
centre of gravity always falls within the same
position along the plane of support of the object.

B1. The diagram below shows the same object of uniform mass distribution in different orientations.

(i) In which orientations A or B is the object least stable?

Explain!………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………….. [3]

(ii) Mark the approximate position of the centre of gravity in orientation B. [2]

B2. A coin is placed on a card on top of a beaker. If the card is pulled away quickly, the coin does not move
sideways but falls into the beaker.

Which property of the coin makes this possible?

A. density
B. volume
C. inertia
D. thickness.

B3.
(a) A small pin is fixed to the edge of a bench. A triangular piece of card
with a small hole in each corner is hung on the pin from corner A and
allowed to settle, as shown in Fig. below left. A plumb-line is then hung
from the pin and the vertical line AP is marked on the card.

25
This procedure is then repeated with the card hanging from C and the vertical line CQ is marked. After this,
the card is as shown in Fig. below right.

(i) draw the vertical line that would be obtained if the card were hung
from B,

(ii) Clearly mark the centre of mass of the

card using a dot labelled G. [2]

B4. Fig. below shows two wooden blocks standing on a hinged board
with a rough surface.

The board is slowly tilted. The blocks do not slip. State which block falls over first, and explain why.

…………….........................................................................................................................................

…………....................................................................................................................................... [2]

26
General Physics

Forces

Introduction
It is not clear what a force exactly is, but a push a pull and a twist are examples. Only Sir Isaac Newton had a
clear notion of exactly what a force is, hence, the SI unit of force is Newton (N), in his honour.

Effects of forces
Although are not clear what a force is, we know what a force can do. When a force is applied to a body it can
cause the change of
a) shape
b) size (length)
c) motion

These changes are called effects of forces and we are going to look at each of them in more detail.

a) Effects of forces on shape: - when a can is hit with a hammer it changes shape. So does a piece of
chewing gum when one bites it.

b) Effects of forces on size (length): - most objects change length when a force is applied to them, e.g.
when a sponge is squashed it decreases length. When a rubber band (or spring) is pulled it increases in
length. In general, the length of elastic objects increases when a force pulls at them. This increase of
length from the original is called extension.

i.e. extension, e = new length, l – original length, lo

e  l  lo 1

Relationship between the force and the extension that it causes

The relationship between the force and the extension it causes was first determined empirically (i.e.
experimentally) by Robert Hooke, hence, the findings are now known as Hooke’s law. Next is the
experiment similar to the one conducted by Robert Hooke which we also did in class.
Experiment: Relationship between the force and the extension it causes
Aim: - to determine
aim i) the relationship between the force and the extension it causes
aim ii) the force constant of the spring
Apparatus
- spring (to be extended)
- metre rule (to measure the length)

27
 - mass hanger (to hang the masses)
- five 100g slot masses (to supply the force)
- retort stand and clamp (for support)

Set up: - the apparatus were set up as shown below

Procedure
The original length, lo, of the spring was read from the metre rule (with the mass hanger still hung)2 from the
spring and recorded. A 100g, mass, m, was hung on the spring and the new length, l, of the spring read from
the metre rule and recorded. The extension, e, due to the mass, m, was calculated from formula, e = l – lo, and
m  10
recorded. The force, F, (in newtons) due to the mass, m, was calculated from formula, F  and
1000
recorded. This procedure was repeated for masses, m = 200g, 300g, 400g and 500g.

Results and analysis

Results
All the results were recorded below.

Original length, lo = cm

Table of results3

mass, New length, Extension Force

m l e = l – lo m  10
(g) (cm) (cm) F
1000
(N)
0
100
200
300
400
500

2
This is a precaution to ensure that the spring is vertically straight when we take the new length.
3
The rest of the results you will fill with your teacher as you do the experiment.
28
 Analysis
i) Students plotted a graph of extension, e, (cm) against force, F (N).

NB: Students are to skip a whole page where they are going to stick their graphs.

ii) From the graph the students should determine the slope (Gradient), G, and hence the force
1
constant of the spring, k, from formula k  . The unit of G above is cm/N hence the units of,
G
K is N/cm

Discussions
Students are to complete the table below by stating the possible source(s) of error and the precautions they
took to minimise the effects of such errors.
Possible sources of error Precautions taken
The spring not originally straight The original length was read with the mass
hanger hung to straighten the spring

Parallax error in the reading of length

Conclusion
conclusion i) The extension of a spring was found to be directly proportional to the force that causes it.
(Hooke’s law)

conclusion ii) The force constant of the spring, k, was found to be: - k = N/cm

Limitations of Hooke’s law

Further work on loads and extension showed that; if the load is increased gradually, there will come a point
where Hooke’s law is disobeyed i.e. the extension-load graph will cease to be a straight line. At this point the
spring will still return to its original length when the load is removed but the extension will be slightly greater
than it should be. Beyond this point the extension is no longer proportional to the load (force). This point is
the limit of proportionality of the spring. Consequently, Hooke’s law must be modified to read;

The extension of a spring is directly proportional to the load provided the limit of proportionality is not
exceeded.

NB. Hooke’s law is obeyed only for small loads that do NOT stretch the spring too much. When a spring is
stretched beyond its elastic limit it eventually becomes permanently stretched i.e. it does NOT return to its
original length upon the removal of the load from it. The point beyond which the spring does NOT return to
its original length upon the removal of the load is called the elastic limit of the spring. The elastic limit
comes later than (though close to) the limit of proportionality.
It is important to highlight the difference4 between the elastic limit and the limit of proportionality
 Limit of proportionality: - the point beyond which the extension is no longer proportional to the load
(the spring still returns to its original length)

4
Some texts use the two terms interchangeably to define the same point.
29
  Elastic limit: - the point beyond which the spring does NOT return to its original length (extension is
still not proportional to the load).

The sketch below shows an extension load graph for that has been stretched well beyond its elastic limit.

30
Using proportionality in calculations
Direct proportion means that; doubling one doubles the other, trebling one makes the other to treble, halving
one halves the other etc.
Example 1
A 10cm long spring becomes 14cm long when an 8N load is hung on it. Determine
(i) the extension caused by the 8N force
(ii) the force constant of the spring, k
(iii) the extension that a 6N force will cause on the spring
(iv) the force that will cause an extension of 7cm on the same spring

Solutions
(i) the extension caused by the 8N force

e = l – lo } l = 14cm ; lo = 10cm
=14 – 10
= 4cm

(ii) the force constant of the spring, k

F
k } F = 8N ; e = 4cm
e

8

4

= 2N/cm

(iii) the extension that a 6N force will cause on the spring

Here we can use two methods. I. that utilises, k. and II. That does not utilise k
Method
I II NB.
F The
e } F = 5N ; k = 2N/cm
k answ
er is
e  8N = 6N  4cm
6 the

2 same
6 4
 in
= 3cm 8 both
meth
= 3cm ods
5
as should be the case.

(iv) the force that will cause an extension of 7cm on the same spring

5
Students are advised to show how the units cancel out in the calculations in these questions.
31
 Method
I II
F=k  e } e = 7cm ; k = 2N/cm NB.
The
=7  2
F  4cm = 8N  7cm value
of k
= 14N does
8 7
 NOT
4
chan
ge,
= 14N
henc
.
e the
name force constant. Students who want to use method I can use the analogy where; F is the money, e is the
number of loaves one can buy with that money and k is the price of one loaf. The price is constant for that
shop just as k is constant for the spring in question.

Exercise
(1)
a) A spring of original length, lo, becomes 18cm long when a 30g pan is hung on it. When a 20g mass
is added to the pan, the spring’s length becomes 22cm. Determine6;

i. the extension due to the 20g mass

ii. the mass constant, km, of the spring (i.e. the mass needed to cause a unit (1cm) extension
iii. the extension due to the 30 pan
iv. the original length of the spring

b) Hence or otherwise, determine

i. the total force, F, that will be needed to cause an extension of 5cm

ii. the new length, l, of the spring in this case

c) Effects of forces on motion
When a force is applied to a moving body it changes its
 speed
 and direction
But the speed in a stated direction is the velocity. Thus the change of either the speed or the direction or both
is the change of velocity. Therefore a force causes a change of velocity.
The rate of change of velocity is acceleration so by changing velocity the force causes acceleration.

The amount of acceleration a force causes on a body is given by Newton’s 2nd law of motion which states

The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the force that acts on the body
and is in the same direction as the force. (Newton’s 2nd law of motion)

Momentum, P, is the product of mass, m, and velocity, v.

6
Assume the spring has not reached the limit of proportionality in all questions
32
P  mv
P
F 
t

(m  v)
F 
t

Because the force does NOT change a body’s mass the change of momentum is due to the change of velocity
m  v
F 
t

v v
F  m( ) but ( )  a
t t

so

F  ma

we change from proportion to equation by putting a constant of proportionality, k. Thus

F  ma
or just

F  ma This is Newton’s 2nd law of motion in equation form.

where; F is the net force in newtons

m is the mass of the body in kilograms (kg)
a is the acceleration in m/s2

Example 1
A 5kg trolley pushed by a student accelerates uniformly at 3 m/s2. Determine the force applied by the student.
Solution
F  ma } m = 5kg ; a = 3 m/s2
= 5 3
=15N

Example 2
A donkey applies a force of 2700N to pull an 800kg cart along a straight road. The friction acting on the
system is 300N.

Determine
i. the net force on the cart
ii. the acceleration of the cart

33
Solutions
i. the net force, FN, on the cart
FN  FA  Fr } FA = 2700N ; Fr = 300N
= 2700N – 300N
= 2400N
ii. the acceleration of the cart
FN
a } FN = 2400N ; m = 60kg
m
2400
a
60
a  4 m/s2

Exercise
A 60kg motorcyclist drives a 40kg motorcycle with a uniform acceleration of 2m/s2. Given the friction
force acting on the motorcyclist and motorcycle as 500N, determine
i. the net (horizontal) force acting on the motorcyclist and motorcycle
ii. the force applied by the motorcycle’s engine

Mass-weight relationship and Newton’s 2nd law of motion

In earlier topics we

(i) defined weight of a body as the force of gravity that acts on it

(ii) stated that all bodies near the earth fall with a uniform acceleration called acceleration due to gravity,
g.

Thus using Newton’s 2nd law of motion, i.e. force = mass  acceleration, we get

Force of gravity, w = mass, m  acceleration due to gravity, g

Thus
w  mg where; w is weight in newtons (N)
m is mass in kilograms (kg)
g is the acceleration due to gravity in m/s2 (kg) 7

Example
Determine the weight of an 80kg boxer.
w  mg } m = 80kg ; g = 10 m/s2 = 10N/kg
w  8010

w  800 N

Exercise
7
The value of g is constant at 10 m/s2 for all bodies near the earth. The units N/kg and m/s 2 are equivalent.
34
Determine
a. the weights of the following masses

(i) 2kg
(ii) 300g
(iii) 5 tonnes

b. the masses of the following weights

(i) 1N
(ii) 9N
(iii) 40N

Newton’s third law of motion

As the boy in the example above swings the string he will feel a tension on the string as if the stone is being
pulled radially outwards away from him. This is because there is another force directed radially outwards
from the centre of the curvature. This force is called centrifugal force. The centrifugal force is equal in
magnitude but directed opposite to the centripetal force. The complete diagram of the forces that act in the
situation of the boy swinging the stone above is given below.

Although the centripetal and centrifugal forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction they do NOT
cancel each other out and give a net force of zero (and hence zero acceleration). This is because they act on
different bodies. The Centripetal force acts on the stone while the Centrifugal force acts on the boy.
All forces act in pairs in this way. This is Newton’s 3rd law of motion and it states that:

For every force acting at a point, there is an equal but oppositely directed force acting at that very same point.
(Newton’s 3rd law of motion)

Summary of Newton’s laws of motion

At this point we will write the three Newton’s laws of motion in sequence

Newton's First law. ’(law of Inertia)

A body will continue in its state of rest or uniform motion unless a force acts on it.

Newton's Second law. ’(law of momentum)

The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the force that acts on the body and is in
the same direction as the force. (Newton’s 2nd law of motion)

Newton's Third law. ’(law of action and reaction)

For every force acting at a point, there is equal but oppositely directed force acting at that very same point.
35
36
Turning effects of forces (Moments)
When a force is applied to a pivoted body it makes it to turn. The turning effect of a force is called its
moment. The moment (turning effect) of a force is large when
 the force applied is large
 the perpendicular distance of the pivot from the line of action of the force is large
Examples
1. it is easy to unscrew a nut with a long spanner than with a short one
2. a door is more easily closed when one pushes furthest from the hinges.

Levers: A lever is a simple machine where a small effort is applied at a long distance from the pivot to move a
heavy weight attached to at a short distance from the pivot. The moment produced by the small load will be
large enough to overcome the one caused by the load.

Every day examples of levers include; spanner, wheel barrow and digging fork.

Exercise: State five examples of levers other than the ones listed above

Moment of a force: by definition

The moment of a force is the product of the force and the perpendicular distance of the pivot from the line
of action of force.
MOMENTS

A force can produce an effect on motion of a body besides change in size and shape. However, a force can
produce effects not only on motion, size and shape of a body, but may make a body to turn.
The turning effect of a force depends on the value of the force and how far away is the line of application
from the pivot or turning point/fulcrum. For example;
a) A see-saw turns to the side where the Earth’s pull is greater.
b) A beam balance turns to the side where the weight of the masses is greater. However, if the mass
weights are equal, the beam balance will be in a state of equilibrium or in a state of balance.
c) A spanner turns due to the force applied at its free end.
d) It is easier to loosen or tighten a nut with a long spanner than a short one.
e) The handle of the door is placed far from the hinges so that a small effort is applied to open or close it.
All of the above examples show application of moments in levers- simple machine.
The examples, prove that the turning effect of a force is directly proportional to the size of the force and the
distance from the pivot to its line of application. The moment of a force is a measure of its turning effect about
a particular point in a particular direction. It is define as
‘Moment is the product of the force and perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line of application of the
force’.
Mathematically expressed as
moment of force about a po int  force  distance from pivot to line of action of the force Since
force is
Moment  F   d measure
d in
37
newtons (N) and distance in metres (m), the moment is therefore measure in newton metre (Nm).
The direction of a moment is given in terms of whether the force turns the system in the clock or against the
clock direction. Thus moment are described as clockwise or anticlockwise direction.

Example:

The principle of Moments

The figure below can be used to investigate the principle of moments. It consists of bar of negligible weight
supported at its centre O.

Forces can be applied to the bar on either side of the pivot by hanging standard masses from different points.
The positions of the forces are then adjusted such that the bar is in state of balance or equilibrium. constant
The distances are accurately measured using a suitable measuring ruler.
The forces applied is equal to the weight of the standard masses and can be calculated using the expression,
Weight ,W  mass, m (in kg)  gravitational field constant, g

W  mg
Using the measurements shown above the moments are then calculated as;
Moment  Force  dis tan ce from pivot
Anti clockwise moment about O  F1  d1
 0.6 N  0.5 m
 0.3 Nm

Clockwise moment about O  F2  d2

 1.0 N  0.3 m
 0.3 Nm
Conclusion: The example above illustrates that anticlockwise moment about O is equal to the clockwise
moment about O. The anticlockwise turning balances the clockwise turning.
Note: The Upward force has no moment about O because it acts at the pivot (i.e its distance from the pivot is
0m)

38
The situation in the figure below is a little complicated, but once again the positions of the forces are such that
the bar balances.

total anti clockwise moment about O  20 N  0.3 m

 6.0 Nm
total clockwise moment about O  40 N  0.1 m  5 N  0.4 m

 4.0 Nm  2.0 Nm

 6.0 Nm
Note: the distance of 5 N force from the pivot is 0.1 m + 0.3 m = 0.4 m

This shows that it is true that the resultant anticlockwise moment is equal to the resultant clockwise moment.
This means when ADDED together, the clockwise moments about O balance the anticlockwise moments
about O.
Both these examples illustrate the principle of moments. This state that;

When an object is in equilibrium, the sum of the anticlockwise moments about any point is equal to the
sum of the clockwise moments about that same point.

If an object/system is in equilibrium not only the moments should balance, the forces acting in one direction
must also balance forces acting in the opposite direction.
From above case: Upward force from the support =  20 N  40 N  5 N  65 N

This means there are two conditions for equilibrium:

1. the principle of moments must apply
2. the sum of forces in one direction must equal the sum of forces in the opposite direction.
Example: The figure below shows a cement bag standing on a plank supported by two trestles. Calculate the
upward forces X and Y exerted by the trestles on the plank. Ignore the effect of the weight of the plank.

The system is in equilibrium, so the principle of moments applies and can be used. Moment could be taken
from any point, but taking moment about A or B gets rid of the unknowns, X or Y.

39
Solutions:
Taking moments about A:
clockwise moment  600 N  2 m
 1200 Nm

anticlockwise moment  Y  5 m
But; anticlockwise moment about A  clockwise moment about A
Y  5 m  1200 N m
1200 Nm
Y 
5m
then Y  240 N
From here, there two methods of finding X. You can take moments about B and proceed as before.
Alternatively, you can use the fact that X and Y must add to equal the downward force of 600 N. That is:

Y  X  600 N
X  600 N  Y  X  600 N  240 N  360 N
Question1:

The bar I the figure below is in equilibrium. Use it to answer the following questions.

a) What is the moment of the following forces about O?

i) 6 N
ii) F
b) Calculate F and reaction force Q.
c) Using the force values calculated above, calculate the moment of the following forces about P.
i) F,
ii) Q,
iii) 6 N.
d) What is the total clockwise moment about P?
e) What is the total anticlockwise moment about P?

Question 2:

The figure below shows a light plank on two trestles A and B supporting a man and a block of concrete.

40
Q #3.The figure below shows loads supported by ropes. Ropes X and Y are hanging from a rigid ceiling.

Find the tension in the ropes X and Y.

[5]

41
 ENERGY
Energy is the ability to do work.

The SI unit of energy is the joule (J). This is similar to SI unit of work done because work done is the amount
of energy changed to other forms.
Work is therefore related to energy as follows

Work done is equal to the energy changed.

Work done = Energy changed.

Kinetic Energy (Ek or K.e.)

The kinetic energy of an object is the energy due to its movement. Any object that is moving has kinetic
energy.
The kinetic energy of an abject of mass m and moving at a velocity v can be calculated from the expression
mass  velocity  velocity
Kinetic energy (Ek) =
2
mv 2
K .E.( E k ) 
2
The above expression shows that the kinetic energy of an object is dependent on its mass and velocity as
follows.
1) Two objects of a large mass M and small mass m traveling at the same velocity do not have the same
kinetic energy.
The larger object has the greatest kinetic energy due to its large mass.
Object B has more kinetic energy than object A.

2) Two objects of the same m traveling at different velocities v1 and v2

(v1>v2) do not have the same kinetic energy.
The object with a greater velocity has the greatest kinetic energy.

Object A has more kinetic energy than object B.

Example1. A sprinter’s mass is 60kg and runs at a constant rate of 10m/s.
What is her kinetic energy?

K.e. =
mv 2
=
60 kg10 m 2

s =3000kgm2/s2=3000J = 3kJ
2 2

Example 2
A ball of mass 0.5kg rolling along a smooth straight path has 100J of kinetic energy. What is the velocity of
the ball?
mv 2
K.e. =
2
2 K.e = mv 2
2  K .e
v2   v = (2 * K .e.) / m = (2 *100kgm2 / s 2 ) / 0.5kg = (400m 2 / s 2 ) v =20 m/s
m
The velocity of the ball is 20m/s.
Example 3
An object of mass 6kg is traveling at a velocity of 5m/s along a smooth straight path.
a) What is its kinetic energy?

42
 K.e.=
mv 2
=
6kg 5 m
s
  2

=75kgm2/s2=75J
2 2
b) What would be its velocity when the kinetic energy is doubled?

The kinetic energy doubles to become 150J

(2 *150kgm2 / s 2 )
v = (2 * K .e.) / m = = 50m 2 / s 2 = 7.1 m/s
6kg

The velocity of the object would be 7.1 metres per second.

Gravitational Potential Energy (G.P.E. or Ep)

The gravitational potential energy of an object is energy possessed by an object that above the ground.
This is the energy due to the force of gravity acting on the object.
Illustration: Ep dependence on mass and height above the ground

The force acting on the object is the gravitational pull (its weight). Since work is equal to the amount
of energy changed or converted, it means that;

Work done to move object from top of building to the ground is equal to the gravitational
potential energy changed.

Work  Force  Displaceme nt

Work  Weight  height

work  mass  gravitatonal field strength  height

Hence the expression for calculating the gravitational potential energy of a object of mass m and at a
height h is
Gravitational potential energy (G.P.E.)  mass  gravitatonal field strength  height
G.P.E.( E p )  mgh
The above expression implies that the gravitational potential energy of an object is directly
proportional to mass of an object and the height the object is above the ground.
This means
a) A large object of mass M and a small one of mass m held at the same height above the ground have
unequal G.P.E. depending on their masses. The larger object has more gravitational potential energy
than the smaller one.

Illustration: G.P.E is directly proportional to mass (G.P.E. α m)

The 10kg object has more g.p.e. than the 5kg object because Mgh  mgh(10kg  gh  5kg  gh)

43
 b) Two identical objects of the same m held at the different heights above the ground have unequal
g.p.e. depending on their heights. The higher object has more gravitational potential energy than the
lower one (g.p.e. increases as the height increases)

Illustration: G.P.E is directly proportional to height (G.P.E. α h)

The rugby ball at position A has more gravitational potential energy than that at position B because it
is higher.

Example1. A 5g orange fruit falls from a tree at a height of 12m. How much gravitational potential
energy does it possess at the highest position?
Gravitational potential energy (G.P.E.)  mass  gravitatonal field strength  height
N
G.P.E  0.005kg  10  12m.  6 Nm  6 J
kg
The gravitational potential energy of the orange is 6J.
Example2.
The gravitational potential energy of a 60kg boy on a tree branch is 12 kJ. How high is the tree branch from
the ground?
Gravitational potential energy (G.P.E.)  mass  gravitatonal field strength  height

Gravitational potential energy (G.P.E.) 12000 Nm

height    20m
N
mass  gravitatonal field strength 60kg  10
kg
The tree branch is 20m above the ground.

44
Energy can exist in many forms as indicated in the table below.
Form of energy sources Examples energy conversions
Gravitational Object lifted above the ground Water in a high reservoir Sun’s heat raised the
potential energy does work when it falls water
Elastic potential Material is under strain and Catapult , stretched bow, Sun to food to muscles
energy does work when released wound-up spring of a person
Chemical potential Energy stored in chemical Coal, wood, food, petrol, Sun to plant to fossil
energy bonds. It is released in and other fuels fuels
chemical reactions. eg thermal
power plant.
Energy stored in nuclei of Nuclear power station,
atoms. It is released in nuclear nuclear bombs-the
reactions. During fission binding energy of
(breaking of large nuclei e.g. original material is more
238
Nuclear energy U to smaller ones) and than that of the products, Nucleus of an atom
Fusion (small nuclei e.g. so heat energy is
deuterium and tritium released- can create
combine to form large nuclei) convectional currents that
can drive turbines to
produce electricity
Moving objects have energy
and can do work in collisions. Falling water, wind
Kinetic energy k.e. possessed by moving air turning turbines in power
from high pressure regions to stations to generate Sun produces rain,
low pressure regions used by electricity wind
wind mills)
Electrical energy A flow of electrons can do Electric appliances, fan, Sun to fuels to
work kettle, heater, electric generators
motor
Molecules have more energy Steam turn turbines in a Sun to plant to fuels
Heat or thermal when heated and can do work. generator
energy
Electromagnetic waves carry Light, radiant heat, radio Sun, radio transmitter,
Wave energy and packets of energy which can waves atomic nuclei microwave oven
Solar do work as the waves travel. (radioactive)
The kinetic energy of tides Moving water waves can Ocean, tide generator
Tidal energy (moving water) can do work. drive turbines to produce
electricity
Molten rock (magma)-its
Geothermal energy Earth’s crust has hot molten heat can be used to
rock (magma) produce steam to turn Earth’s crust, sun
turbines for generating
electricity

45
 EINSTEIN’S Mass-Energy Equation

When a radioactive nucleus decays, a large amount of energy E is released. At the same time, a small
amount of mass, m is lost.
The amount of energy released is given by the Einstein’s mass-Energy equation of form;

Energy  mass  ( speedoflight ) 2

2 where c  speed of light  3 108 m and m is lost mass, kg
E  mc s
Calculate the amount of energy released when 1g matter is lost during a radioactive of U238.
2
2  0.001kg   3  108 m   9.0  1013 J
E  mc  s

Energy Conservation Principle

The principle of conservation of energy states that energy can not be created or destroyed.
It can only change from one form to the other. This occurs through energy conversions.

In the following diagram assume that the slope is friction compensated (no friction), and that the heat and
sound energy are negligible and the ball rolls from rest.

Illustration: Conservation of energy

At point A

The total energy of the ball is due to its gravitational potential energy only
before it starts rolling down the slope.
Etot  E p  E k but Ek  0 and E p  mgh
 Etot  mgh =total initial energy (potential)

At point B
E p  mg (h  x)
mv 2 m  2 gx
Ek  and v 2  u 2  2as , a  g , s  x and u  0  v 2  0  2 gx  2 gx ,hence E k   mgx
2 2
Etot  E p  Ek  mgh  mgx  mgx
= mgh = total initial energy (potential)

At point C (on the ground)

mv 2
E p  0 ; Ek  and v 2  u 2  2as , a  g , s  h and u  0  v 2  0  2 gh  2 gh
2
m  2 gh
Ek   mgh ; Etot  E p  E k = 0  mgh
2
= mgh = total initial potential energy of the ball
At every point during the flight of the ball its total energy is equal to the initial energy it had hence energy is
conserved.

46
 Energy Conservation Principle

The principle of conservation of energy states that energy can not be created or destroyed.
It can only change from one form to the other. This occurs through energy conversions.

Energy Conversion
Energy can be converted from one form to another. There are many devices which change energy from one
form to another.
Example1.
In green plants light energy from the sun is changed (converted) to chemical potential energy in the bonds of
starch molecules during photosynthesis. The energy is converted to heat or kinetic energy by the process of
respiration in living organisms. Energy changes can be shown in a flow chart or by linking the different
energy forms by an arrow.
The arrow shows the direction of change of energy.

Example 2.

Write all the energy changes in the electric filament when the switch is closed.

Considering the use of the light bulb (produce light) the main energy changes are electrical to heat while more
of the energy is lost as heat.
Example 3. What are the main energy changes when an electric heater is used to warm the room?

Example3. The flow chart below shows energy changes for a petrol operated generator producing electricity
for a stove.

Ex4.A builder lifts 8 bricks 2 m high in 5 seconds. The mass of one brick is 1.5 kg. (g =10N/kg)

a) What is the energy gained by the bricks?

b) How much of this energy is gained by the bricks?
c) How much kinetic energy do the bricks loose?

What are the main energy changes in the following?

1. moving car, battery, battery operated radio, electrical bulb, coal fire, hydroelectric power plant
2. thermal power plant, rain drop, sun, electric fire, nuclear power plant, microphone, solar cell
3. solar panel, electric motor, a.c. generator

47
 Energy sources in Botswana

In Botswana the main sources of energy are firewood, coal, petroleum products and solar energy.

1. Firewood
Most people, especially in rural areas use wood from the forests as a fuel.
Socio-economic impact
Wood is often free of charge or relatively cheap to buy. As the population of a village increases the forest is
pushed farther and farther back. The forest is denuded, people have to travel farther to get firewood and it
becomes more expensive.
The Environmental impact
Loss of the forest leads to erosion of the soil and to climate change. The burning produces carbon dioxide
which contributes to the greenhouse effect. At the same time, the trees that should be using up carbon dioxide
are not being replaced. On a world-wide scale millions of hectares of forest are destroyed every year without
being replaced.

2.Coal
In Botswana coal is mined at Morupule. It is burnt to produce electricity at Morupule generating station. It is
also sold in bags for use as a domestic fuel.
Socio-economic impact
Coal is sold at fairly low prices to enable people to have a fuel without cutting down trees.
Environmental impact
Burning of coal releases sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere.This causes pollution in the form of acid rain.
Coal burning also releases carbon dioxide which acts as a 'greenhouse' gas. Many
of the great industrial areas of the world burn coal as their main source of energy. Acid rain is a major
problem in those countries.

3. Petroleum products
Petrol, diesel, paraffin and propane/butane gas are all extracted from crude oil. They are used to drive trains,
buses, cars, generators and factory machines.
Socio-economic impact
Botswana imports all its petroleum products. They are convenient to use but are expensive and use up much
of the country's reserves of foreign exchange. World-wide, a few oil-producing states have enormous effects
on the world economy by being able to control prices and production. As these fossil fuels get used up they
become more scarce and more expensive. They are non-renewable sources of energy.
Environmental impact
Burning petroleum products causes air pollution with carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide and oxides of
nitrogen. The motor car is the biggest contributor to air pollution.

4. Solar energy
The sun gives out huge amounts of heat and light in electromagnetic waves. In Botswana, solar energy is used
to heat water and to produce electricity. Solar water panels consist of blackened pipes on a black background
which absorb radiant heat from the sun and transfer it to water in the pipes. Solar electric panels made of
silicon converts light energy from the sun into electrical energy. The electrical energy is used to charge a
battery which is used to produce heat, light, movement, sound, etc.
Socio-economic impact
Installing solar equipment can be expensive. However, over the long term, a lot of money can be saved
because the energy is free. Botswana is more fortunate than many countries because of the high levels of
sunshine we get. Solar electricity is suitable for low-powered devices.
Environmental impact: If used on a large scale, solar energy can reduce destruction of forests, reduce
dependence on fossil fuels, reduce air pollution and reduce emission of greenhouse gases.

48
 Exercises

Ex1.A girl of weight 300N runs along an inclined plane as she climbs some stairs as shown.

How much power does a girl develop if she climbs the stairs in 10 seconds?

Ex2.A builder lifts 8 bricks 2 m high in 5 seconds. The mass of one brick is 1.5 kg. (g =10N/kg)

d) What is the energy gained by the bricks?

e) How much of this energy is gained by the bricks?
f) How much kinetic energy do the bricks loose?
g) At what rate is the man working?

Ex3. A stone is thrown vertically upward with a velocity of 8m/s.

(i) What is the maximum height reached?
(ii) Write the main energy changes that occur from the thrower until it reach the hand again.

Ex4. Because of air resistance and friction, a forward force of 2500N is needed to keep a car traveling at a
steady speed of 20m/s. What power must be provided?

Ex5. Draw a simple pendulum and show where it has only

(i) Ep
(ii) Ekmaximum

49
 WORK DONE

Work done is when a force (F) moves its point of application through distance (d)in the direction of the force.

Work done gives amount of energy converted/transformed/changed from form to other from(s).

Work done can be calculated from the expression

Work done  Force  distance moved in direction of force

W  F  d orW  F  s ................................................................(1)

Since force is measured in newtons and distance or displacement in metres this means the units for work done
is newton metre (N.m)

Bcause work done gives the amount of energy changed it follows that:
newton metre  joule  1Nm  1J
From equation (1) above it is also true that
m
W  F  d  ma  d Nm  kg 2  m
s
2 2
m m
Nm  J  kg 2  kg 2 is another unit of work done
s s

POWER
Power is the rate at which work is done.
OR
Power is the rate at which one form of energy is converted to another from.
(or Power is rate of energy conversion)

The word rate indicates the time in which the work is done.

Power can therefore be calculated using the expressions below;

Work done W
POWER  P
Time taken t

Energy Changed Or E
POWER  P
t
Time taken
The SI unit of power is the watt (W). Since Work done or energy are measured in joules and time in seconds,
a watt is equal to a joule per second.

1 joule( J )
1watt(W ) 
sec ond ( s)

Example1. A weight lifter lifts 600N weights through a distance of 1.5 m in 3 seconds. What is the power of
the weight lifter?
Work done
POWER 
Time taken
50
Work done  Force  dis tan ce  600 N  1.5m
600 N  1.5m Nm J
Therefore; POWER  = 300 = 300 = 300watts
3s s s
The weight lifter has a power of 300 watts. This means the weight lifter converts 300joules of energy in a
second.
Example2.A girl of weight 300N runs along an inclined plane as she climbs
some stairs as shown.

How much power does a girl develop if she climbs the stairs in 10 seconds?

The girl has to apply a force equal to her weight (300N) but in the upward
direction. The distance she has to carry her weight is the vertical height (30m)
not the sloping distance.
Work done
POWER 
Time taken

Work done  Force  dis tan ce  300 N  30m

300 N  30m J
Therefore ; POWER  = 900 = 900watts
10 s s
The girl develops a power of 900 watts.

Example3.A builder lifts 8 bricks 2 m high in 5 seconds. The mass of one brick is 1.5 kg. (g =10N/kg)

a) What is the energy gained by the bricks?

Ans. gravitational potential energy.

b) How much of this energy is gained by the bricks?

G.P.E.  mgh = work done
N
= 8 1.5kg 10  2m =240Nm=240J
kg
ans. The bricks gain 240joules of gravitational potential energy.
c) How much kinetic energy do the bricks loose?
From energy conservation principle considering only the main energy changes,
Kinetic energy lost = gravitational potential energy gained
Ans. the kinetic energy lost is 240joules.

d) At what rate is the man working?

Work done
POWER 
Time taken

240 J 48 J
= = = 48 watts.
5s s
Ans. His power (rate of working) is 48 watts.

51
 MAGNETISM

A magnet is a object that attracts certain other materials which are made from magnetic materials.

Properties of magnets
a. Magnetic material

Magnets only attract strongly certain materials such as iron, steel, nickel, cobalt which are called ferro-
magnetics.

b. Magnetic poles

These are places in a magnet to which magnetic materials are attracted. They are near the ends of a bar
magnet and occur in pairs of equal strength.
Note: There can never be a one pole existing on its own (monopole), if a magnet is cut into small pieces each
piece will have its own South and North pole.

Illustration: Poles of a bar magnet

c. North and South pole

If a magnet is supported so that it can swing in a horizontal plane it comes to rest with one pole, the north-
seeking pole or North (N) pole pointing roughly towards the Earth’s north pole, a south-seeking pole or
South (S) pole pointing towards the Earth’s south pole. A magnet can therefore be used as a compass.

Illustration: South an d North poles

d.
e. Law of magnetic poles
If the N pole of a magnet is brought near the N pole of a suspended magnet
repulsion occurs i.e. the suspended magnet moves away. The two south poles
also repel. By contrast, N and S poles always attract. The law of magnetic
poles summarises these facts and states that:

Note: A magnetic material is attracted to both South and North poles of a magnet by inducing an opposite pole
on the near end of the magnetic material. This means attraction can not be used to determine whether an
object is a magnet or not. The only reliable test for a magnet is REPULSION since similar poles would repel
each other.

52
 Like poles repel and unlike poles attract

Magnetic and Non-magnetic materials

A magnetic material is one which can be magnetized and is attracted to magnets. All strongly magnetic
materials contain iron, nickel, or cobalt. For example, steel is mainly iron.
Strongly magnetic metals like these are called ferromagnetics. They are descried as hard or soft depending on
how well they keep their magnetism when magnetized.

Hard magnetic materials such as steel and alloys called Alcomax and Magnadur are difficult to magnetize
but do not readily lose their magnetism. They are used for permanent magnets.

Soft magnetic materials such as iron and Mumetal are relatively easy to magnetize but their magnetism is
temporal. They are used in the cores of electromagnets and transformers because their magnetic effect can be
switched o or off or reversed easily.

Illustration: Hard and soft magnetic material

In the above diagrams it shows that iron is a soft magnetic material while steel is a hard magnetic material.
Non- magnetic materials can not be magnetized unlike magnetic materials. These include metals such as
copper, brass, zinc, tin and aluminium.

53
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF IRON AND STEEL
Procedure:
A strip of iron and a strip of steel of the same dimensions, both initially unmagnetised are placed side by side
in contact with a pole of a magnet as shown below.

Observations:
Both strips become magnetized by induction, and on dipping their free ends into iron filings it is noticed that
slightly more cling to the iron than steel. If both strips are held firmly in the fingers while the magnet is
removed it is noticed that practically all the iron filings fall from the iron strip while few fall from steel strip.

Conclusion:
Iron is a soft magnetic material while steel is a hard magnetic material.
INDUCED MAGNETISM

Materials like iron and steel are attracted to a magnet because they themselves become magnetized when a
magnet is nearby. The magnet induces some magnetism in them. The induced pole nearest the magnet is
opposite of the pole of the magnet.

Induced magnetism can be used to from a ‘magnetic chain’ as shown below.

Illustration: Induced magnetism

DOMAIN THEORY OF MAGNETISM

The domain theory of magnetism regards each individual atom or molecule of a magnetic material as a small
magnet with north and south pole, i.e. as a dipole. A close group of atoms (domain) may have the magnetic
axis in the same direction (fig. a). Given that the heads of the arrows represent the north poles, the net effect
of the domain is represented by a single arrow. In an unmagnetism specimen the axes in the domains lie in
closed chains, or pointing in random directions thereby canceling out or giving very small net magnetism (fig.
b). When all the domains are aligned in one direction the specimen is magnetized with the poles near the end
(fig. c).

54
Illustration: Domain theory of magnetism

MAGNETIC SATURATION

Not all the dipoles and or domains of a magnetic material can be aligned in one direction. This means there is
a maximum aligned of domains and or dipoles of a magnetic material. When no further alignment of dipoles
is possible the material is said to be magnetically saturated.

Methods of Magnetization

There are two methods of magnetization which are the electrical and stroking methods.

a)Electrical method
The best method of making a magnet is to use the magnetic effect of an
electric current.

Procedure: A steel bar is put inside a solenoid (a cylindrical conducting

coil wound with 500 or more turns of insulated copper wire is connected in
series with a 6 or 12 V electrical batteries and switched on as shown
below). A short but very large pulse of electric current through the
solenoid produces a strong magnetic field. This magnetizes the steel bar by aligning the magnetic dipoles in
the iron core.

A rule for poles: The RIGHT- HAND RULE

The polarity of the magnet depends on the direction of flow of the electrical current. This is determined by the
right–hand rule. It states that if the fingers of the right-hand grip the solenoid in the direction of the current
(convectional-flows from positive to negative terminal) the THUMB points to the North pole.
Illustration: The Right-Hand rule

b)Stroking method
Two methods can be used;

i)Single touch: in this method, a (steel) bar is stroked from one

end to end several times in the same direction with one pole of a
magnet Between successive
strokes the pole is lifted
high above the bar,
otherwise
magnetism already
induced in it will tend to be
weakened.

55
The disadvantage of the above method is that it produces magnets in which one pole is nearer the end of the
bar than the other.

ii)Divided touch is better than single touch. In this method the (steel) bar is stroked from the centre outwards
with unlike poles of two magnets simultaneously as below.

NB: The polarity produced at that end of the bar (for both methods) where
the stroking finishes is opposite kind to that of the stroking pole.

DEMAGNETIZATION

Anything which tends to disarrange the parallel magnetic dipoles in a magnet will reduce its magnetism.
 Storing a magnet without keepers will weaken its magnetism over a period of time.
 Heating a magnet to a high temperature causes greatly increased vibrations of its atoms which will
totally destroy any magnetization of the material.
 Dropping and knocking magnets can disarrange tiny magnetic dipoles.
 An alternating current in an electromagnet can be used to demagnetize magnets. The change in
direction of current disorganizes the dipoles and domains.

MAGNETIC FIELDS

The space surrounding a magnet where it produces a magnetic force is called a magnetic field, and contains
something we call magnetic flux.

Magnetic flux is a vector quantity and, like all vectors, has magnitude and direction. It may be represented by
magnetic filed lines.

Direction of Magnetic Filed Lines

The direction of the field at any point should be the direction of the force on a N pole and it can be determined
by;

a) Plotting compass
A plotting compass is a small pivoted magnet in a glass case with non-magnetic metal walls.

Procedure;
 Place a bar magnet on a sheet of paper and draw its outline.
 Position the plotting compass near one pole of the magnet and mark
dots A and B at the end of its needle ie n and s poles
 Position the plotting copass needle pole originally at A now at B and
mark with another dot (C) the position of the other neddle pole.
56
  Continue to plot points in the direction indicated by the N pole of the compass needle until
reaching the N pole of the magnet.
 Join up the dots to show the magnetic field
lines.

b) Iron filing method

Procedure;
 Place a sheet of paper on top of a bar magnet.
 Sprinkle iron filings thinly and evenly onto the paper.
 Tap the paper gently.

Observations:
The iron filings should form patterns of the lines of force. Each filing turns in the direction of the field when
the paper is tapped.This method is quick but no use for weak fields.

Typical Field Patterns

a) Single bar magnet

b) Combined magnetic field due to two neighbouring magnets can also be plotted to give patterns like
those shown below.

In figure a, where two like poles are facing each other, the point X is
called neutral point.
At X the field due to one magnet cancels out that due to other and
there are no lines of force.

57
ELECTROMAGNETS

An electromagnet is a coil of wire wound on a soft iron or Mumetal core.

NB. If an electric current is passed through a wire, a weak magnetic field is produced. The field has three
features:

 The magnetic field lines are circular

 The field is strongest close to the wire
 Increasing the current
increases the strength of the field

The direction of the magnetic field

produced by a current is given by
RIGHT HAND GRIP RULE, as on
the figure above.
A current produces a stronger
magnetic field in a solenoid than in
one straight wire. The magnetic field
by a current-carrying coil has these
features:

 The field is similar to that of a bar magnet, and there are magnetic poles at the ends of the coil.
 Increasing the current increases the strength of magnetic field
 Increasing the number of turns on the coil increases the strength of the field

Unlike an ordinary permanent magnet, an electromagnet can be

switched on or off. When current flows through the coil, it produces a
magnetic field. This magnetizes the core, creating a magnetic field
about a thousand times stronger the coil by itself. With an iron or
Mumetal core, the magnetism is only temporary, and is lost as soon as
the current is switched off. Steel would not be suitable as a core
because it would become permanently magnetized.

USES OF ELECTROMAGNETS

a) The magnetic
relay

When the switch S in the input circuit is

closed, a current flows through the
electromagnet. This pulls the iron armature
towards it, which closes the contacts C. As a
result the current flows through the
58
motor.

b) The circuit breaker

A circuit breaker is an automatic switch which cuts off the current in a circuit if this
rises above a specified value. It has the same effect as a fuse but, unlike a fuse, can
be reset after it has tripped.
In the type shown here, the current flows through two contacts and also through an
electromagnet. If the current gets too high, the pull of the electromagnet becomes
strong enough to release the iron catch, so the contacts open and stop the current.
Pressing the reset button closes the contacts again.

c) Electric bell

An electric bell contains an electromagnet that repeatedly switches itself off and on rapidly, moving the bell
hammer as it does so. The arrangement is called a ‘make or break’ circuit. When you press the switch, current
flows through the electromagnet, which pulls the hammer across so that it strikes the gong. The movement
separates the contacts and switches off the electromagnet. So the hammer springs back, the contacts close, the
electromagnet pulls the hammer across again….. and so on.

USES OF PERMANENT MAGNETS

 Loudspeakers
 Generators
 Ammeter
 Electric drill

59
 MAGNETIC SHIELDING

Magnetic materials affect magnetic field in which it is

placed. The lines of force are drawn towards the
magnetic material as shown below. For diagrams a)
and b) the bar magnet induces magnetism in the soft
iron materials. In diagram c) the lines of force moves
along the material of the iron ring and do not pass
through the space in the middle of the ring. A plotting
compass placed in the middle of the ring does not
experience any magnetic effect of the bar magnet.
This effect is called magnetic shielding.

Exercises:

Q1. The diagram below shows an electromagnet and I is the convectional current flowing in the circuit.

a) What is the method used to locate the poles of the bar magnet called?
b) Describe the method identified above in (a).
c) Use the method to label the poles resulting in the iron bar.
d) What factors affect the strength of an electromagnet?

Q2. The diagrams below show the direction of magnetic force between two ends of bar magnets.

a) What are the polarities at

(i) a is ----------------------pole
(ii) b is ----------------------pole
b) What is position X called?
c) Describe and explain what would happen when a few iron filings are placed at point X.

d) Complete the field pattern between the poles of bar magnets below by indicating the direction of the
magnetic force.

60
Q3. The diagram below shows two soft iron nails hanging from the end of a magnet.

a) What is the effect that the magnet has on the nails called?
b) What are the poles at the free ends the nails?
c) What would happen when another nail is brought in very close to
the free ends of the nails? Explain.
d) What is difference between the magnetic properties of iron and
steel?
e) What is likely to happen between the free ends of the iron nails in
the diagram below?

f) What are the polarities at

(i) a is ----------------pole
(ii) b is ----------------pole

Q4. The diagram below shows a method of magnetizing a steel bar.

a) On the diagram above

(i) Show the direction of the current.
(ii) Label the north pole of magnetized steel bar.
b) Explain how you arrived at your answer to (a) (ii).
c) State two uses of an electromagnet.
d) What would be the effect of using a soft iron bar instead of
steel bar?

Q5.The diagram below shows a method of magnetization.

a) Name the method.

b) What pole is induced at B?
c) The diagram below shows a bar magnet that is then cut into halves. Label the poles of the
halves and explain how you arrived at the labeling.

61
Illustration: Magnetic screening by soft iron hollow box

Q6. a) What is magnetic shielding and the material used in magnetic shielding?
b) State one application of magnetic shielding.

62
 ELECTRICITY

ELECTROSTATIC (STATIC ELECTRICITY)

All matter contain many electrons. When some of them are transferred from the surface of one object to the
surface of another, they produce what is known as static electricity.

Static electricity is transfer of charge (electrons)

STATIC CHARGE
This refers to charge that is not moving. The charge is absorbed in materials that have very few free electrons.
If a sweater is taken off a crackling sound may be heard and, if in dark, may see sparks. A person sometimes
feels an electric shock after walking across a nylon carpet.
In these examples you have become charged by friction (rubbing). There is a transfer of electrons between
you and your sweater or you and the carpet.

 If a material gains electrons it becomes negatively charged.

 If electrons are lost the body becomes positively charged.

TYPES OF ELECTRICAL CHARGE

There are types of electrical charges, namely;
a) Negative charge (-) -which is carried by an electron.
b) Positive charge (+) – which is carried by a proton.
The SI unit of charge is the coulomb (C). Coulomb is the quantity of electric charge. The symbol of charge is
Q.
Example
If a polythene is rubbed with a duster it becomes negatively charged (gains electrons), but if an acetate or
perplex rod is rubbed with the same duster it becomes positively charged (looses electrons). Why does this
happen?
Explanation
In an atom negatively charged electrons orbit a small but massive nucleus that contains positively charged
protons and uncharged neutrons. The size of the charge on an electron is equal in size to the charge on a
proton. There are equal number of electrons and protons, so an atom is uncharged (electrically neutral).

Therefore, when polythene is rubbed with a duster, electrons rub off the duster more easily than they rub off
the polythene. The polythene therefore gains electrons and becomes negatively charged. The duster looses
electrons and becomes positively charged. However the duster is not a good insulator and electrons from the
earth quickly pass through the hand that holds it and neutralise the positive charge.

Exercise: Explain how the acetate rod acquires the

positive charge and how and why the duster
remains uncharged (neutral). Use diagram b).

N.B.*only electrons can move between rubbed objects.

*rubbing materials together does not make electrical
charge. It just separates charges that are already there.
*a negatively charged object has atoms which have
more electrons than protons.
*a positively charged object has atoms which have
fewer electrons than protons.

63
Forces between Charges

Procedure:
 Rub two polythene rods with a cloth
 Balance the two charged polythene rods on pivots.
 Bring another charged polythene rod near one polythene rod and a charged perplex rod near
another charged polythene rod.

Observations:

Conclusion: Like charges repel; unlike charges attract

(This statement is sometimes called the Law of electric
charges)

INDUCED CHARGE (ELECTROSTATIC INDUCTION)

Charges that “appear” on objects because there is a charged object nearby are called induced charges.

Example of Electrostatic Induction

The example below shows how induced charge may result in attraction.

The diagram on the left shows what happens if a positively charged rod is brought near a
small piece of aluminium foil. Electrons in the foil are pulled towards the rod which leaves
the bottom of the foil with a net positive charge. As a result, the top of the foil is attracted
to the rod, while the bottom is repelled. However, the attraction is stronger because the
attracting charges are closer than the repelling ones.

Exercise: Draw the arrangement of positive and negative

charges in the spherical ball and explain the observation thus
made.

DETECTION OF CHARGE

Electrostatic charge can be detected using a gold leaf electroscope as shown below.
If a charged object is placed near the cap, charges are induced in the electroscope.
Those in the gold leaf and metal plate repel, so the leaf rises.
Illustration: Gold Leaf detecting charge
64
 CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

Conductors: are materials that let electrons pass them. Metals are the best electrical conductors. Some of their
electrons are so loosely held to their atoms that they can pass freely between them (metals generally have a
sea of electrons). These free electrons also make metals good thermal conductors. eg silver, gold, copper ,
aluminium

Insulators: These are materials that hardly conduct at all. Their electrons are tightly held to atoms and are not
free to move, although they can be transferred through rubbing. Carbon is the only non metal that conducts
electricity in the form graphite.

Charge Distribution on Different-Shaped Conductors

The amount of charge that accumulates at any given point on a surface depends on the curvature at that point.
The greater the curvature i.e. the smaller the radius, the greater the charge concentration at that point. There is
therefore a greater concentration of charge
at the pointed end of a pear-shaped
conductor.

Effects of Discharging of Static Charge

A common example of
discharging is the
occurrence of lightning.
A tall building is protected
by a lightning conductor
consisting of a thick copper
strip on the out side of the building connecting metal spikes at the top to a
metal plate in the ground, figure below.
Thunderclouds carry charges and a negatively charged one passing
overhead repels electrons from the spikes to the earth. The points of the
spikes are left with a large positive charge (charge concentrates on sharp
points) which removes electrons from near by air molecules, so charging
them positively and causing them to be repelled from the spike. This effect,
called action at points, results in an ‘electric wind’ of positive air molecules
streaming upwards to cancel some of the charge on the clouds. If a flash does
occur it is less violent and the conductor gives it an easy path to ground.

Electric fields and forces

We have seen that a charged object can affect other objects nearby without touching them. This action at a
distance can be explained by what is called the electric field of the charged object.

An electric charge sets up an electric field in the space surrounding it and an electric force is exerted on any
charged body placed on the field. Electric fields may be represented by electric field lines.

65
  An electric field line is a line drawn in an electric field such that its direction at any point gives the
direction of the electric field at that point.
 The direction of an electric field at any point is the direction of the force on a small positive charge
placed at the point.
 Such a small (point) positive charge would be repelled by positive charge and be attracted to
negative charge.

Electric field of point positive and negative charges

Interaction of unlike and like charges

Attraction repulsion

Unlike charges like charges

Below are two parallel electrodes with unlike charges, the arrows show the direction of the electric field.
When he electric fields line are closer it shows a stronger electric field.

Exercises
1.

2.

66
 1. Two metal spheres supported by insulating stands are held in contact to
each other and a negatively charged rod placed near sphere B as shown.
a) Draw the induced charges in both sphere and explain how this chare
distribution results. [5]
b) The spheres are separated by their stands while the negatively
charged rod is in proximity of sphere B. Draw the net charges in the separate
spheres after they are separated. [4]

4. A positively charged rod is brought near the cap of a gold leaf electroscope as shown below.

On the left side of the diagram above indicate by a diagram the possible observation made and charge
arrangement in the gold leaf. Explain the arrangement in terms of charge movement. [8]
5. The diagram shows a light uncharged aluminium ball suspended with an insulating thread. A
negatively charged plate is held near the ball.

What happens to the ball?

A It moves towards the plate.
B It moves away from the plate.
C It will swing to and fro next to the plate.
D It does not move.

67
 6. The diagram below shows a negatively charged strip held near a metal rod, EF.

Which statement correctly describes the movement of charge?

A. The positive charge in the charged strip moves towards E.

B. The positive charge in the metal rod moves towards E.
C. The negative charge in the metal rod toward F.
D. The negative charge in the metal rod moves towards E.

6. An aircraft flies below a negatively charged thunder cloud.

Movement of free electrons
causes electrostatic charges to be induced in the aircraft.

a) Show the positions and signs of the induced charges on the aircraft.
[2]
b) Explain, in terms of the movement of electrons, the distribution of the
charges you have shown. [1]

_______________________________________________

c) What will happen to the induced charges when the aircraft flies away from the cloud?
[1]

68
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Common Circuitry symbols

ELECTRIC CURRENT

Electric current is the rate of flow of charge or electrons.

 The electrons move from negative terminal to the positive terminal.
 The moving electrons are the loosely held or valence electrons.

The charge that produces attraction and repulsion between charged objects also produce electric currents when
it flows in conductors.

Electric charge can flow continuously only round unbroken conducting paths called closed circuits.

The quantity of electric charge Q is measured in Coulombs (symbol C)


1 C = 1/1.6*10-19 electrons
 6*1018 electrons = 1C

The size or ‘strength’ of an electric current, I, is measured in amperes (symbol A).

Relationship between I and Q

Current = Charge / time

OR

I=Q/t

A current of 1 ampere is a flow of charge at a rate of one coulomb per second.

Example
If a charge of 180C flows through a lamp every 2 minutes, what is the electric current in the lamp?
Q = 180C
t = 2 minutes = 2*60s = 120s
69
using I = Q/t  I = 180C/120s = 1.5A
A battery circulates charge round a circuit for 30s. If the current in the circuit is 5A, what quantity of charge
passes through the battery?

Q= It =5A*30s =5C/s*30s = 150C

Current direction

Some circuit diagrams have arrowheads marked on them. These show the conventional current ( I )
direction: the direction from + to – round the circuit. Electrons actually flow the other way.

Illustration: direction of conventional current

TYPES OF CIRCUITS

There are two types of circuits, namely;

a) Series circuit: A circuit that contains only one path.
b) Parallel circuit: A circuit with more than one path.
Illustration: Series and Parallel Circuits

Current Measurement

Ammeters, as their name suggest, are ‘amp meters’ and measure current in amperes. The ampere (A) is the
SI unit of current. The current may be measured with an ammeter placed in series with other electrical
appliances. An ammeter has a low resistance, so that it introduces as little resistance as possible in a circuit.
Rem: the symbol for ammeter is

An ammeter has both negative and positive terminals and should be connected in series with other electrical
components observing polarity. There are ammeters with different ranges as illustrated below.

70
Measurement of Current in Series Circuit

Connect the circuit as shown below. Measure current at different positions (1, 2, 3, etc).

Results : Typical results

Position Current (A)

Hence ; A= A1=A2=A3
Conclusion: Current is the same at every point in a series circuit.

71
 Measurement of Current in Parallel Circuit
Connect the circuit as shown in the figure and measure current in the respective paths and compare them.

Electromotive force (e.m.f)

In a cell or battery (or other sources of electrical energy) chemical changes take place which produce energy
needed to drive charge round the circuit.

The electromotive force is defined as the total energy expended (work done) per coulomb of electricity when
charge is driven form negative terminal to positive terminal inside the cell. Work is done against electric field
which is directed from positive terminal to negative terminal.

e.m.f is measured in volts, e.m.f is normally denoted with E.

E is always greater than V unless no charge flows on the circuit, when E = V.

There is a step of energy from the negative to the positive terminal which is obtained from the chemical
reaction in the cell. This step-up of energy puts the positive terminal at a high potential difference to drive the
charge round the circuit.

The energy per coulomb required to drive the charge from positive to the negative terminal in the external
circuit is the potential difference (p.d).

Potential difference (p.d)

In electric potential, work is done against electric field when charge is moved from a lower potential level to a
higher potential level. The difference between the two levels is known as the potential difference (p.d) or
voltage, and is measured in volts (V).

If one joule of work is done in moving one coulomb of charge between two points, then the p.d between the
two points is one volt.

OR

The p.d between two points in a circuit is one volt if one joule of electrical energy is transferred to other forms
of energy when one coulomb passes from one point to other.
i.e.

Volt = Joule/ Coulomb

In symbols

V = W/Q {energy per unit charge}

72
It follows from the definition that, if 2C of charge is moved between two points, 2J work is done.

V = W/Q but Q = It
Substituting Q, we get;

V = W/t *1/I

Therefore p.d may also be defined as the rate of dissipation of energy per
unit current .

OR

W = V*I*t

Voltages round circuits

a) Series

The voltage at terminals of a battery equals the sum of the voltages across the devices in the external circuit
from one battery terminal to the other.

V = V1 + V2 + V3

b) Parallel

The voltages across devices in parallel in a circuit are equal.

V = V1 = V2

73
C) Cells in series

V = V1 + V2 + V3

Greater voltages are obtained by connecting cells in series.

d) cells in parallel

If two 1.5V cells are connected in parallel as above, the voltage at terminals P,Q is still
1.5 V but the arrangement behaves like a large cell and will last longer.
Voltmeters

A voltmeter is used to measure the p.d between two points in a circuit, so obviously it
should be placed in parallel (or across) with whatever is between the two points.
Including the voltmeter in a circuit must not alter the p.d it is supposed to measure.

Voltmeters like ammeters have polarity, i.e. + (red) of the voltmeter is connected to the + of the power source,
similarly – (black) of the voltmeter to the – of the power source.

Rule: a voltmeter should have a very large resistance and be connected in

parallel.

Reading voltmeters
Voltmeters have different ranges and scales depending on the amount of voltage it is intended to be measured.
i.e.

74
Resistance

Electrons move more easily through some conductors than others when p.d is applied. The opposition of a
conductor to current is called resistance. A good conductor has low resistance and a poor conductor has high
resistance.

The resistance is where the electrons give up the p.d they carry from the battery (power source). E.g. the
resistance of a lamp causes the electrical energy to change to other forms, such as heat and light. If a lamp
filament had no resistance, no energy change could occur in it and it would not light up.

Experiment

Title: Investigation of Ohm’s law, by measuring resistance using ammeter and voltmeter.

Apparatus:

 ammeter
 voltmeter
 rheostat
 fixed resister
 connecting wires
 battery

Procedure:

 Arrange apparatus as shown below.

 After closing the switch, adjust the rheostat (variable resistor) until a suitable current, I, is recorded on
the ammeter.
 Record both this reading and the readings of I and V. suitable values of I are 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 and 1.0
A.
 Tabulate the results in a table and calculate the value V/I.
 Plot a graph of V against I
 Draw a conclusion

Results and analysis

Voltage (V) /V Current I /A R=V/I (

0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0

Graph of V us I

75
Gradient = V / I which is the resistance.

Note: Ohm’s law is R = V/ I.

The three quantities are related as shown in the triangle below.

The ohm is the resistance of a conductor through which the current is 1 A flow when the p.d. between the
ends is 1 volt.
Examples

1. If a current of 4A flows through a car headlamp when it is connected to 12V car battery, providing a
voltage of 12V across the lamp, what is its resistance?
Solution:
  4 A, V  12V
12V
R V   3
I 4A
2. What voltage would be needed to drive a current of 0.2A through a torch lamp of resistance 22.5  ?
Solution:
R  22.5, I  0.2 A
V  I  R  0.2 A  22.5  4.5V
3. What is the resistance of the resistor?

1.5V
R V   0.3
I 5A

Factors Affecting the Resistance of a Conductor (Wire)

The resistance of a conductor depends on three two factors or properties:

a) its dimensions (length and cross section area)
b)the type of material or nature of substance
c) temperature
Experiments have shown that the resistance of a wire of a given material is

(i) directly proportional to the length  ie. R   .

It therefore follows that a long wire should have more resistance than a short wire of the same material.
(ii) Inversely proportional to its cross-section area A, ie R  1 .
A
This means that a thick wire has low resistance while a thin wire has high resistance of the same
material.
Combining (i) and (ii) gives

76
 where: R is the resistance (in  )
 (in  m ) is a constant , called the resistivity of a material.
A is cross sectional area (in m2)
 is ht length of material (in m)

Resistors in series

,
Resistors shwon are in series, the same current I
flows through each and the total voltage V across all
three equals the separate voltages across them, i.e.

V = V1 + V2 + V3 ………..1

But VI = IR1, V2 = IR2, V3 = IR3 ………….2

Substituting equation 2 in 1, we get:

V = IR1 + IR2 + IR3, since R is the combined resistance we can write,

IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3

Dividing by I through out we get:

R = R1 + R2 + R3

Resistors in parallel

In general the effective resistance of resistors in parallel is given by;

1 1 1 1
   .......
R R1 R2 RN
where N represent the number of resistors or the Nth resistor.
Internal Resistance

Rem: Work is done against electric field which inside the cell to drive charge from negative to positive
terminal. There is therefore some internal resistance r of the electrolyte within the cell.

Illustration: Internal resistance, r

77
Exercise
The diagram below shows the structure of a mains light bulb.

a) What effect of electricity is used during by the light bulb in operation?

b) Write the main energy changes in the bulb?
c) What is the purpose of using a coiled wire filament?

I / V Graphs: Ohm’s law

a) Metallic conductors (Ohmic conductors)

Metals and some alloys give I-V graphs which are a straight line through the origin, so long as temperature is
constant. I is directly proportional to V i.e. I α V. Doubling V doubles I, etc. Such conductors obey Ohm’s
law, stated as follows;

The current through a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the voltage

across its ends if the temperature and other conditions are constant.

They are called Ohmic or Linear conductor and since I  V , it follows that V  a constant. The resistance
I
of an Ohmic conductor therefore does not change when voltage does.

b) Non-Ohmic conductors
Non-Ohmic materials have a non-linear I  V relationship’. One
common semi conducting device that has non-linear I  V
characteristics is the junction diode (semiconductors)
The resistance for this device is low for currents in one direction and
high for currents in the reverse direction. In fact, most modern
electronic devices, such as transistors, have non-linear current –
potential difference relationships; their proper operation depends on
the particular way I which they violate ohm’s law.

78
Limitations of Ohms law

Ohmic resistors will become non-ohmic if they become very hot.. Under normal working conditions a resistor
is ohmic, its résistance does not depend on the current or the p.d. applied to it. If too much current flows
through the resistor, it will become too hot and its resistance will start to increase as shown below.

For ‘normal’ currents (0 to X) the resistor is ohmic (i.e p.d. is directly proportional to I). If the current exceeds
X, the resistor starts to heat up and become non-Ohmic (i.e p.d. is no longer proportional to I).

EXERCISES
1) Study the circuit below and answer the following questions.

a) Find I1 and I3.

b) Find the p.d. across
(i) R1 , R2
c) Find R1 and R2.
2) The figures a) and b) below show some electrical components connected together.
Draw the same circuits using electrical symbols.

PRACTICAL ELECTRIC CIRCUITRY

ELECTRIC POWER

Power is the rate at which energy is transformed (changed from one form to another). The SI unit of power is
the watt (W).

W
and in symbols P  but W  IVt
t

IVt
P  or or
t
79
Note that W  E  IVt

E must be in joules, I in amperes and V in volts.

Examples

1. Calculate the power of the lamp in the circuit below.

Solution:
To calculate power of an electrical appliance , multiply the current I through it by the p.d. across it.
I  0.25 A
V  240V
P  IV
 0.25 A  240V

 60W
The lamp is transferring 60J of electrical energy into heat and light each second.

2. How much electrical energy in joules does a 100 watt lamp transfer in
a) 1 second
b) 5 seconds
c) 1 minute
solutions:

80
 3. What is the power of an appliance rated 12V 3A?
Solution:
I  3 A,V  12V
P  I V  3A 12V  36W
4. How many joules of electrical energy are transferred per second by a 6V 0.5A lamp?

Solution:
I  0.5 A,V  6V
P  I V  0.5A 6V  3.0W
3 joules are transferred per second.

PAYING FOR ELECTRICITY

Electrical supply companies use the kilowatt-hour (kWh), rather than the joule-second as their unit of energy
measurement.
One kilowatt-hour (kWh) is the energy supplied when an appliance whose power rating 1kW is used for 1
hour.
Energy in kilowatt hours is calculated as follows:

Note: 1kJ=1kWh
Example:
What is the energy supplied to a 2kW heater used for 3 hours?

 2kW  3hr  6kWh

The cost of electricity

The cost of running individual electrical appliances can be calculated as follows.

Note: a unit of electricity= 1kWh.

Example: The energy cost per unit is 10 thebe. Calculate the cost of using
a) an electrical fire rated 3kW for 5 hours.
Solution:
Cost  Energy Supplied  Cost per Unit
81
  3kW  5h  
10thebe
 150thebe
kWh

b) 5 50w bulbs for 12 hours.

Cost  Energy Supplied  Cost per Unit
Energy Supplied  Power  time
 5  60W  12h  0.3kW  12h  3.6kWh  3.6units
 Cost  Energy Supplied  Cost per Unit
10thebe
 3.6units   36thebe
unit
c) a 1200w hairdryer for 15 minutes.
1
Power  1200W  1.2kW , time  15minutes  h
4
Energy Supplied  Power  time
1
 1.2kW  h  0.3kWh  0.3units
4
 Cost  Energy Supplied  Cost per Unit
10thebe
 0.3units   3thebe
unit

ELECTRICAL HAZARDS AND SAFE USE OF ELECTRICITY

USES OF ELECTRICITY

These are some of the many uses of electricity:

(a) Lighting
(b) Operation of machines
(c) Security
(d) Communication (e.g telephones)
(e)
ELECTRICAL HAZARDS

These are conditions and situations that make the use of electricity unsafe or dangerous.

The main electrical hazards are: (i) damaged insulation

(ii) overheating of cables
(iii) damp conditions
(iv) overloading of sockets

1. If cables are worn (insulation stripped off) and only a few strands are carrying current, then the
resistance becomes much higher. The wire becomes hot when current passes through and could cause
fire.
2. Overloading of cables is often due to putting too many appliances in one mains socket. If all
appliances are used at once, then a large current will flow, which will overheat the cable, leading to
fire outbreak.
3. Damp conditions: If your hand or body is wet, the body resistance decreases. If you then touch a bare
wire the current is likely to flow through you causing either severe burning or heart attack. For this
reason, toilet or bathroom switches are either pull cords or outside the room.
82
ELECTRICAL SAFETY
FUSE
Symbol:

Function: To protect appliances from excessive (overload of) current.

How it works: A fuse is a wire made of a material with low melting point. If a fuse is part of the circuit, the
metal will eventually melt as it overheats due to increase in current, and break the circuit. Current will then
stop flowing because of the gap which results thereafter. Fuses must be connected to the Live wire. This
ensures that when the fuse melts, the appliance is isolated from the live terminal.

FUSE RATINGS

Plugs are normally fitted with 3A or 13A fuses. The value printed on the fuse tells the value of current needed
to “blow” (melt) the fuse. A fuse rated 3A will melt when a current of 3A flows through it. A fuse rated 13A
will melt when a current of 13A flows through it, and so on.

Note: The value of the fuse should always be more than the actual current drawn by the appliance, but
as close as possible.
THE EARTH WIRE

Function: safety and prevention of electrical shocks.

How it works: Most appliances are connected to the wire called the EARTH WIRE. One end of the earth
wire is connected to the metal case of the appliances. The other end is connected via the wall sockets to the
metal pipe outside the house, then to the ground.

The earth wire provides a path of zero electrical resistance from the case of the appliance to the ground. If the
earth wire accidentally touches the metal case of the appliance, a large current will flow through the
earth wire and the fuse will melt, isolating the appliance. Without the earth wire the case would become
live and anyone touching it would have a dangerous electric shock.

DOUBLE INSULATION

Most modern appliances have plastic cases. There is no risk of getting shock from a plastic case since it is an
insulator. Such materials are said to have a double insulation because:
(i) The live and neutral wires are covered in an insulating sheet(plastic)
(ii) The appliance itself is covered by an insulating case.

THE THREE PIN MAINS PLUG

The three pin mains plug has three pins connected to Live, Neutral and Earth wires.
The diagram below shows a correctly wired three pin mains plug.

83
LIVE wire (It is brow in colour): This is the most dangerous wire which carries and brings alternating current
(a.c.) at a high voltage.

NEUTRAL wire (It is Blue in colour): After the appliance the current flows through the neutral wire. The
voltage is zero in the neutral wire. It completes the circuit.

EARTH wire (It is Green or Green with Yellow stripes in colour): It conducts current leaks into the ground
and stops electric shocks.

The diagram below shows how the wires of the three pin plug fit into an electrical appliance.

A HOUSE ELECTRICITY SUPPLY

84
The house has two or three ring main circuits, which supply all the wall sockets. On each ring main there
usually about ten sockets. Notice that all the sockets are in parallel, so the full mains voltage is supplied to
everything that is plugged into the socket. The advantage of using a ring main circuit is that current can flow
two ways into a particular socket. So the connecting wires can be thinner, because they carry a smaller current
than they would do otherwise.
In addition the live and neutral wires, the ring main circuit carries an earth wire ( for safety reasons).

The lights of a house have their own circuit. Again each light fitting is in parallel, so that each light bulb
receives the mains voltage of 240 V. Light bulbs draw a small current (about 0.4 A for a 100W bulb) so about
ten lights can be safely run through a 5 A fuse.

Note: all fuses are connected to the live wire.

Fault finding

When an appliance stops working it may be due to a fault that is easy to rectify. Before running helter skelter
looking for a technician, it is wise to try to diagnose a fault.

Diagnostic steps;
 Check that the appliance is switched on.
 Check that the power is on,. Do other appliances work
 Check the fuse. If it is blown replace it. If the new fuse blows check for a short circuit.
 Check that the plug is correctly connected, with no loose wires or untidy strands of wire sticking out.
 Check that the cable connection to the appliance is firm
 Check that the insulation is in good condition. If it looks worn or torn replace it with a similar cable.

If after checking all the above, the appliance is still not working, take it to a trained technician.

ELECTROMAGNETIC EFFECTS
Electromagntic Induction

1) Induced e.m.f. and current in a moving a) wire and b)coil

When a wire is moved across a magnetic field, as shown below, a small e.m.f (voltage) is generated in the
wire. The effect is called ELECTREOMAGNETIC INDUCTION. Strictly speaking we say ‘an e.m.f is
induced in the wire’. If the wire forms part of a complete circuit, the e.m.f makes current to flow and can be
detected by a galvanometer which is sensitive to small currents. The pointer moves to the right or left of the
zero depending on the direction of the current.

85
Note
The induced e.m.f or current can be increased by:
 moving the wire faster
 using a stronger magnet
 increasing the length of the wire in the magnetic field – for example, by looping the wire through the
field several times, as shown above.

2) Induced e.m.f. and current in a coil due to a moving magnet

If a bar magnet is pushed into a coil, as shown below, an e.m.f is induced in the coil. In this case, it is the
magnetic field that is moving rather than the wire, but the results are the same; magnetic filed lines are being
cut.

The induced e.m.f or current can be increased by:

 moving the magnet faster
 using a stronger magnet
 increasing the number of turns of the coil(as this increases the length of the wire cutting through the
magnetic field)

Direction of induced current

The direction of the induced current depends on the following factors.

 the direction of motion of the wire
 magnetic field direction
The direction of current can be predicted using FLEMING’S RUGHT HAND RULE as shown in the
diagram below.

86
Note
Experiments with the magnet and the coil have also given the following results
 If the magnet is pulled out of the coil, the direction of the induced e.m.f (and current) is reversed.
 If the S pole is used rather than the N pole is pushed into the coil, this also reverses the current
direction.
 If the magnet is held still, no magnetic filed lines are cut, so there is no induced e.m.f or current.

GENERATORS

Most of the electricity comes from huge generators in power stations. There are small generators in cars and
some in bicycles. These generators, or dynamos, all use the electromagnetic induction. When turned, they
induce an e.m.f (voltage) which can make current to flow. Most generators give out alternating current (a.c.)

A SIMPLE A.C GENERATOR (alternator)

Illustration: A.C generator

A simple a.c generator consists of a rectangular coil between the poles of a magnet. The ends of the coil are
joined to a two slip rings on the axle. Carbon brushes press against the slip rings.

87
How it works

The figure above shows the design of a very simple alternating current ( a.c.) generator. By turning the axle
you can make a coil of wire move through (cut ) a magnetic field. This causes a voltage ( EMF ) to be
induced between the ends of the coil ( this makes a current to flow). The slip rings are fixed to the coil and
rotate with it. The brushes are two contacts which rub against the slip rings and keep the coil connected to the
outside part of the circuit.

You can see how the voltage waveform, produced by this generator, looks on an oscilloscope screen.

 In position ( i ) the coil is vertical with AB and CD. In this position the sides CD and AB are moving
parallel the magnetic field. No voltage is generated since the wires are not cutting across the magnetic
field lines.
 When the coil has been rotated through a ¼ turn to position ( ii ), the coil produces its greatest voltage.
Now the sides CD and AB are cutting through the magnetic field at the greatest rate.
 In position ( iii ), the coil is again vertical and no voltage is produced.
 In position ( iv ) a maximum voltage is produced, but in the opposite direction. Side AB is moving
upwards and side CD downwards.

The following all increase the maximum EMF ( and current ):

 Increasing the number of turns in the coil

 Increasing the area of the coil
 Using a stronger magnet
 Rotating the coil faster

Faster rotation also increases the frequency of the a.c.

88
THE TRANSFORMER

Symbol:

Function: To increase (step up) or decrease (step down) voltage supplied to appliances.

Structure: A transformer is made up of two cols of insulated copper wire wrapped around a laminated soft
iron core. An alternating current is supplied to the primary coil and an alternating e.m.f and current is induced
in the secondary coil.

Illustration: Transformer

How it works: The transformer has two coils wound around the same iron core.

The primary coil is an electromagnet: if an alternating current flows through the coil a magnetic field is
produced around it and the iron core becomes magnetized. Since the current is constantly changing in size and
direction, the field is also constantly changing.
The secondary coil is wound around the same iron core. The changing magnetic field from the electromagnet
induces an e.m.f in the secondary coil. The induced current will also alternate because the field is always
changing.

Note: the transformer only works when an alternating current is supplied. The output e.m.f and current will
also be alternating, and with the same frequency as the supply current.

Step-up and step-down transformers:

When the primary and secondary coils have exactly the same number of turns the output voltage will be
exactly the same as the input voltage.

If the secondary (output) coil has more turns than the primary (input) coil the output voltage will be higher
than the input voltage. The transformer has increased the voltage. This type of a transformer is called a step up
transformer.

89
If the secondary (output) coil has fewer turns than the primary (input) coil the output voltage will be reduced.
This type of transformer is called a step down transformer.

Illustration: Step up/down transformers

The transformer Equation

The relationship between the voltages and number of turns in the coils is given by;

Example: A transformer has 1000 turns on the primary coil and 2500 turns on the secondary coil.
(a) Is this a step up or step down transformer? Step up
(b) If the transformer is used on a 220 V mains supply, what will be the output voltage?

Solution;
V p  220V
Vs  ?

Np

Vp

1000 220V
  Vs 
220V  2500  550V
N p  1000 Ns Vs 2500 Vs 1000
N s  2500
The output voltage will be 550V.

Current Changes in Transformers

If a transformer is 100% efficient, the electrical power input in the primary coil will be equal to electrical
power output that comes out of the secondary coil.

In a Step Up transformer the voltage is increased. This means that the current must be reduced in order for the
equation to remain balanced.
90
In a Step Down transformer the voltage is reduced, so the current must be increased in order for the equation
to remain balanced.
The formula can be rearranged to give;

Example:
A 100% efficient transformer increases 25 000 V to 400 000V. The current in the primary coil is 200 000 A.
a) What turns ration is needed?
Ratio of turns in secondary coil to turns in primary coil is
N s VS 400000V
 
N p Vp 25000V
 16
The ratio of Ns to Np is 16 to 1
N : Np
ie s
16 : 1
b) What is the i) power input and ii) power output?
i)
Power input  Input Voltage  Input Current
Pin  Vin  I in
 25000V  200000 A  500000000W  500MW
note: M = Mega = 106
ii) the transformer is 100% efficient hence;
Power output  Power input  500MW
The power output is 500MW
c) How much current flows out of the secondary coil?
I p Vp I pV p 200000 A  25000V
  Is   Is   1250 A
I s Vs Vs 400000V
1250 A flows out of the secondary coil.
d) What is the advantage of stepping up the voltage in power transmissions?
This reduces current and makes it cheaper to transfer power using thinner and lighter cables as
opposed to heavier, thick and expensive cables needed for transmission of power at high current.
Note:
 If voltage is increased, current must decrease and visa versa.
 If voltage is doubled, current is halved. If voltage becomes 10 times smaller, current becomes 10 times
greater etc.

91
 RADIOACTIVITY

Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of radiation in the form of particles or waves (electromagnetic
radiation), or both, by some unstable nuclei.

Why do unstable nuclei disintegrate?

Radioactive decay is the loss of particles from unstable nucleus in order to achieve greater stability.

If a nucleus is unstable it may decay by;

 Losing an alpha (α) particle

 Losing a beta (β) particle
 Some nuclear changes which produce gamma (γ) rays

ALPHA (  ) DECAY

A nucleus emitting an alpha (  ) particle loses two protons and two neutrons. The  particle is positively
charged since it similar to the helium nucleus. Therefore;
 the atomic number Z decreases by 2
 the mass number A decreases by 4
 the neutron number N decreases by 2
Alpha particle is not that penetrative and can easily be stopped by clothing.
Alpha radiation can be deflected by electric and magnetic fields because it is charged.

The decay can be generally written as;

Example: Show the decay process of Radium 226 to Radon by emitting an alpha particle.

BETA (  ) DECAY
The other particle emission is beta decay. When a nucleus goes through beta decay, a neutron changes into a
proton and an electron.
The electron leaves the nucleus at very high speed while the proton stays in the nucleus. As a result beta
particles are more penetrative than alpha particles. The beta particles can however be stopped by 3 mm of
aluminium or any metal. Since beta-particles are negatively charged they can also be deflected by electric and
magnetic fields.

Note:  -particles are fast moving electrons.

The change of neutron to proton and electron can be shown as follows;

Note:  -decay increases the atomic number by 1.

The atomic mass of the parent nucleus does not change
92
The general equation for beta decay can be represented as;

Example: Show the decay process of Iodine-131 decaying to Xenon by beta decay.

GAMMA (   RAYS ) RADIATION

Gamma rays are very penetrative, short

wavelength electromagnetic radiation.
Although it is reduced, gamma radiation is not
stopped by even thick pieces of lead. Gamma
radiation cannot be affected by electric and
magnetic fields because they are not charged.
The atomic number and atomic mass of a
nucleus undergoing gamma emission does not
change only energy is lost.
The diagram below shows the penetrative power of  ,  and  radiations.
Illustration: Penetrative power of  ,  and  radiations

DEFLECTION by ELECTRIC and MAGNETIC fields

The behaviour of the three kinds of radiation in magnetic field is summarized below. The deflections are
found by Fleming’s left hand rule (taking negative charge moving from the right as equivalent to positive
(conventional) current to the left)
Illustration:
Deflection by
Magnetic field

Note: Beta-particles
are deflected more
than the alpha-
particles because
beta-particles are lighter than the alpha-particles.

93
Illustration: Deflection by Electric field

Alpha (  )-particles and beta (  )-particles are deflected by

electric field as shown above. The  -particle is repelled by the
positively charged plate and attracted to the negatively charged
one because it (  ) is positively charged. The  -particle is
similarly repelled by the negatively charged plate and attracted
the positively charged one sine it is negatively charged.

BACKGROUND RADIATION
There is a small amount of radiation around us all the time because of radioactive
materials in the environment. This is called background radiation. It mainly comes
from natural sources such as the rocks, soil, air, building materials, foods and drinks
and even cosmic rays from space.
DETECTION
All the three types of radiation can be detected by a Geiger-Muller tube using their ionising effect.
Ionising effect: If electrons become detached from molecule in a gas, ions (charged particles) are produced
and the gas is ionised. The molecules with missing electrons are the positive ions; detached electrons join on
to other molecules to form negative ions. As ions in a gas are free to move, an ionized gas can conduct
electricity.

When the radiation from the radioactive source is measured, the reading also includes any background
radiation present. So an average reading for the background radiation alone must be also be found and
subtracted.
Illustration: Geiger-Muller (GM) tube

The mica or “window” is thin enough to all even the alpha particle to pass through. When any of the radiation
enters the tube it ionizes the gas inside. This sets off a high-voltage spark across the gas and a pulse of current
in the circuit.
A ratemeter can be connected to give counts per second of radiation. A scaler on the other hand gives the
total number of particles or burst of gamma radiation detected by the tube.

Summary (page 267 complete physics)

94
Properties Alpha-particle(  ) Beta-particle(  ) Gamma-ray(  )
Nature: Negative electron Electromagnetic wave
of very short
Positive particle
wavelength
(helium nucleus)
Affected by magnetic yes since it is charged yes since it is charged no because of no charge
and electric fields?
not that penetrative- penetrative but can be very penetrative can be
Penetrative effect easily stopped by paper stopped by few mm of reduced but not even
or skin aluminium or other stopped by thick lead
metal
Strength of ionization very strong weak very weak
Dangerous? yes yes yes (used to kill living
cells e.g.
microorganisms)
Speed: 10% speed of light 50% speed light Speed of light
Detectors: Photographic film Photographic film Photographic film
Cloud chamber Cloud chamber Cloud chamber
Spark counter GM tube GM tube
Gold-leaf electroscope
Thin-window GM tube

USES
 Radioactive tracer in

Medicine: A small amount of Iodine-123 is injected into the patient and this would be extracted by both
kidneys and later pass with urine. The kidney which shows a constant count rate of  -particles is
blocked.

Agriculture: radioactive fertilizers can be injected in plants and their effect (absorption) assessed
(monitored) and used to produce better fertilizers.

Detecting leaks: (e.g. water/oil pipe); A beta emitter is injected into the pipe line. Any  -particles
emitted would be absorbed by the soil whereas  -rays would pass through the pipe material. The  –
particles are penetrative enough to go through the pipe and soil and be detected by a GM-tube detector.

 Industrial Uses
Sterilising:
Gamma rays can be used to kill bacteria, mould and insects in food, even after the food has been
packaged.
Gamma rays are also used to sterilize hospital equipment, especially plastic syringes that would be
damaged by heating them.
Cancer cells in the patient’s body can be killed by careful use of  -rays. Cobalt-60 is used as a source of
 -rays.

Thickness control: Beta-particles can be used to control the thickness of paper in paper mills by
measuring the amount of beta radiation that pass though the paper to the GM counter. The counter
controls the pressure of the rollers to give the correct thickness. In paper, plastic or aluminium factory, 
-particles are used. In a sheet-steel factory  -rays are used, why?

95
 Smoke detection: smoke alarms contain a weak source of Americium-241.this emits  -particles which
ionize the air, so that it conducts electricity and small current flows. If smoke enters the alarm, it absorbs
 -particles, the current flows to sound the alarm.

Flaw detection: if a  -rays source is placed on one side of a welding or casting and a photographic film
on the other side, weak points or bubbles will show on the film like an X-ray.

Radioactive dating: uranium-238 in rocks decay to lead and the amount of lead present can be used
determine the age of the rock. Carbon-14 for once-living and its decaying (half life 5700 yrs) can be used
to date bones, wood, paper and cloth.

Production of Electricity: The nucleus of Uranium- 235 splits and 2 neutrons are emitted. If each
neutron hits a Uranium-235 nucleus they in turn split in a chain reaction giving more neutrons. This
splitting is called nuclear fission and releases huge amount of energy.
In a nuclear power station this energy is used to boil water to steam that can turn turbines in generators to
produce electricity.

DANGERS OF EXPOSURE TO RADIATION

The danger of exposure to Alpha particles is slight since they are the least penetrative, but once in the
body can cause serious damage to cells due to their greater ionizing effect.

Large doses of beta and gamma radiation can cause radiation burns. Gamma radiation can penetrate
deep in the body and destroy cells deep inside the body or cause cells to multiply uncontrollably forming
cancer or damage chromosomes causing genetic defects.

HANDLING and STORAGE of RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS in LABOATORY

Radioactive materials should always be handled carefully and stored safely though laboratory samples
emit low levels of radiation.
Handling:
 Handle radioactive materials with forceps or special gloves.
 Keep away from eyes.
 Do not point source towards any person.
Storage:
 Keep the samples in special boxes lined with lead
 Store boxes in a locked cupboard
 One specific individual should control the cupboard keys

DANGERS OF NUCLEAR WASTES AND DISPOSAL

The use of radioactive materials always involves the production of radioactive wastes. The wastes from
nuclear fission can take hundreds of years to become safe. If not disposed of safely the radioactive wastes may
pose the following dangers:
Dangers:
 Come into contact with humans causing cancer and genetic defects
 Find its way into plant life and end in food chains
 Get in marine plants and get into marine food chains
 Spill during transportation casing disaster
Disposal:
 Low-level waste is buried underground or released into the sea.

96
High grade waste from nuclear power stations is
 buried disused salt mines or in granite caves
 bedded in concrete and dumped in deep oceans
 stored at special factories for re-processing

97
EXPANSION OF MATTER

When particles of matter are heated they move more vigorously and their movements become larger. The
molecules push away from each other, taking up more space and the substance expands. The reverse occurs
when they cool down, that is the molecular motions become smaller and the substance contracts as its
molecules are pulled closer by the forces of attraction.
In the gas state the particles are further apart and the forces of attraction are very weak, while in solid the
particles are closer together and the attraction forces very strong, the gas particles take up more space but the
solid particles are stopped by the intermolecular forces. Thus a gas expands the most while a solid expands the
least.

EXPANSION OF SOLIDS

Expansion of solids can be easily demonstrated by

a) Metal ball and metal ring experiment

Before the ball is heated it just fits and passes through the ring. After the
ball is heated it no longer pass through the ring as it has expanded and now
occupies more space. The radius of the ball is now larger than that of the
ring.
Discuss the possible observations if the metal ring is cooled in liquid air at -
196oC and the ball is tried to pass through the ring.

b) Metal bar and metal gauge experiment

CONSEQUENCES AND USES(APPLIATIONS) OF EXPANSION

Expansion and contraction can be very useful (applications) as well as bring negative effects (consequences)
Some everyday applications and consequences of expansion or contraction are described below.

BIMETALLIC STRIP is made of two equal lengths of different metal riveted together. The two metals have
varying linear expansivity.

When the bimetallic strip is heated aluminium

expands more than copper. To accommodate the
98
extra length of aluminium the strip beds towards copper. When the bimetallic strip is cooled (placing in liquid
nitrogen at -196oC ), the metals contracts with aluminium getting shorter than copper hence the strip beds
towards aluminium.
Therefore, generally, a bimetallic strip always beds towards the less expanding metal when heated and
towards the more expanding one when cooled.
A bimetallic strip is used in a temperature controlling device called a thermostat.

THERMOSTAT
A thermostat is used to keep the temperature of an appliance or room constant, without getting too hot or too
cold. It uses a bimetallic strip as a temperature controlled switch.
Appliances which use a thermostat include electric iron, fire alarm, refridgerator, gas oven, electric kettle

(a) Electric iron

The temperature of an electric iron is kept near-steady

by the bimetallic strip as it opens and closes the
contacts with temperature variations. As the base of
the electric iron gets hotter above the temperature set
by the control knob the bimetallic strip bends
downward and breaks the contacts. When the
temperature drops, the strip cools and contracts. It then
goes back to its original position hence switching the
electric current again.
Note: Brass expands more than iron so that the strip bends downwards to break open the circuit when the
temperature rises.

(b) Fire alarm

The bimetallic strip must bend and switch on the circuit to
sound the electric bell. Brass should expand more than iron so
that the strip bends down. The bending should occur at a
temperature considerably higher than the average room
temperature to avoid false alarms.

GAPS ON BRIDGES AND ROADS

Bridges are often made of steel bars that get longer when it is
hot. There must be expansion gaps in the road at the end of a
bridge. Bridges are usually put on rollers to allow for easy
movement during expansion and contraction.

Roads are often made of concrete slabs hat expand and contract
too. There are expansion gaps between the slabs filled with a
99
soft substance that can be squeezed easily in hot weather as the slabs expand. There are similar expansion
gaps in the floor of KSII.

Illustration: Expansion gap between road and bridge

RIVETING METAL PLATES

A white–hot rivet is placed in the rivet hole and its end hammered flat
and on cooling it contracts and pulls the plate tightly together.

SHRINK FITTING

This is used where the pieces joined involve a ball and socket. An axle
is cooled in liquid nitrogen at -196oC until the gear wheel can be
slipped on to it. On regaining normal temperature the axle expands to
give a very tight joint.

Exercise: Describe how the bimetallic strip thermometer shown below works.

EXPANSION OF GASES

Expansion of gasses can be demonstrated by the following experimental set-up.

A round bottomed flask is filled with a solution of potassium permangate and

then heated.

Observations:

The level of potassium per manganate solution in the tube goes down while the
level of the solution in the beaker rises as the solution is displaced by air.
Eventually bubbles are seen as air escapes through the solution.
Explanation:
When air is heated it expands and occupies more space thereby displacing the
solution in the tube. This shows that air expands as well.

Note: When a cold cloth is placed over the flask, the air contracts and
occupies less space forcing the solution up into the tube.

EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS
100
Just like solids and gases a liquid also expands or contract when
heated or cooled. The diagfram on the left can be used to demonstrate
expansion of liquids.
Obsevation: When heat is applied there is a momentary drop in the
level of the solution as flask expands before the liquid can conduct
heat. After a while the solution rises steadily as it expands and
rises through the caipillary. Whaen cooled the liquid cotracte and
occupy less space hance it will drop back into the flask.

MEASURING TEMPERATURE- Application of Liquid Expansion

Temperature :This a physical quantity related to the average kinetic energy of the molecules. The hotter the
object the faster the molecules move and the greater should be their average kinetic energy. The average
kinetic energy of the molecules decreases when the object colds down.
Any property of a substance that changes when the temperature varies is called thermometric property. A
bimetallic thermostat uses the expansion and contraction of a metal to measure temperature, so the expansion
and contraction of a solid are thermometric properties. Also the pressure of a gas at constant volume, the
volume of a gas at constant pressure and the resistance of a pure metal are all examples of thermometric
properties.
The expansion of a liquid is also a property used for most of the thermometers to measure temperature. These
thermometers are called liquid — in glass thermometers.

The same principle is applied in a liquid — in glass thermometers, the narrower the capillary tubes, further the
thread moves up. A small expansion of the liquid produces a greater ascent up the tube

101
Sensitivity of an instrument scale represents its ability to detect small changes of the quantity to be measured.
So, “the narrower the bore, the more sensitive is the thermometer”.
The thermometer scale represented below is more sensitive than the one represented before.

The thermometers we use in our laboratory have got a temperature range from 10 °C to 110 °C. However a
clinical thermometer which is another type of liquid—in glass thermometer has a rage from 35 0C to 42 °C
that is a few degrees either sides of the healthy or average body temperature of about 37 °C. This thermometer
is more sensitive than a laboratory thermometer that is why its accuracy is a tenth of a degree Celsius.

A sensitive thermometer does not have a very large temperature range even when it is very long. A larger
temperature range scale is achieved using a wider capillary tube.
Also a clinical thermometer has a constriction which stops the mercury when going back to the bulb. It allows
measuring the temperature of a patient after removing the thermometer from him. The mercury is returned to
the bulb by shaking the thermometer.

A large bulb and a thick glass stem have disadvantages, the thermometer has to take more energy from the hot
object than small bulb and a thin glass stem thermometer dose, and so it may cool it down. It also takes longer
to reach a steady reading. Thus the bulbs on a liquid-in glass thermometer are not made very large and the
stems are made from a very thin glass.
If two different metal wires are joined together at two junctions and the other ends are connected to an
ammeter, when one wire junction is cold and the other is hot, a potential difference (p.d) and therefore a
current are produced in the circuit. The ammeter then shows readings that can be expressed in degrees Celsius
if the scale is designed following this propose. This type of thermometer is called Thermocouple
Thermometer.

A thermocouple thermometer is more suitable for

industrial work than a liquid-in glass thermometer
since:
1- it can operate over a temperature rang froth
about —200 °C to 1600 °C.
2- The operator can read the temperature on a
meter or digital display placed some distance
away from the source of heat.
3- The readings can be recorded automatically or
fed directly to a computer controlling the heating
process.
4- The wire junction can be very small and needs very little heat to warm it up. So, it responds very quickly to
temperature changes. This thermometer also has some disadvantages compared with a liquid-in glass
thermometer. For example it is bulky, more expensive arid its structure is more complicated.

102
 TRANSFER OF THERMAL ENERGY

Methods available;

a) Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy from a region of hotter to region of lower temperature without
movement of matter

In conduction – molecules are made to move faster

i) by the transfer of fast electrons, or
ii) by mutual interaction.

b) Convection is the flow of thermal energy through a fluid from a region of higher to region of lower
temperature by the movement of the fluid

In convection– fast molecules are made to move from one place to another.

c) Radiation is the flow of thermal energy from one place to another by means of electromagnetic waves
– molecules are made to move faster when electromagnetic waves fall on them.

Heat transfer in solids – conduction

This mode of heat transfer occurs mainly in solids.

Motion of electrons:
When a solid e.g. metal bar is heated at one end, heat travels and soon reaches the other end. This happens
because of the free electrons surrounding the atoms of the metal which move faster and go towards the cooler
parts.

Collisions between these electrons and the stationary atoms at the cooler end of the metal result in the transfer
of kinetic energy from the electrons to the atoms. As the ‘warm’ electrons move from the hotter region to the
cooler region, ‘cooler’ electrons move in the opposite direction to take their place. In this way heat is
transferred from one place to another without any apparent movement of the transmitting substance. The
diagram below illustrates this conduction mechanism.

The faster electrons (indicated by the longer arrows) diffuse in the region occupied by the slower electrons)
indicated by shorter arrows), and vice-versa. The energy is transferred.
Also note that the vibrating atoms are responsible for some thermal conduction:
If they jostle each other, energy can be passed from one part of the solid to another.

This second conduction mechanism cannot be very effective, since high rates of conduction of heat are only
by substances with conduction electrons. There are exceptions, however, some non-metals (i.e. substances
without conduction electrons) are as good conductors as some metals.

103
As the conduction electrons can transfer both electric charge and internal energy, we see why the same
substances are good conductors of both electricity and heat.

Experiment to demonstrate rates of heat conduction

Heat flows along the rods at different rates and the pins drop off after varying lengths of time. In the
experiment the pin on copper drops off first followed by iron and lastly on glass. This confirms that metals
have very high thermal conductivity. Other solid materials such as glass, wood and plastics conduct heat very
slowly and are bad conductors or insulators.

An experiment below shows that water is actually a bad conductor of heat

Note the order in which things happen.

The water at the top of the tube boils, while the ice remains unmelted at the bottom. Eventually slow
conduction of heat through the water and the walls of the glass test tube melts the ice.

Liquids (except molten metals such as mercury) are usually bad conductors of heat. It is important to also note
that air is a very poor conductor of heat and is an important insulator.

When we feel cold we put on warm clothes. Clothes do not supply heat to our bodies, so how do they make us
feel warm? Warm clothes usually contain a lot of trapped air. Pockets of air are held between the fibres of
woolen materials and in holes like those in string vests. In a similar way birds fluff up their feathers to trap
more air around them to keep them warm.

Fibre glass and expanded polystyrene are used as insulators in houses; both these materials owe their
insulating properties to large amount of trapped air they contain.

104
Heat transfer through fluids – convection

Heat can flow through liquids and gases (fluids) by means of convection currents.

Convection currents are a flow of liquid or gas caused by a change in density, in which the whole medium
moves and carries heat energy with it.

Note; a) convection can not happen in solids because the molecules have fixed relative
positions.
b) convection is more effective in gases than in liquids.

Demonstration of convection

Explanation convection current: An increase in temperature usually causes an increase in volume. A given
mass of warm fluid, will therefore experience an up-thrust (from cooler fluid that surround it) greater
than its own weight. The cold denser fluid thus provides a force that causes the warm fluid to rise.
Example of convection

a) cloud formation – warm moist air rises before condensing into rain.

b) winds – caused by differences in air pressure which arises from uneven heating of masses air.

c) the art of gliding is to trace and use hot air currents (as done by sea gulls – birds)

d) the domestic hot water supply.

105
e) Land and sea breezes- are set up by earth-sea temperature differences. During the day the land heats up
more quickly than water in the sea. Hot air above the land rises causing cool and heavier air from the sea to
come and replace it (sea breeze). At night the reverse occurs. The diagram below illustrates this.

Heat by Electromagnetic waves-Radiation

Radiation is the flow of heat in form of electromagnetic waves requiring no tangible

medium. It is the type of wave motion given out by accelerated electric charges, and it results in the transfer of
energy form one place to another. In particular the infra-red waves have frequencies such that they are easily
absorbed by particles of matter, and are therefore effective at warming matter.

106
Warm objects give out or radiate infrared waves (heat waves – radiant heat). But if they become hotter they
emit shorter wavelengths which may include light. This is why a radiant heater or grill starts to ‘glow red’ hot
when it heats up.

Illustration: Radiant heat-component of electromagnetic waves

Emitters and Absorbers

Some surfaces are better at emitting (sending -out) thermal radiation than others. For example, black
saucepan cools down quickly than a similar white one because it emits energy at a faster rate.
Good emitters of thermal radiation are also good absorbers, as shown in the chart below.

Summary on emitters and absorbers

White or silver surfaces are poor absorbers because they reflect most of the thermal radiation away. This is
why, in hot, sunny countries, houses are often painted white to keep them cool inside. The inside of a black
car warms up more rapidly than a white one on a sunny day.
Illustration: Good/ bad absorbers of thermal radiation

If two coins of the same value are stuck on outside of each plate with candle wax, some minutes after the
heater has been switched on, the wax on the black surface melts and the coin falls off. The white surface is
still cooler and the wax does not melt.
The experiment shows that black surfaces are better absorbers of thermal radiation than white surfaces. Dull
black are the best absorbers of thermal radiation; silvery mirror-like surfaces are poorest absorbers.
Silvery surfaces reflect almost all the thermal radiation striking them.

Illustration: Good/ bad emitters of thermal radiation

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Holding the back of your hands on either sides of hot copper plate which has one side polished and the other
blacked, it is found that the black surface is a better emitter of radiation than the polished surface. Dull
black surfaces are also the best emitters of thermal radiation, silvery mirror-like surfaces are the
poorest emitters.
Therefore:
“The greater the amount of thermal radiation absorbed, the greater will be the emission”, so good
absorbers are also good emitters and vice-versa.

Car cooling system-most car engines are cooled by convection currents in the water pipes. A pump is often
used to help water to circulate. This is ‘forced convention’.
Water is very good substance to carry the unwanted heat away from the engine to the radiator. Here the
radiator is a heat exchanger where the hot water gives up its energy to air. The radiators are usually painted
black to increase their heat exchange function.

Illustration: Cooling System of a Car engine

SOLAR HEATING (solar panel)-some house have a solar pane like shown below. It uses the sun’s thermal
radiation to warm up water for the house. The black layer absorbs thermal radiation and warms up water
flowing through the pipes. Why are the pipes coiled?

Illustration: solar panel (water heating system)

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The vacuum flask (thermos flask)
A vacuum flask can keep drinks hot (or cold) for hours. It has these features fro reducing the rate of thermal
energy floe in or out.
a) An insulated stopper to reduce conduction and convection.
b) A double-walled container with gap between the walls. Air has been removed from the gap to reduce
conduction and convection.
c) Walls with shinny surfaces to reduce thermal radiation.

Illustration: Thermos flask

Greenhouse effects
On a sunny day, a greenhouse becomes a ‘heat trap’. Short-wavelength thermal radiation from the sun passes
easily through the glass and warms up the materials inside. The warmed materials emit thermal radiation, but

109
at longer wavelengths that do not pass through the glass so easily. Radiation id reflected back into the
greenhouse, so the temperature rises.
The earth’s contains a small amount of carbon dioxide gas. This has a similar effect to the glass in a
greenhouse- it lets the sun’s thermal energy to warm the earth, but reflects he earth’s radiation back. Without
this natural greenhouse effect the earth would be 30 oC colder than it is. Extra carbon dioxide fro burning
fuels is adding to the effect and causing global warming.

Illustration: Green house effect

Other everyday consequences of thermal transfer

Day and nights in deserts – days tend to be very hot due to radiant heat from the heated sand. Nights also tend
to be very cold due to lack of cloud cover. There is nothing to cat like a greenhouse.

Cyclones-are regions where the atmospheric pressure is lower than average and hence winds blow spirally
inwards towards the pressure center.
The existence of cyclones is attributed to convection currents creating differences in air pressure at certain
localities. Cyclones like typhoons can be very destructive where they pass.

110
111
 GENERAL WAVE PROPERTIES

Wave: This is a backward and forward or up and down movement of particles of an elastic medium when
they vibrate.
Or
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Wave: This is a disturbance of particles of mater that results in transfer of energy.
Properties of Wave

Wavelength (λ): This is the distance occupied by one complete wave.

Or
the distance between successive crests/peaks or troughs.
Or
the distance between successive compressions or rarefactions.
Or
the distance between successive (following each other) and corresponding (similar) positions (parts) of a
wave.

Wavelength is represented by the Greek letter lambda (λ). Since wavelength is distance, it measured in units
of length and the SI unit is the metre (m).

Amplitude (A): this is the maximum distance a particle moves from its rest
position when a wave passes. s
Or
the maximum displacement of a particle from its rest position when a wave passes.
It is also measured in units of length and the SI unit is the metre (m).

Frequency (f):Is the number of complete waves (cycles) produced per second. It is measured in hertz (Hz).
Frequency can be calculated from the expression below;

Number of complete cycle ( waves)

frequency( f ) 
time(t )
Speed (υ): This is the distance covered by a wave in a second. It is measured in metres
per second.
The speed is related to wavelength and frequency through the wave equation as shown below.
  f   where λ is wavelength ,f is frequency and υ is speed.
The above formula comes from;
distance(d )
Speed (  
time(t)
but d, which is distance traveled by the wave, is equal to the number of complete waves (n) times the
wavelength (λ), that is:

d  n
n
so:  
t

n
but: f 
t

so:   f   (wave equation)

The figure below shows a diagram of transverse wave illustrating the above properties.

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 TYPES OF WAVES
There are two types of waves namely

a). Longitudinal wave

b). Transverse wave
Longitudinal wave: A wave in which the direction of travel of wave and the direction in
which the particles are vibrating coincide.
In a longitudinal wave the particles of the elastic medium vibrate backward and forward to produce a series of
compressions (high pressure region) and rarefactions (region of low pressure).

Examples;
1 . Waves traveling along a stretched “slinky” spring with one end fixed and the other moving rapidly
backward and forward. The movement of the moving end is transmitted from turn to turn of the spring.
2 . Sound waves
Transverse wave: A wave in which the particles are vibrating at right angle to the
direction of travel of the wave.
The vibrations could either be up and down or side to side.

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 Examples;
1 . Waves traveling along a stretched “slinky” spring with one end fixed and the other moving rapidly
from side to side. The movement of the moving end is transmitted from turn to turn of the spring.
2 . Waves traveling across the surface of water when a stone has been dropped in a pond. Ripples move
out from the place where the stone was dropped.
3 . Waves traveling along a rope with one end fixed and the other moving up and down. The movement
of the moving end is transmitted from part to part of the through the whole rope.
4 . All the electromagnetic waves such as: light, radio waves, microwaves, gamma rays and so on.

WAVES PROPERTIES EXERCISE

1(a) Find the wavelength of a sound wave which has a frequency of 1.0 kHz, if the speed of sound is air
330 m/s.

b) Find the frequency of radio wave which has a wavelength of 3000m. (speed of radio waves = 3.0
8
*10 m/s)

c) Find the speed of a water wave produced by a 2.0 Hz vibrator in a ripple tank if successive crests are
5.0 cm apart.

2. The diagram below shows a section through a wave travelling in water in the direction shown.

a)i) find the ii) amplitude iii) wavelength

b) if the wave travels 32.0 cm in 2.0 s, find its) speed ii) frequency

c) Use appropriate symbols to show on the diagram above i) amplitude ii) wavelength

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 REFLECTON of Light

Reflection is the bouncing off of light on certain surfaces.

Reflection by a plane mirror

A plane is a flat smooth reflecting surface which by regular reflection is used to form images. It has a
reflecting and silvered surfaces in most cases shown by shading behind the reflecting surface.
Types of reflection

Investigating Laws of reflection

The laws of reflection are true for all reflecting surfaces, for curved mirrors as well as plane mirrors
(surfaces). A plane mirror is more simple and convenient to use.

Apparatus :plane mirror, sheet of paper, protractor, ray box/ optical pins
Expt set-up

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 REFRACTION

REFRACTION: is the bending of light when traveling form one medium to another with different optical
densities.

Terms used in optics

Incident ray: original ray of light from the source of light

Refracted ray: ray of light that has been bent as it passes between media.

Emergent ray: ray of light leaving a medium after refraction.


Incident angle (angle of incidence ( i )): angle measured between the incident ray and the normal line at
point of incidence.

Angle of refraction ( r ): angle measured between the refracted ray and the normal line at point of incidence.

Emergent angle ( e ): angle measured between the emergent ray and the normal line at point of emergence.

Normal: imaginary dotted line drawn perpendicularly at points of incident or emergence

FACTS ABOUT REFRACTION

1. A ray of light bends away from the normal when moving from an optically denser medium to
an optically less dense medium.
2. A ray of light bends towards the normal when entering an optically denser medium from an
optically less dense medium.
3. A ray of light entering along the normal is not refracted- goes without any deviation.
4. A ray of light incident inside a denser medium at critical angle is refracted such that it is
perpendicular to that surface of incidence.
5. The incident ray is always parallel to the emergent ray.

DEMONSTRATION OF REFRACTION- DETERMINATION OF REFRACTIVE INDEX (n)

Materials
Glass block, pencil, 4 optical pins, drawing board, plain paper, ruler and a protractor

Procedure:

1. Place the plain paper on the drawing board

2. Place the glass block in the middle of the plain paper and trace its boundary(outline) using
pencil
3. Insert optical pins 1 and 2 (P1 and P2) at an angle on one side of the glass block such that they
are in a straight line to the surface of the glass block.
4. Insert optical pins 3 and 4 (P3 and P4) on the other side of the glass block such that they are in a
straight line with images of P1 and P2 as seen through the glass block.
5. Remove the glass block and the optical pins and join positions of P1 and P2 with a straight line
to represent the incident ray (include an arrow to show direction of the ray)

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 6. Join positions of P3 and P4 with a straight line to represent the emergent ray (include an arrow
to show direction of the ray)
7. Trace the path of the ray inside the glass block by joining the points of incident and emergence
together using a straight line- this represent the refracted ray.
8. use a protractor to draw a normal line at the point of incidence and measure the angles of
incidence and refraction
9. calculate the refractive index of the glass block using the expression below

sin i
refractive index (n) 
sin r

Illustration: refraction through a glass block

REFRACTIVE INDEX IN TERMS OF REAL DEPTH AND APPARENT DEPTH

Refraction causes:
(i) An object (e.g. a coin) placed at the bottom of a container
holding water to appear nearer the surface than it is.
(ii) Objects (e.g. ruler or pencil) to appear bent when placed in a
container holding water.

Illustration: “bent” pencil

The light rays from the point O of the pencil which is resting on the bottom
of the container are refracted away from the normal N1 and N2 as shown; the
pencil appears bent when viewed from above the surface of water.

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 To locate the image of the object construction lines are drawn straight backward from the points
of emergence.
(iii) Bottom of a pool to appear near the surface than it actually is.
The above examples give rise to what is known as real and apparent
depths of the water as illustrated below.

Illustration: real and apparent depths

The refractive index of a material (e.g. water or glass) can be calculated

using real and apparent depths by the expression below;
real depth
refractive index (n) 
apparent depth

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

The angle the ray makes with the normal in air is always greater than the
angle it makes with the normal in the medium (x > y).
When the angle of incidence inside the medium is increased gradually
the angle of refraction also increases proportionately. Eventually the angle of refraction becomes 90o.
The angle of incidence in the denser medium for which the angle of refraction is 90 is called the critical angle
c. (refer to figure b)
When the angle of incidence inside the denser medium is greater than the critical angle no light can escape
fro the denser medium and the light ray is said to be totally internally reflected. (refer to figure c)

Illustration: critical angle and total internal reflection

APPLICATION OF TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

Total internal reflection is sued in fibre optics either in

A fibre optic is made of high quality glass of high refractive index coated with a thin layer of lower refractive
index. A ray of light entering the end of the thin fibre optic that strikes at an angle of incidence greater than
the critical angle is totally internally reflected along
the whole length of the fibre.

Illustration: Fibre optic

a). Communication- passing signals as

light impulses

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 b). Medicine- used to view internal organs or connected to surgical instruments to enable
operations of such organs.
c). Periscope- view around obstacles

LENSES AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

Lenses are made with a great of variety of shapes and or different kinds of glass but they all belong to either
the converging group or the diverging group of lenses. The converging type of lens converges (brings
together) rays of light and the diverging type diverges (spreads out) rays of light.

As can be seen in the figure below, the converging lenses are all thicker in the centre than at the edge whereas
the diverging lenses are all thinner in the center than at the edge.

Lens shapes

Lens definitions

The principal axis of a lens is the line joining the centres of curvature of its surfaces.

The optical centre of a lens L is the point midway between the lens surfaces on its principal axis. Rays
passing through the optical center are not deviated.

The principal focus F of a converging lens is the point to which all rays incident parallel to the principal
axis converge after refraction by the lens. This focus is real.

The principal focus F of a diverging lens is the point from which all rays incident parallel to the principal
axis appear to converge after refraction by the lens. This focus is virtual.

The focal length f of a lens is the distance between its optical centre and the principal focus.

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NB A lens has two principal focuses, one on each side of the lens. When drawing ray diagrams the principal
focus F is marked on both side of the principal axis.

C1 = centre of curvature of face 1

C2 = centre of curvature of face 2
L = optical centre

Standard rays

In ray diagrams, any two of the following rays are needed to fix the image position and size:

1. A ray parallel to the principal axis passes through F after leaving the
lens.

2. A ray through F’ leaves the lens parallel to the principal axis.

3. A ray through the centre passes straight through the lens.

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NB:
 For simplicity, rays are drawn from just one point on the object. In reality rays are from every different
on the object.
 Only two rays are needed to fix where the image is.
 For simplicity, rays are shown bending at the line through the middle of the lens. In reality, bending
takes place at each surface.
Images formed by converging lens

Object O, uses Ray diagram Image i

a) o between F and L
i) virtual
i)magnifying glass ii)erect
ii)instrument eye piece iii)magnified
iii)Spectacles correction iv)on same side
for long-sightedness of lens as O and
further away
b) O at F

Produces a parallel beam

of light as in a spot light At infinity
with lamp at O.

c) O between F and 2F i) real

ii) inverted
i) projector iii) magnified
ii) microscope objective iv) on opposite
lens side of lens to O,
beyond 2F.
i) real
d) O at 2F ii) inverted
iii) Same size as
Camera making equal O.
size copies iv) on opposite
side of the lens to
O, at 2F.

e) O beyond 2F i) real
ii) inverted
i) camera iii) diminished
ii) the eye iv) on opposite
side of lens,
between F and
2F.
This is diagram
c) reversed.

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 f) O at infinity i) real
ii) inverted
Objective lens of a iii) diminished
telescope. iv) on opposite
side of lens at F.
This is diagram
b) reversed

Image formed by a diverging lens

i) eyepiece in some i) virtual

instrument. ii) erect
ii) in spectacles to correct iii) diminished
short-sightedness iv) on same side
of lens as O, but
nearer.

Magnification (m)
Magnification is the ratio of the size (height) of image to the size (height) of object?

size of image
magnification 
size of object

Linear magnification can have a value less 1 when the image is diminished, equal to 1 when the object and
image are the same size or greater than 1 when the image is magnified.

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 COMMON PROPPERTIES of ELECTROMAGNETIC (WAVES) SPECTRUM

There exists a family of waves

resulting from magnetic and electric
forces of matter called Electromagnetic
waves.
This family of waves is called the
Electromagnetic spectrum.

Illustration: Electromagnetic spectrum

All of these waves have the common properties

a) They are all transverse waves, They travel at velocity of light in vacuum ( c  3 10 8 m )
s
b) They can be reflected, refracted and diffracted
c) They obey the wave equation v  f  

NAME AND
TYPICAL SOURCES DETECTORS SPECIAL PROPERTIES
WAVELENGTH
*very penetrating
Gamma rays () Nuclei of Photographic *very dangerous when used without control
10-12m radioactive film and *used t kill dangerous growths e.g. cancer cells
atoms and Geiger-Muller *used t find flaws in metals. Special detectors can
cosmic rays (GM )tube reveal weakness in a metal.
*used to sterilise equipment, they can kill bacteria
and very dangerous micro-organisms
*very penetrating, so overexposure to them can be
Photographic very dangerous
X-rays 10-10m X-ray tube film and *used to take X-rays pictures in order to detect
fluorescent bone fractures, lung diseases, stomach diseases
screen *used to treat skin disorders
*used to study crystal structures in solids by X-ray
crystallography

*it is absorbed by the glass and a considerable

amount of that coming from the sun is absorbed by
the atmosphere’s upper layers which contain a very
large concentrate of Ozone gas.
Ultraviolet Sun, very *causes many chemical reactions, some materials
radiation (UV) hot objects, Photographic fluoresce when they absorb ultraviolet radiation.
10--8m electric arcs film, photocell For example, washing powder contain chemicals
and sparks, fluorescent which fluoresce when they absorb UV, they make
mercury chemicals clothes look whiter than white in daylight and glow
vapour when disco lights strike them.
lamps *UV from the sun is used by the skin to produce
vitamin D, but causes sun tan.
*UV lamps are used in medicine for skin treatment,
but excess is harmful, and can cause skin diseases
and damage the retina.
*UV is frequently used to kill bacteria and living
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 cells
*can be used against fraud in identify false
signatures in bank cheques
*essential for photosynthesis and plant growth
Visible light 0.6 * Sun, hot Photographic *used for communication systems: lasers and
10-8m objects, film, eye and optical fibres (very thin glass rods, within which
lamps and photocells light or laser can be totally internally reflected)
lasers *used in identifying substances in chemistry flame
tests
Special As the temperature rise, an objects give out more
Infra-red Sun, warm photographic and moreIR, the wavelengths become shorter since
radiation (IR) and hot films, the molecules vibrate more vigorously. At about
10-4m objects such semiconductor 700o C the radiation changes into visible light.
as fires, devices such *used for photography through haze and fog, it is
people, as LDR (light not scattered as much as visible light.
animals dependent *used to provide special information, such as
resistor or infected crops, contrasting vegetation and so on by
photoresistor) means of photographs taken by satellites
photodiode
and skin
Microwave *long and medium waves will diffract around a hill
ovens, TV Aerials so that a signal on a radio wave can be detected
Radio waves and radios, connected to even when a hill blocks the direct route from the
3m transmitters tuned electric transmitting aerial.(Diffraction is when a wave
using circuit in passes the edge of an object)
electric radio and TV Long and medium waves are also reflected by layers
circuits and sets of charged particles in the earth’s upper
aerials atmosphere so that long distance reception is also
where possible despite the curvature of the earth’s surface.
electrons are *VHF and UHF (TV) waves have shorter
forced to wavelengths. They are not reflected by upper
oscillate atmospheric layers and are diffracted only slightly
by hills. Good receptions are only possible for
straight paths of waves.
*microwaves are used fir cooking, telephone,
satellites communications, radar detection of ships,
aircrafts, missiles…..
*radio waves are used in radioastronomy

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Sound
Sound is the energy produced by vibrating sources e.g. drum skin, guitar string, cone of loud speaker etc.
The illustration below shows how cone of a loud speaker produces sound.

The changing alternating current from the amplifier makes the cone to vibrate (i.e. pushing forward and
backwards repeatedly). When the cone pushes forward it pushes the air molecules close together (onto each
other) creating a high pressure region called compression. When the cone pulls back it creates a temporary
vacuum in front of it. Air molecules then spread into this vacuum which leads to a low pressure region called
rarefaction. The continued vibrations of the cone lead to a series of compressions and rarefactions as
denoted by the “C”s for Compressions and “R”s for Rarefactions in the diagram below.

The compressions and rarefactions eventually reach the ear and make its constituent parts to vibrate the same
way. the brain senses these vibrations and interpret them as a particular sound.
Points of note
1. The direction of vibration of the loudspeaker cone, hence the air molecules through which sound
travels, is parallel to the direction of propagation of the direction of propagation (travel) of the sound.
Thus sound is a longitudinal8 wave.
2. Sound travels by pushing together (compressing) or pulling apart (decompressing) the particles of a
medium through which it travels. So a material medium is required for the transmission of sound
waves.
3. Because sound travels by compressing and decompressing particles of a material medium, then it
suffices that sound travels fastest in solids. This is because particles of a solid are closely packed
already so compressing and decompressing them takes a shorter time. Sound travels slowest in gases.
The order of magnitude of sound in states of matter is shown below.

Experiment: Speed of sound in air

Aim: to determine the speed of sound in air

8
A longitudinal wave is the one in which the direction of propagation (travel) of the wave is parallel to the direction of vibration of
the medium through which it propagates. When these directions are perpendicular the wave is said to be transverse.
126
Apparatus
 Starter’s gun (to provide the sound)
 Measuring tape (to measure the distance)
 Stop clock (to measure the time)
 Wall (to act as sound barrier)

Set-up; the apparatus were set-up as shown below,

Procedure
The starter’s gun was positioned a distance, d = 200.000m from the wall, measured using a measuring tape
and recorded. The starter’s gun was fired and the stop-clock started at the same time. The stop-clock was
stopped upon hearing the echo from the wall. The time, t, taken by sound to travel to the wall and back was
read from the stop-clock and recorded. This procedure was repeated five times and the average time, <t>,
taken by sound to travel to the wall and back calculated and recorded. The distance, S, travelled by sound to
the wall and back was calculated from formula, S = 2d, and recorded. The speed of sound, v, was calculated
from formula, v, and recorded.

Results and Analysis

Distance of the starter’s gun from the wall, d = m

Distance travelled from the wall and back, S = 2d = m

Table of results
Reading no 1 2 3 4 5 Average

time taken, t (seconds)

Discussions
Students are to complete the table below by stating the possible source(s) of error and the precautions they
took to minimise the effects of such errors.

Possible sources of error Precautions taken

Parallax error in the measurement of A large distance was used so that percentage error due to
distance from the wall parallax will be small

Human reaction time in the measurement Several readings were taken and the average used
of time

Conclusion
The speed of sound in air was found to be, v = m/s

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Audible range
Not all sounds can be heard. Only sounds having frequencies within a certain range can be heard. This range
is called Audible Range (audible means hear-able).

Human Audible range (20 Hz to 20 000 Hz)

The audible range for humans is 20 Hz to 20 kHz. This means that human beings can’t hear sounds having
frequencies less than 20 Hz or greater than 20 kHz.

Example 1
Determine whether sound can be heard if it has the following frequencies
(v) 4 Hz
(vi) 180 Hz
(vii) 40 kHz

Solutions
Sound can be heard, iff (if and only if) its frequency satisfies the inequality 20Hz <f <20 kHz

(v) f = 4 Hz < 20 Hz so it’s too low to be heard. i.e. it wont be heard

(vi) f = 180 Hz which falls within the range 20Hz <f <20 kHz. Sound will be heard.
(vii) f = 40 kHz> 20 KHz so it’s too high to be heard. i.e. it wont be heard
Exercise
Determine whether sound can be heard if it has the following frequencies
(i) 1 Hz
(ii) 150 Hz
(iii) 2500 Hz
(iv) 70000 Hz
(v) 3 GHz

Experiment: Human Audible Range

Aim: to determine the audible range for humans
Apparatus
 Power supply unit (to be a source of electricity)
 Signal generator (to vary the frequencies)
 Loud speaker (to produce the sound)
 Connecting wire (to complete the circuit)

Set-up; the apparatus were set-up as shown below,

Procedure
The apparatus were connected as shown above. The frequency of the signal generator, f, was set to 10 Hz and
recorded. The power supply switched on and the loud speaker listened to so as to determine if it produces any
audible sound, the results were recorded. The procedure was repeated with the frequency setting, f, of the
signal generator increased at 1 Hz intervals until the loud speaker produced some audible sound. The

128
frequency setting of the signal generator was then varied by the smallest division within each power of ten
until the loud speaker no longer produced audible sound.

Results and Analysis

Tables of results
Frequency, f ×1 Hz
(Hz) 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Sound heard?
yes (√) OR no (×)

Frequency, f ×10 Hz ×100 Hz

(Hz) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Sound heard?
yes (√) OR no (×)

Frequency, f ×1000 Hz ×10000 Hz

(Hz) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Sound heard?
yes (√) OR no (×)

Discussions
Students are to fill in the table below by stating the possible source(s) of error and the precautions they took to
minimise the effects of such errors.

Possible sources of error Precautions taken

Conclusion
The human audible range was found to be Hz to Hz

Audible range for other animals

Human beings can only hear sounds having frequencies greater than 20 Hz and less than 20 kHz. This range,
20 Hz to 20 kHz, narrows further with age. However, some animals can hear sounds having much higher
frequencies than 20 kHz. For example, dogs can hear sounds having frequencies up to 50 kHz i.e. 50 kHz.
Thus a burglar alarm set at 40 kHz would alert a guard dog of the intruder’s presence. The dog will hear the
loud ringing of the alarm at 40 kHz but the intruder will hear nothing (complete silence). Bats can hear
sounds of even higher frequencies, up to 150 kHz i.e. 150 000 Hz.
Vc

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Absolute zero and kinetic theory

o According to the kinetic theory, if the temperature of a gas is reduced, the molecules move more
slowly.
o As a result they strike the container walls with less force, so the pressure drops
o Molecules almost stop moving at absolute zero, hence no pressure.
o N.B. because of attractions between their molecules, real gases turn liquid before absolute zero is
reached.
o The volume-temperature and pressure-temperature graphs do not pass through the Celsius temperature
origin (0C). If they are produced backwards they cut the temperature axis at about -273C. This
temperature is called absolute zero because we believe it is the lowest temperature possible. It is the
zero of the absolute or Kelvin scale of temperature.
o Degrees on this scale are called Kelvin and are denoted by K. They are exactly the same size as
Celsius degrees. Since -273C = 0 K, conversions from C to K are made by adding 273. For example
0C = 273 K
15C = 273+15 = 288 K

Kelvin temperatures are represented by the letter T and if θ stands for Celsius scale temperature then, in
general

T = 273 + θ

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