Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T.

Duong – HUST

CHAPTER 4. FORMING AND SHAPING

gia công
PROCESSES AND EQUIPMENT
• Forming: Changing the shape of an existing solid body
(plate, sheet, bar, rod, wire, tubing…)
• Shaping: Molding and casting of soft or molten material
dịnh hình

cán
4.1. Rolling of Metals
• Definition: Rolling is the process of reducing the thickness or
changing the cross-section of a long workpiece by
compressive forces applied through a set of rolls.
two rolls: 2 trụ cán

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 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

• 90% of metal products are rolled.

• Continuous casting is often combined with rolling to lower cost
and improve productivity.
• Non-metallic materials are also rolled.
• Rolling makes metal structure finer (wrought structure).
• Rolling can be: hot or cold.
cán nóng hoặc cán nguội

• Rolled products:
• Plates for ships, bridges, structures, machines
• Sheet metal for car bodies, aircraft fuselage, appliances, containers
• Foils for packaging
• I-beams, railroad rails, channels, rings, seamless pipe, tubing
• Bolts, screws, threaded components
• Alternative processes:
• Continuous casting, extrusion, drawing, machining of threaded
components Chapter 4 - 2
Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

Flat- and Shape-Rolling Processes

cán lá thép, rất mỏng

cán ra tấm

i beam

Figure 4.1 Schematic outline of various flat- and shape-rolling processes.

Source: American Iron and Steel Institute.
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 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

4.1.1. THE FLAT ROLLING PROCESS

 The flat-rolling process (Fig 4.2).
 In the roll gap, thickness changes from h0 to hf
 Strip velocity changes from V0 to Vf
 Relative sliding between the roll and the strip along the arc of contact in the roll gap, L.
 No-slip point (neutral point): The velocity of the strip is the same as that of the roll.
 Net frictional force is proportional toBôi rolling
trơn
forces
 Too much friction causes sticking. Lubricants can be used
 Draft: h0 – hf = μ2R (μ – Coefficient of friction) is higher if friction is higher and if roll
radius is larger

Figure 4.2 (a) Schematic illustration of the flat-rolling process. (b) Friction forces acting on strip
surfaces. (c) The roll force, F, and the torque acting on the rolls. The width w of the strip usually
increases during rolling.
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1) Roll force, torque, power requirement

 Reducing roll forces to avoid roll deflection/flattening by:
giảm lực ma sát trục cán - vật cán
• Reducing friction at roll-workpiece interface
giảm đường kính trục cán diện tích tiếp xúc
• Using smaller diameter rolls to reduce the contact area
giảm chiều dày cán
• Taking smaller reductions-per-pass to reduce the contact area
cán nóng để giảm lực
• Rolling at elevated temperatures to lower the strength of the material
• Applying tensions to the strip
dùng thêm lực kéo

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 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

2) Geometric considerations
khi cán thì trục cán có dấu hiệu bị cong đi
Roll Bending
• Roll forces tend to bend the
rolls elastically during rolling
(Fig. 4.4a)
• Grinding the rolls so as their
diameters at center is slightly
larger than at their edges
cán sao cho đường kính ở tâm lớn hơn ở mép 1 chút
(camber)
• Thermal camber: The heat
generated by plastic
deformation during rolling
gây ra nhiệt khi cán

Figure 4.4 (a) Bending of straight cylindrical

rolls, caused by the roll force. (b) Bending of
rolls ground with camber, producing a strip
with uniform thickness.
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 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

3) Vibration and chatter sự va đập

• Chatter is sef-excited vibration and leads to periodic variations in rolled

sheet thickness, its surface finish.
• Chatter is found in tandem mills and could lead to 50% decrease in speed.
• Chatter results from dynamic interactions between the mill stand and the
rolling operation. tăng khoảng cách giữa cặp trục cán
tăng chiều rộng vật răn

• To reducegiảmchatter:
bớt lượng cán
increase the distance between stands; increase strip
width, decrease draft; increasetăng roll radius; increase strip-roll friction; using
bán kinh trục cán
tăng ma sát
dampers in the roll supports.
giảm xóc giảm va đạp

Figure 4.6 A tandem rolling operation.

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 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

4.1.2. FLAT-ROLLING PRACTICE

cán nóng
chuyển đổi cấu trúc đúc thành cấu trúc rèn

• Hot rolling: Converts the material dendritic cast structure to a wrought

structure (Fig. 4.7) with finer grains and enhanced ductility.
làm cho các hạt mịn hờn và tăng tính dẻo

Figure 4.7 Changes in the grain structure of cast or of large-grain wrought metals during
hot rolling. Hot rolling is an effective way to reduce grain size in metals, for improved
strength and ductility. Cast structures of ingots or continuous casting are converted to a
wrought structure by hot working.
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1) Defects in rolled plates and sheets

khuyết tật trong cán tấm,

 Surface defects: Scale, rust, scratches, gouges, pits, cracks

 See Fig. 4.9 for more

(c) edge cracks

(a) wavy edges

(b) zipper cracks in the center of the strip (d) alligatoring

Figure 4.9 Schematic illustration of typical defects in flat rolling

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2) Other characteristics of rolled metal

Ứng suất dư do biến dạng không đều
 Residual stresses due to nonuniformed deformation (e.g. in cold rolling)
Figure 4.10 (a) Residual stresses
developed in rolling with small rolls
giảm lượng cán
or at small reductions in thickness
per pass. (b) Residual stresses
developed in rolling with large rolls
trong chịu nén
or at high reductions per pass. Note tring chịu kéo ngoài chịu nén ngoài chịu kéo

the reversal of the residual stress

patterns.

Dung sai về kích thước

 Dimensional tolerances: cán nguội

 ±0.1 to ±0.35 mm for thickness of cold rolled sheets;
 Flatness tolerances ±15mm/m of flatness tolerances (for cold rolling), and
dung sai độ phẳng
±55mm/m for hot rolling.
cán nóng
 Surface roughness: Độ nhám bề mặt

 Cold rolling gives fine surface with no need for additional

bề mặt mịn
finishing operation.
không cần thực hiện thêm công đoạn hoàn thiệt
 Hot rolling gives the same surface roughness as sand casting.
bề mặt nhám như đúc (cát)
Hot working alway high dimensional tolerances than cold working

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4.1.3. ROLLING MILLS

 Design, construction, operation of rolling mills: A major investment. Rolling speed: up
to 40 m/s
 Two-high rolling mills: Are used for hot rolling in initial breakdown passes (primary
roughing, cogging mills) on cast ingots or continuous casting (D = 0.6 – 1.4 m)
 Three-high rolling mills (reversing mills): The plate being rolled is raised repeatedly to
the upper roll gap, rolled and then lowered to the lower roll gap and rolled and so on.
 Four-high rolling mills and cluster mills (Sendzimir or Z mills): Small-diameter rolls
lower roll forces and power requirements; and reduces spreading.

Figure 4.11 Schematic illustration of various roll arrangements:

(a) two-high; (b) three- high; (c) four-high; (d) cluster (Sendzimir) mill.
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• Roll materials: vật liệu làm trục cán

cần độ bền lớn chịu đc mài mòn

• Must be strength and resistant to wear độ cứng cao chịu mài mòn tốt

• Common roll materials: Cast iron, cast steel, forged steel, tungsten
vonfram cacbon
carbide mặt mịn

• Rolls for cold rolling: fine finish

• Rolls made for cold rolling should not be for hot rolling: They may crack
trục cán nguội không dùng đc cho trục cán nóng

• Lubricants: bôi trơn

thép hợp kim

• No lubricant if hot rolling of ferrous alloys (graphite may be used)

giảm nhiệt độ trục cán
• Water-based
kim loại màu
solution to cool the rolls, break up scale on plate surface
• Nonferous alloys: hot rolled with compounded oils, emulsions, fatty acids
• Cold rolling: with water-soluble oils, mineral oils, emulsions, paraffin,
dùng chất bôi trơn
fatty oils.

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4.1.4. VARIOUS ROLLING PROCESSES AND MILLS

Shape Rolling
 Shape rolling
 To produce straight and long
structural shapes (channels, I-
beams, railroad rail, and solid
bars)
 Also called profile rolling
 Cold shape rolling of wire
 Cross section is reduced
nonuniformly

Figure 4.13 Stages in the

shape rolling of an H-section
part. Various other structural
sections, such as channels and
I-beams, are also rolled by
this kind of process.
tấm tôn cán mỏng và không phẳng để thay đổi thành cấu trúc dạng gân và tăng độ cứng vững
Mỏng 0.5mm

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gia công cán

 Roll-forging
 Cross section of a round bar is shaped by passing it through a pair of shaped rolls
 To produce: Tapered shafts, leaf springs, table knives, hand tools, etc.
 Can also serve as preliminary forming operation for other forging processes

Roll-Forging

Figure 4.14 Two examples of the roll-forging operation, also known as cross-rolling.
Tapered leaf springs and knives can be made by this process. Source: (a) J. Holub; (b)
reprinted with permission of General Motors Corporation.

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 Skew rolling
 Typically for making ball bearings (4.15a): Continuous formation of rough
spherical blanks by rotating action of rolls when rod is fed into the roll gap.

Production of Bearing Blanks

Figure 4.15 (a) Production of steel balls by the skew-rolling process. (b) Production of
steel balls by upsetting a cylindrical blank. Note the formation of flash. The balls made
by these processes are subsequently ground and polished for use in ball bearings.

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Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

 Ring-Rolling cán vòng

 Thick ring is expanded into a large-diameter thinner one

 One set of rolls is driven while the other is idle
 Applications: Large rings for rockets, turbines; jet engine cases; gearwheel rims;
ball-bearing and roller-bearing races, flanges; reinforcing rings for pipes

Figure 4.16 (a) Schematic illustration of

a ring-rolling operation. Thickness
reduction results in an increase in the part
diameter. (b) Examples of cross-sections
that can be formed by ring rolling.

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 Thread-Rolling
Cán ren

 A cold forming process

 Threads are formed on the rod or wire by passing them between dies
 Products: screws, bolts
 High rates of production.
 Smooth surface
 Favorable compressive residual stress

Figure 4.17 Thread-rolling

processes: (a) and (c)
reciprocating flat dies; (b)
two-roller dies. Lubrication is
needed.

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cán ống

 Rotary tube piercing (Mannesmann Process)

 Roll axes are skewed so as to pull the round bar through the rolls by the axial
component of the rotary motion
 Internal mandrel expands the hole and sizes the inside diameter of the tube

Mannesmann Process
Cycic
Void compresssive
initiation stress

Tensile Cavity grows

stress

Principle

Figure 4.18 Cavity formation in a solid round bar and its utilization in the rotary tube
piercing process for making seamless pipe and tubing. (The Mannesmann mill was
developed in the 1880s.)
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 Tube rolling cán ống

 Reduces the diameter and thickness of pipes and tubing

 In the pilger mill, the tube and an internal mandrel undergo a reciprocating motion.
Tube-Rolling
Figure 4.19 Schematic
illustration of various
tube-rolling processes:
(a) with fixed mandrel;
(b) with moving
mandrel; (c) without
mandrel; and (d) pilger
rolling over a mandrel
and a pair of shaped
rolls. Tube diameters
and thicknesses can also
be changed by other
processes, such as
drawing, extrusion, and
spinning.

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4.2. Forging of Metals

Definition: Forging iskhuôn
thevà công
process
cụ
of shaping the workpiece by compressive forces,
applied through various dies and tooling
 Applications: Large rotors for turbines, gears, bolts, rivets, cutlery, hand tools,
machine parts, aircraft, etc. (Fig. 4.20).

Bánh răng côn

Figure 4.20. Schematic illustration of the

steps involved in forging a bevel gear with a
shaft. Source: Forging Industry còn 1 dạng bánh
răng nữa là bánh
Association.. răng trụ

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 Forging operation produce:

- Discrete parts
- Good strength andLựctoughness
mạnh
(grain structure can be controlled)
độ nhám bề mặt tốt
(Fig. 4.21).
tăng tính chính xác
 Cold forging: Higher force, good surface finish and dimensional accuracy
 Hot forging: Lower forces, worse surface finish and dimensional
bề mặt nhám kém
accuracy
tăng tính chính xác
lục ít (do độ dẻo vật gcong cao)

Grain Flow Comparison

Figure 4.21 Schematic illustration of a part made by three different processes, showing
grainđúcflow.
(a) casting by the processes described in Chapter 11,
(b) machining
cắt gọt
from a blank, described in Part IV
(c) forging.gia công
Each process has its own advantages and limitations (external, internal characteristics,
material properties, dimensional accuracy, surface finish, economics of production.
Source: Forging Industry Association.
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4.2.1. OPEN-DIE FORGING Khuôn hở

phương pháp rèn

 Open-die forging (upsetting or flat-die forging) is the simplest forging operation

 Weight of forgings: 15 – 500 kg, occasionally 300 tons
 Parts: From nails, pins, bolts to 23-m long shafts for ship propeller
 A solid workpiece placed between two flat dies and reduced in height by
Chiều cao giảm, đường kính tăng
compressing it (Fig. 4.22). The diameter of the forged part increases.
Upsetting (Flat-die forging) kim loại bị biến dạng tự do
ko gh

Figure 4.22 (a) Solid cylindrical billet upset between two flat dies. (b) Uniform
deformation of the billet without friction. (c) Deformation with friction. Note barreling
(pancaking) of the billet caused by friction forces at the billet-die interfaces.
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 Cogging (Drawing out): an open-die forging operation, in which the thickness of a bar
or a ring is reduced by successive forging steps (bites) at specific intervals (Fig. 4.26).
 Blacksmiths use a similar procedure to reduce the thickness of parts in small increments
by heating the workpiece and hammering it numerous times.

Figure 4.26 Two views of a

cogging operation on a
rectangular bar. Blacksmiths use
this process to reduce the
thickness of bars by hammering
the part on an anvil. Note the
barreling of the workpiece.

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4.2.2. IMPRESSION-DIE AND CLOSED-DIE FORGING

Phương pháp dập

• In impression-die forging, the workpiece takes the shape of the die cavity
while being forged between two shaped dies (Fig. 4.28).
• Elevated temperature enhances ductility of forgings and reduces necessary
nung nóng tăng tính dẻo, giảm lực biến dạng
forces
• Flash: excessive material that flows out

Khuôn

Ba via: ý chỉ vật liệu thừa

Phôi

Khuôn

Figure 4.28 (a) – (c): Stages in impression-die forging of a solid round billet. Note the
formation of flash, which is excess metal that is subsequently trimmed off.

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Figure 4.28 (d): Standard

terminology for various
features of a forging die.

 Dies may be made of several pieces,

including die inserts (Fig. 4.29) and
particularly for complex shapes.
 The inserts are made of stronger and harder
materials, and can be replaced easily.

Figure 4.29 Die inserts used in dies for

forging an automotive axle housing.
Source: Metals Handbook, Desk
Edition. ASM International, Metals
Park, Ohio, 1985.
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dập thể tích

trong lòng khuôn hở

 Closed-die forging: In true

closed-die forging, flash does not
form (Flashless forging), and the
workpiece completely fills the die
cavity.
 Precision forging requires:
- Special and more complex dies
- Precise control of the blank’s
volume and shape Dập thể tích trong
lòng khuôn kín
- Accurate positioning of the blank
in the die cavity.

Figure 4.30 Comparison of a) closed-die forging with flash and b) precision or flashless
forging of a round billet. Source: H. Takemasu, V. Vazquez, B. Painter, and T. Altan.
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Seven typical steps in forging operation:

1. Prepare by shearing, sawing, cutting off Chia nhỏ ( vừa đủ)

2. Heat the workpiece and descaling it (for hot forging) nung nóng và tẩy lớp vẩy và oxit

3. Preheat and lubricate the dies (for hot forging); lubricate the blank Bôi trơn cho phôi
(for cold forging) Nung nóng và bôi trơn cho khuôn
rèn dập nhiều lần
4. Forge the billet in the appropriate dies and in the proper sequence
5. Clean the forging, check dimensions, machine it to complete if
Làm sạch kiểm tra
needed
6. Perform additional operations (straightening, heat treatment,
machining, grinding) thực hiện gia công hoàn thiện (xử lí nhiệt, cắt gọt, mài, làm thẳng

7. Inspect the forging for defects Loại bỏ khuyết tật

Quality of forgings:
Tolerances ±0.5 to 1.0% for the dimensions of the forging (usually
< ±6mm for steel hot forging, ±0.25mm for precision forging)

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4.2.3. DIE DESIGN, DIE MATERIALS, AND

LUBRICATION
 Die design depends on:
• Knowledge and experience on workpiece shape, complexity; its ductility,
strength, sensitivity to deformation rate and temperature; its frictional
properties; high load die distortion and dimensional considerations;
• The part will flow in the direction of least resistance
• Workpiece intermediate shapes are to enable proper filling of the die cavities:

Figure 4.41
Stages in forging
a connecting rod
for an internal
combustion
engine. Note the
amount of flash
that is necessary
to fill the die
cavities properly.

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 Die material requirements:

độ bền và chịu va đập
• Strength and toughness at elevated temperatures
• Hardenability and ability to hardened uniformly
• Resistance to mechanical and thermal shock
• Wear resistance tính chịu mòn
 Die materials: Cr, Ni, ..

• Die steels containing Chromium, Nickel, Molybdenum, Vanadium

 Lubrication:
• To reduce friction giảm ma sát
• To act as thermal barrier between the hot workpiece and the relatively cold die
tránh bám dính
• To act as a parting agent (to prevent sticking of forging to the die and facilitate
removal of forging from the die)

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4.2.4. FORGING MACHINES

 A variety of forging machines are available with a range of capacities, speeds, and
speed-stroke characteristics .
tốc độ dập

Figure 4.42 Schematic illustration of various types of forging machines.

(a) Mechanical press with an eccentric drive; the eccentric shaft can be replaced by
a crankshaft to give the up and down motion to the ram
(b) Knuckle-joint press
(c) Screw press
(d) Hydraulic press
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4.3. Extrusion and Drawing of Metals

PP Ép

 Extrusion:  Extrusion is pushing a cylindrical billet through a die (like squeezing

toothpaste from a tube).
 Various solid or hollow cross sections may be
produced by extrusion
 Feature: Large deformation with no fracture due to
high triaxial compression, and constant cross section of
products (unchanged die geometry) during extrusion
operation.
Typical products and materials: railings for sliding
doors, window frames, tubing, aluminum ladders, etc.;
Al, Cu, steel, Mg, Pb, plastics
Extrusion can be cut into desired lengths (Fig. 4.43).

Figure 4.43 Extrusions, and examples

of products made by sectioning off
extrusions. Source: Kaiser Aluminum.

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Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

PP Kéo

 Drawing: Kéo vật qua khuôn

 Drawing is reducing cross-section of solid rod, wire, or tubing by pulling it
through a die called a draw die (can also change shape).
 Dates back to 1000 – 1500 A.D.
 Products: Shafts, spindles, small pistons, rivets, bolts, screws, profiles.

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4.3.1. THE EXTRUSION PROCESS

Ép thuận

 Direct or forward extrusion:

 A billet is placed in a chamber (container), forced through a die opening by a
hydraulic driven ram (pressing stem or punch) (Fig. 4.44).
 Die opening may be round or of different shape
 Dummy block protects the tip of the punch

Figure 4.44 Schematic illustration of the direct extrusion process.

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 Indirect (reverse, inverted or backward) extrusion: The die moves

toward the unextruded billet (Fig. 4.45a).

Figure 4.45 (a) Schematic illustration of the indirect extrusion process.

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 Hydrostatic extrusion: The billet is smaller in diameter than the chamber (filled
with a fluid), and the pressure is transmitted to the billet by a ram (Fig. 4.45b).

Figure 4.45 (b) Schematic illustration of the hydrostatic extrusion process.

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Other types of extrusion: Lateral (or side) extrusion, and impact extrusion
(Fig. 4.45c and d).
 Lateral extrusion is used for the sheathing of wire and the coating of electric wire
with plastic.

Figure 4.45 (c) Schematic illustration of the lateral extrusion process.

d) Impact extrusion.
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 Variables in extrusion:

Relief angle

Figure 4.46 Process variables in direct extrusion: The die angle , reduction in cross-
section (the extrusion ratio) R = A0/Af, extrusion speed, billet temperature, and lubrication
all affect the extrusion pressure.

 Extrusion force:
 Depends on: Phụ thuộc vào

- Strength of the billet material; Độ bền phôi

- The extrusion ratio R (R = A0/Af,);
- Friction between the billet and the chamber and die surfaces, Ma sát giữa phôi và khuôn
- Billet temperature and speed of extrusion Nhiệt độ và tốc độ ép
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 Metal flow in extrusion

 The metal flow influence the quality and the mechanical properties of the extruded
product.
 A common technique for investigating the flow pattern is to section the round billet in
half lengthwise and then mark one face with a square grid pattern (Fig. 4.48).
 Dead-metal zones in
Fig 4.48b and c, where
the metal at the corners
essentially is
stationary.

Figure 4.48 Types of metal flow in extruding with square dies (90o die angle). (a) Flow
pattern obtained at low friction, or in indirect extrusion. (b) Pattern obtained with high
friction at the billet-chamber interfaces. (c) Pattern obtained at high friction, or with
cooling of the outer regions of the billet in the chamber. This type of pattern, observed in
metals whose strength increases rapidly with decreasing temperature, leads to a defect
known as pipe, or extrusion defect.
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4.3.2. HOT EXTRUSION

Table 15.1 Typical Extrusion
• Materials not having sufficient ductility at Temperature Ranges for Various
room temperature need elevated Metals and Alloys
temperature extrusion (Table 15.1). C
• Problems: die wear; highly nonuniform die Lead 200–250
deformation; extrusion dies may be heated Aluminum and its alloys 375–475
to prolong die life; oxide film on hot billet Copper and its alloys 650–975
affecting flow pattern of the material; Steels 875–1300
Refractory alloys 975–2200

 Die material:
• Usually from hot-worked die steels Chịu nhiệt tốt
• Coatings may be applied to die surface to increase die life Phủ 1 lớp chịu mài mòn

 Lubrication: Bôi trơn

• Lubrication during hot extrusion affects: Material flow, surface finish and integrity,
product quality, and extrusion forces.
• Glass as lubricant for steels, stainless steels, refractory metals and alloys

Chapter 4 - 39
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4.3.3. COLD EXTRUSION

• Applications: Automotive and bicycle components; appliance and
machinery components

Comparison with hot extrusion: biến dạng củng cố

• Improved mechanical properties due to work-hardening nâng cao cơ tính do biến dạng củng cố
• Better tolerances
• Better surface finish Độ mịn tốtChi phí cao
• Production rates and costs comparable to machining (max. 2000 parts per hour per
máy có công suất lớn
machine)

Figure 4.53 Two

examples of cold
extrusion. Thin
arrows indicate the
direction of metal
flow during
extrusion.

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 Considerations: Chày ép Khuôn

• Severe stress load on tooling: punch must have hardness 60 – 65 HRC; die hardness 58
– 62 HRC. They must have sufficient strength, toughness,
độ dai va đập
wear resistance, and fatigue
độ bền chịu mài mòn
resistance tính dẻo dai

• Lubrication is important, especially for steels. Most common: application of a

phosphate-conversion coating on the workpiece, followed by a coating of soap or wax
• Tooling design: also important aspect

Figure 4.55 A
cross-section of
the metal part in
Fig. 4.54,
showing the grain
flow pattern.
Source: National
Machinery
Company.
Figure 4.54 Production steps for a cold
extruded spark plug. Source: National
Machinery Company.

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1) Impact Extrusion
Dập ép

 Features:
• Similar to indirect extrusion
• Punch descends rapidly on the
blank (slug)
• Production of collapsible tubes,
light fixtures, automotive parts,
small pressure vessels
• Max. Diameter 150mm (of parts)
• Thickness down to 0.005mm
• Symmetry of part, concentricity
of the punch and the blank: very
important

Figure 4.56 Schematic illustration of the impact-

extrusion process. The extruded parts are stripped
by the use of a stripper plate, because they tend to
stick to the punch.

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2) Hydrostatic Extrusion
ép thủy lực

áp lục ép rất lớn

• Pressure: ~ 1400 MPa

• Usually carried out at room
temperature có thể ép nhiết độ phòng
• Vegetable oil (castor oil) as the
fluid phù hợp cho vật liệu giòn

• Suitable to brittle materials

• Long wire with extrusion ratio
of 14,000 (1m billet = 14km
long wire)
• Limited application due to
complex tooling, high
pressure, long cycle time, and
special machines
Figure 4.57 (b) Schematic illustration of the
hydrostatic extrusion process.

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4.3.4. THE DRAWING PROCESS

 Application:
• Rod and wire products: Shafts for
power and motion transmission,
machine and structural components
• Blanks for bolts and rivets, electrical
wiring, cables, tension-load structural Figure 4.60 Process variables in wire drawing. The
die angle, the reduction in cross-sectional area per
members, welding electrodes, springs, pass, the speed of drawing, the temperature, and the
paper clips, bicycle wheel spokes, lubrication all affect the drawing force, F.
stringed musical instruments
 Process variables: Cross-sectional area (A0 and Af), die angle (), die-workpiece
interface friction (μ), drawing speed

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 Drawing force F:
• F increases as reduction increases.
F to the limit when tensile stress
reaches the yield stress of the
material being drawn
• Thus, for ideal and frictionless
conditions, the maximum reduction
in cross-sectional area per pass
without failure is 63% (diameter
góc nghiêng càng lớn thì lực kéo càng lớn
from 10 mm to 6.1mm), usually ~
45%
• Also, there is an optimum die angle
at which the drawing force is
Floating
minimum
 Drawing of other shapes: Figure 4.61 Examples of tube-drawing operations,
• Tube drawing: Dia. Max. 0.3m with and without an internal mandrel. Note that a
(Fig. 4.61) variety of diameters and wall thicknesses can be
• Wedge-shaped dies: for drawing of produced from the same initial tube stock (which
flat strips (limited use) has been made by other processes).

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4.3.5. DRAWING PRACTICE

 Cross-sectional area reduction per pass:

• Usually ~ 45%
• Small cross section needs small reduction (15 – 25% for fine wires; 20 – 45% for
larger wires). Reduction > 45% may lead to lubricant breakdown, failure.
• Large cross sections: Elevated temperature drawing to reduce forces
• Pointing: swaging of wire tip for feeding into die opening and subsequent pulling
 Drawing speed: kéo vật lớn

• Depends on material and reduction, from 1 to 2.5m/s (heavy sections) or up to 50m/s

(for very fine wires) kéo vật nhỉ
 Bundle drawing:
• Simultaneous drawing of many (100 or more) wires into very fine wires (~ 4μm)
• Applications: In electrically conductive plastics, heat resistant and electrically
conductive textiles, filter media, radar camouflage, medical implants
• The wires can be made from stainless steel, titanium, high temperature alloys

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 Die design:
• Die angle: 6 – 15o
• Land (the bearing surface) sets the final diameter of the product (sizing)
 Die materials:
• Tools steels and carbides; diamond dies for very fine wires (2μm – 1.5mm)
 Lubrication: kéo dây rất nhỏ

• Wet drawing: die and rod completely immersed in lubricant

• Dry drawing: surface of rod coated with lubricant (passing though stuffing box)

Drawing direction

Figure 4.63 Terminology of a typical die used Figure 4.64 Tungsten- carbide die insert
for drawing round rod or wire. in a steel casing. Diamond dies, used in
drawing thin wire, are encased in a similar
manner.
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4.4. Sheet-Metal Forming Processes

4.4.1. SHEARING
• Shearing is used to remove a blank from a
large sheet (coil) by subjecting it to shear
chày cối
stresses, with the use of a punch and a die
• Shearing starts with cracks on top and
bottom edges of the workpiece (points A
and B, C and D) (Fig. 16.1).
• These cracks eventually meet each other
when complete separation occurs
• Major process parameters:
• The shape of the punch and die
• The speed of punching FIGURE 4.69 Schematic
• Lubrication illustration of the shearing process
with a punch and die. This process
• The clearance, c, between the punch and with a punch and die. This process
the die is a common method of producing
various openings in sheet metals.

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• Increase in clearance leads to

larger zone of deformation and
rougher sheared edge
• Increase in punch speed can
improve edge quality (~ 10 –
12m/s)
• Edge work-hardening can
worsen formability in
subsequent operations dụng cụ cắt bị mòn
• Burr formation: Due to dull tool
tạo ra 3 via
edges, increased clearance and
ductility

khi chày dùng nhiều bị biến dạng dẫn đến tạo 3 via càng lớn

Figure 4.70 Characteristic features of (a) a punched

hole and (b) the punched slug. Note that the scales
of the two figures are different. The slug has been
sealed down as compared with the hole.
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1) Shearing Operations
Đục lỗ

 Punching: The sheared slug is scrap (Fig. 16.4a).

 Blanking: The slug is the part to be used and the rest is scrap.
Dập cắt

 Die cutting: Consists:

 Perforating: Punching a number of holes in a sheet đột lỗ ( đục 1 chuỗi lỗ)
 Parting: Shearing the sheet into two or more pieces dập cắt
 Notching: Removing pieces (or various shapes) from the edges
tạo vết khía
cắt loại bỏ

 Lancing: Leaving a tab without removing any material

cắt tạo hình hay còn gọi là cắt chích

Figure 4.72 (a) Punching (piercing) and blanking. (b) Examples of various shearing operations on
sheet metal.
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 Slitting
• Slit edge normally has a burr, which may be folded over the sheet surface by
rolling it (flattening) between 2 rolls.
• The blades follow either a straight line, a circular path, or a curved path.
• Improper slitting can lead to distortions of the sheared edges

Figure 4.74 Slitting with rotary knives.

This process is similar to opening cans.

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2) Tailor-welded Blanks

• Usually, blank is a one-piece sheet of one thickness, cut from a large sheet
• Tailor-welded blank (TWB): two or more blanks of different thicknesses, different
shapes (even different materials) are first laser welded together, then stamped
(formed) into a final shape.
• Typical application: automotive parts
• Advantages of TWB:
• Reduction in scrap
• Elimination of subsequent spot welding (car body for example)
• Better control of dimensions
• Improved productivity
• More efficient use of materials in terms of mechanical properties

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Figure 4.75 Production of an outer side panel of a car body, by laser butt-welding
and stamping. Source: After M. Geiger and T. Nakagawa.
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3) Characteristics and type of shearing dies

 Clearance:
 Depend on: - The type of material and its temper
- The thickness and size of the blankphôi
- Its proximity to the edge of other sheared edges or the edges of the original blank
 Clearances range ~ 2 – 8% of the sheet thickness (1% in fine blanking; max. 30%)
 Smaller clearance: Better quality of the edge
 Shaving is used for unacceptable quality of sheared edge (rough) (Fig. 4.77).
 Clearance for soft materials; less than for harder grades
 Thicker sheets require larger clearance
 Ratio of hole diameter to sheet thickness decreases, clearances should be larger

FIGURE 4.77 Schematic

illustrations of shaving on a
sheared edge. (a) Shaving a
sheared edge. (b) Shearing
and shaving, combined in
one stroke.

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 Punch and die shape: Bevelling: of the punch and die surfaces
 Reduces the force at the beginning of the stroke (especially for thicker sheets)
 Reduces operation’s noise level
 In Fig. 4.78c, the punch tip is symmetrical, in Fig, 4.78d, the die is symmetrical
 There no lateral forces acting on the punch
 The punch in Fig. 4.78b has a single taper  The punch subjected to a lateral
force.

Figure 4.78 Examples of the use of shear angles on punches and dies.

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4.4.2. SHEET-METAL CHARACTERISTICS AND FORMABILITY
 After a blank is cut from a larger sheet or coil, it is formed into various shapes by
several processes described below.
4.4.3. FORMABILITY TESTS FOR SHEET METALS
• Two basic modes of sheet (a)
metal deformation
• Stretching Blank holder
• Drawing
• Types of tests
• Cupping test: easy to perform,
suitable to simple parts only
• Forming-limit diagrams (FLD): Die
for more complicated parts

Figure 4.80 (a) A cupping test (the Erichsen (b)

test) to determine the formability of sheet
metals. (b) Bulge tests results on steel sheets of
various widths. The first specimen (farthest
left) stretched farther before cracking than the
last specimen. From left to right, the state of
stress changes from uniaxial to biaxial
stretching. Source: Courtesy of R. W.
Thompson, Inland Steel Research Laboratories. Chapter 4 - 56
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

• By comparing surface area of the deformed circle against the original

circle on the formed sheet, the change in thickness of the sheet can be
determined (larger area means the sheet has become thinner).

Figure 4.81 The deformation of the

grid pattern and the tearing of sheet
metal during forming. The major and
minor axes of the circles are used to
determine the coordinates on the
forming-limit diagram in Fig. 16.14b.
Source: S. P. Keeler.

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4.4.4. BENDING SHEETS, PLATES AND TUBES

• Bended products examples: car body, paper clip,
appliances, etc. tăng độ cứng vững
• Bending can increase stiffness of the parts by increasing its
moment of inertia (without adding any weight)

Tension in outer fibres

Lb

Compression
Bend in inner fibres
angle

Figure 4.82 Bending terminology. Note that

the bend radius is measured to the inner surface
of the bent part.

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• Bendability of metals can be increased by increasing their R values,

either by heating or by bending in a high-;pressure environment.
• Bendability decreases as edge roughness increases.
• Inclusions, especially stringers also decrease bendability
• Anisotropy can have influence on bendability.

 Springback: Some elastic recovery when the load is removed (Fig. 4.85).
đàn hồi

Figure 4.85 Springback in bending.

The part tends to recover elastically
after ending, and its bend radius
becomes larger. Under certain
conditions, it is possible for the final
bend angle to be smaller than the
original angle (negative springback).

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 In V-die bending, it is possible for the material to also exhibit negative

springback. This condition is caused by the nature of the deformation occurring
just as the punch completes the pending operation at the end of the stroke.

Figure 4.86 Schematic illustration of the stages in bending round wire

in a V-die. This type of bending can lead to negative springback.
Source: After K. S. Turke and S. Kalpakjian.

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Bù lại đàn hồi

 Compensation for springback:

• Sprinback in forming operation usually is compensated by overbending the part
(Fig. 4.87a and b).
• Another method is to coin the bend area by subjecting it to highly localized
compressive stresses between the tip of the punch and the die surface (Fig. 4.87c
and d) – a technique known as bottoming the punch.
• Another method is stretch bending (the part is tensioned while being bent).
kéo uốn bị kéo dãn trong khi uốn

Figure 4.87 Methods of

reducing or eliminating
springback in bending
operations. Source: V.
Cupka, T. Nakagawa, and H.
Tyamoto.

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4.4.5. MISCELLANEOUS BENDING AND

RELATED OPERATIONS
 Press Brake Forming:
 The machine utilizes long dies in a mechanical or hydraulic press.
 The tooling is simple, their motions are only up and down, and they easily are
adaptable to a wide variety of shapes (Fig. 4.89).

Figure 4.89 (a)

through (e)
Schematic
illustrations of
various bending
operations in a
press brake. (f)
Schematic
illustration of a
press brake.
Source: Verson
Allsteel
Company.

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 Bending in a four-slide bending machine (Fig. 4.90b)

 The lateral movement to form of the die are controlled and synchronized with the
đồng bộ, đồng thời
vertical die movement to form the part into desired shapes.
 Products: Seamed tubing and conduits, bushings, fasteners, …
Lốc ống bằng 3 trụ cán

 Roll bending: pp lốc ống

 By adjusting the distance

between the three rolls,
various curvatures can be
obtained (Fig. 4.90d).
 The bending of a trip
with compliant roll made
of polyurethane, which
uốn cong về
hướng trục bé
conform to shape change
as the hard upper roll
presses upon the trip.
Figure 4.90 Examples of
various bending
do kích thước 2 trụ cán khác nhau operations.
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 Beading
 The periphery of the sheet metal is bent into the cavity of a die (Fig. 4.91).
 The bead increases the moment of inertia of that section, improves the appearance
of the part and eliminate exposed sharp edges.

Figure 4.91 (a) Bead forming with a single die. (b) Bead forming with two dies, in
a press brake.

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Dập vành

 Flanging:
 Is a process of bending the edges of sheet metals, usually 90o (Fig. 4.92).
 The wrinkling in shrink flanging (subjected to compressive stresses) tendency
increase with decreasing radius of curvature of the flange.
 Cracking can occur in stretch flanging (subjected to tensile stresses).

Figure 4.92 Various flanging

operations. (a) Flanges on a
flat sheet. (b) Dimpling. (c)
The piercing of sheet metal to
form a flange. In this
operation, a hole does not
have to be prepunched before
the bunch descends. Note,
however, the rough edges
along the circumference of
the flange. (d) The flanging
of a tube; note the thinning of
the edges of the flange.

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Cán biên dạng

 Roll forming Tùy vào hình dạng trục cán có thể cán thành sản phẩm khác nhau

 Roll forming is also called contour-roll forming or cold-roll forming, is used for
forming continuous lengths of metal and large production runs.

Figure 4.93 Schematic illustration of the

roll-forming process (left).
Examples of roll-formed cross-sections
(right), Source: Sharon Custom Metal
Forming, Inc.
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 Tube bending
 Internal mandrels, or the filling of tubes with particulate materials such as sand, are often
necessary to prevent collapse of the tubes during bending.
 Tubes also can be bent by a technique consisting of a stiff, helical tension spring slipped
over the tube.
 The clearance between outer diameter (OD) of the tube and the inner diameter (ID) of
the spring is small, thus the tube cannot kink and the bend is uniform.
 Solid rods and structural shapes can also be bent by these techniques. uốn ống bằng cách dùng cát nhét
trong ống và bịt chặt 2 đầu rồi uốn

Figure 4.95
Methods of
bending tubes.

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 Tube forming
 Forming tubes and tubular shapes (exhaust pipes, fuel filler tubes, …) can be done using
internal fluid pressure with the ends of the tubes sealed by mechanical means.
 The part is expanded in a split-female die at pressures.

Figure 4.96 A method of forming a tube with sharp angles, using axial compressive forces.
Compressive stresses are beneficial in forming operations because they delay fracture. Note that the
tube is supported internally with rubber or fluid to avoid collapsing during forming. Source: After J.
L. Remmerswaal and A. Verkaik.
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 Bulging
 This process involves placing a tubular, conical, or curvilinear part into a split-female die
and then expanding it, usually with polyurethane (Fig. 4.97a)

Figure 4.97 (a) The bulging of a tubular part with a flexible plug. Water pitchers can
be made by this method. (b) Production of fittings for plumbing, by expanding
tubular blanks under internal pressure. The bottom of the piece is then punched out to
produce a "T." Source: J. A. Schey, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes (2d ed.)
New York: McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, 1987.
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kéo uốn

 Stretch Forming
 The sheet metal is clamped along its edges and then stretched over a male die (Fig. 4.98).
 Products: Aircraft wing-skin panel, fuselages, boat hulls, …

Figure 4.98 Schematic illustration of a stretch-forming process. Aluminum skins

for aircraft can be made by this method. Source: Cyril Bath Co.

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4.4.6. DEEP DRAWING kéo

Dập sâu

 Cylindrical, box-shaped parts (pots,

pans, beverage containers, automotive
fuel tanks, etc.): are drawn (Fig.
4.100).
Khi dập xuống sẽ kéo căng vật ra

Figure 4.100 The metal- forming

processes involved in manufacturing a
two-piece aluminium beverage can

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Dập sâu không làm mỏng thành

- Giữ nguyên chiều dày

 A punch forces a flat sheet-metal

blank into a die cavity (Fig. 4.101a).
 Drawing process:
- A round sheet-metal blank is
placed over a circular die opening
- It is held in place with a blank-
holder (hold-down ring)
- A punch travels downward and
forces the blank into a die cavity,
forming a cup.
 After being drawn, parts may be
deep, with moderate depth, or shallow.
Figure 4.101 (a) Schematic illustration of the
deep-drawing process on a circular sheet-metal
blank. The stripper ring facilitates the removal of
the formed cup from the punch.
 Movement of the blank into the die cavity leads to compressive hoop
(circumferential) stresses in the flange.
 Wrinkling is prevented by keeping blankholder under certain force (as function
of punch travel).
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1) Deep drawability
• Deep Drawability is expressed in LDR (limiting drawing ratio) as LDR = D0 / Dp,
where D0 is maximum blank diameter; Dp is punch diameter
• LDR is a function of the normal (or plastic) anisotropy, R.
2) Deep drawing practice
• Blankholder pressure should be 0.7% to 1% of the sum of YS and UTS of the sheet
metal. Too high pressure: punch force increase, may lead to tearing of cup wall. Too
low pressure: wrinkling will occur
• Clearance should be 7% to 14% greater than sheet thickness. Too small clearance: the
punch may pierce or shear the blank
• The die corner radius should generally be 5 to 10 times the sheet thickness. Too small
corner radii of the punch and of the die cause fracture at the corner. Too large corners:
the cup wall may wrinkle (puckering)
Figure 4.108 Effect of die and punch
corner radii in deep drawing on fracture
of a cylindrical cup. (a) Die corner
radius too small. (b) Punch corner radius
too small. Because friction between the
cup and the punch aids in the drawing
operation, excessive lubrication of the
punch is detrimental to drawability.
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 Draw Beads (Fig. 4.109)

 Often are necessary to control the flow of the blank into the die cavity.
 Restrict the free flow of the sheet metal by bending and unbending it during the
drawing cycle (by increasing the force necessary to pull the sheet into the die cavity)
 Help to reduce the required blankholder force (due to their higher stiffness), and thus
the wrinkling tendency
 Have diameters 13 – 20mm
 Are useful in drawing box-shape and nonsymmetric parts

Figure 4.109 (a) Schematic

illustration of a draw bead. (b) Metal
flow during the drawing of a box-
shaped part, while using beads to
control the movement of the material.
(c) Deformation of circular grids in
the flange in deep drawing. Source:
After S. Keeler.

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Dập sâu làm mỏng thành

 Ironing process:
 Controls the thickness of the cup wall (by
pushing the drawn cup through one or
more ironing rings)
 The clearance between the ironing rings
and the punch is less than the cup wall
thickness
 Thus, the cup after ironing has constant
wall thickness (= clearance).

Figure 4.110 Schematic illustration of the ironing

process. Note that the cup wall is thinner than its bottom.
All beverage cans without seams (known as two-piece
cans) are ironed, generally in three steps, after being
deep drawn into a cup. (Cans with separate tops and
bottoms are known as three-piece cans.)

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 Redrawing Operations

Figure 4.111 Reducing the

diameter of drawn cups by
redrawing operations: (a)
conventional redrawing and
(b) reverse redrawing. Small-
diameter deep containers
undergo many drawing and
redrawing operations.

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 Drawing without blankholder: nếp nhăn

• is possible if the sheet is thick enough to prevent wrinkling: D0 – Dp < 5T

D0 is maximum blank diameter
Dp is maximum punch diameter

Figure 4.112 Deep drawing without a blankholder, using a tractrix die profile. The tractrix is a
special curve, the construction for which can be found in texts on analytical geometry or in
handbooks.

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Dập nông

 Embossing:
 Is an operation consisting of shallow or moderate draws made with male or female
matching shallow (Fig. 4.113).

Figure 4.113 An embossing operation with two dies. Letters, numbers, and designs
on sheet-metal parts and thin ash trays can be produced by this process.

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 Tooling and equipment for drawing:

Vật liệu làm khuôn và dụng cụ
• Tool and die materials: Tool steels and cast irons, carbides, plastics
• Typical equipment: Double action hydraulic press or mechanical press
Dùng cơ lực
Dùng thủy lực

Figure 4.114 Double crank straight side power press for

blanking, drawing, trimming, forming of relatively thick
metal parts. Source: Southern Industrial Equipment, Inc.

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4.4.7. RUBBER FORMING

• In rubber forming (also known as the Guerin process), one of the dies in a set
is made of a flexible die, typically a polyurethane (is resistant to abrasion, to
cutting/tearing by burrs/sharp edges; has long fatigue life).
• In the bending and embossing of sheet metal, the female die is replaced with
(a) a rubber pad (Fig. 4.115).
(b)
Pressure ~ 10MPa

Rubber pad
Figure 4.115. Examples of the bending and the embossing of sheet metal with a
metal punch and with a flexible pad serving as the female die. Source: Polyurethane
Products Corporation.
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 Hydroform or fluid-forming Process (Fig. 4.116)

 The pressure over the rubber membrane is controlled throughout the forming cycle.
 This procedure allows close control of the part during forming and prevents
wrinkling or tearing.

Figure 4.116 The hydroform (or fluid forming) process. Note that, in contrast to the
ordinary deep-drawing process, the pressure in the dome forces the cup walls against the
punch. The cup travels with the punch; in this way, deep drawability is improved.
Max. 100MPa of pressure.

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Tube-Hydroforming Process (Fig. 4.117)

 Metal tubing is formed in a die and pressurized internally by a fluid.
 Products: Automotive-exhaust and tubular structural components.

FIGURE 4.117 (a) Schematic illustration of the tube-hydroforming process. (b)

Example of tube-hydroformed parts. Automotive exhaust and structural components,
bicycle frames, and hydraulic and pneumatic fittings are produced through tube
hydroforming. Source: Schuler GmbH.

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4.4.8. SPINNING phương pháp miết

 Spinning process
 Forming of axisymmetric parts over a mandrel by the use of tools/rollers
 Parts can be: e.g. aluminum kitchen utensils and light reflectors
 Conventional spinning: A circular blank of flat or preformed sheet
metal is placed and held against a mandrel and rotated while a rigid tool deforms
and shapes the materials over mandrel (Fig. 4.118).

Figure 4.118 (a) Schematic illustration of the conventional spinning process. (b) Types of
parts conventionally spun. All parts are axisymmetric.
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 Shear spinning (also known as power spinning, flo turning,

hydrospinning, and spin forging):
 Produces an axisymmetric conical or curvillinear shape, reducing the sheet’s
thickness while maintaining its maximum (blank) diameter (Fig. 4.119).

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 4.119 (a) Schematic illustration of the shear spinning

process for making conical parts. The mandrel can be shaped
so that curvilinear parts can be spun. (b) and (c) Schematic
illustration of the tube spinning process.

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• Spinnability: is the maximum

reduction in thickness to
which a part can be subjected
by spinning without fracture.
Tensile reduction of area of
≥ 50% can mean 80%
reduction of thickness in just
one spinning.

Figure 4.120 Schematic illustration of a shear-spinnability test. As the

roller advances, the part thickness is reduced. The reduction in thickness at
fracture is called the maximum spinning reduction per pass. Source: After
R. L. Kegg.

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 Tube spinning
 The thickness of hollow, cylindrical blanks is reduced or shaped by spinning
them on a solid, round mandrel using roller (Fig. 4.121).

Tube And Shear

Spinning of
Compressor Shaft

Figure 4.121 Steps in

tube and shear spinning
of a compressor shaft for
the Olympus jet engine
of the supersonic
Concorde aircraft.

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4.4.9. SUPERPLASCTIC FORMING

biến dạng siêu dẻo

• Superplasticity: the ability of material to

undergo extreme elongation allowing for
deep drawn, intricate shapes.
• Superplastic Forming (SPF): a process by
which extremely complex parts are produced
from a single sheet of superplastic material.
• Superplastic alloys: Zn-22Al, Ti-6Al-4V, etc.
• In the SPF process, a sheet of material is
placed into a hot open die and heated to the
superplastic temperature (typically 9540°C
for Ti-alloys, 524°C for Al-alloys). Figure 4.122. Example of a SPF
product. Source: ACCUDYNE
• The die is closed, and a relatively low gas ENGINEERING and EQUIPMENT
pressure is applied at a controlled rate to fully COMPANY
form the complex part geometry. The high
forming temperatures inherent in the SPF
process effectively stress relieves the finished
formed parts.
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liên kết khuếch tán

 Diffusion Bonding and Superplastic Forming

 Fabricating complex sheet-metal structures by combining, diffusion bonding
with superplastic forming (SPF/DB) (Fig. 4.123).

Figure 4.123 Types of structures

made by diffusion bonding and
superplastic forming of sheet metal.
Such structures have a high
stiffness-to-weight ratio. Source:
Rockwell International Corp.

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4.4.10. SPECIALIZED FORMING PROCESSES

 Explosive Forming biến dạng bằng chất nổ

 Explosives can be used as a source of energy for sheet-metal forming (Fig. 4.124).
 The air in the die cavity is evacuated, an explosive charge is placed at a certain
height, and the charge is detonated.

Figure 4.124 (a) Schematic illustration of the explosive forming process.

(b) Illustration of the confined method of explosive bulging of tubes.

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 Magnetic-pulse Forming
 In magnetic-pulse forming or electromagnetic forming, the energy stored in a
capacitor blank is discharged rapidly through a magnetic coil.

Figure 4.125 (a) Schematic illustration of the magnetic-pulse forming

process used to form a tube over a plug. (b) Aluminum tube collapsed over
a hexagonal plug by the magnetic-pulse forming process.
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 Laser Forming biến dạng dùng laze

ứng suất nhiệt

• Laser forming process: Introducing thermal stresses into the surface of a

workpiece.
• These internal stresses induce plastic strains bending the material or result in
local elastic plastic buckling.
• The process is similar to torch flame bending used on large sheet material in
the ship building industry but a great deal more control of the final product can
be achieved. ứng suất nhiệt phải lớn hơn ứng suất đàn hồi

(a) (b)

Figure 4.127 (a) Laser forming lightly clamped, no hard tooling. (b)
Laser formed doubly curved sheets. Source:Manufacturing Research
Laboratory. Columbia Univeristy.
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biến dạng điện thủy lực

 Electrohydraulic Forming
 Also called underwater spark or electric-discharge forming
 The rapid discharge of the energy from a capacitor bank through the wire
generates a shock wave, similar to those created by explosives.
 The pressure developed in the water medium is sufficiently high to form the part.

Figure 4.128 Schematic illustration of the electrohydraulic-forming process.

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4.4.11. MANUFACTURING OF METAL

HONEYCOMB STRUCTURES cấu trúc tổ ong
 A honeycomb structure consist basically of a core of honeycomb or other corrugated shapes
bonded to two thin outer skins (Fig. 4.129).
 High stiffness-to-weight is an important consideration.
 Two basic method: Expansion process (Fig. 4.129a) and Corrugation process (Fig. 4.129b)

Figure 4.129 Methods of manufacturing

honeycomb structures: (a) Expansion
process; (b) Corrugation process; (c)
Assembling a honeycomb structure into a
laminate.

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4.4.12. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN

SHEET-METAL FORMING
 Blank design:
• Efficient nesting of parts reduces
scrap to minimum (Fig. 4.130).
• Nesting sotfware can be
integrated in CNC sheet forming
machines.

Figure 4.130 Efficient nesting of parts for

optimum material utilization in blanking.
Source: Society of Manufacturing
Engineers.

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 Bending:
• Material fracture, wrinkling, inability to form the bend must be limited.
• Using flanges to avoid buckling (Fig. 4.131)

FIGURE 4.131 Control of tearing and buckling of a flange in a right-angle bend.

Source: Society of Manufacturing Engineers.
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• Using notches to avoid tearing (Fig. 4.132)

Figure 4.132 Application of notches to avoid tearing and wrinkling in right-

angle bending operations. Source: Society of Manufacturing Engineers.

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• Using large radii to reduce stress concentrations (Fig. 4.133)

Figure 4.1334 Stress concentrations near bends. (a) Use of a crescent or ear
for a hole near a bend. (b) Reduction of the severity of a tab in a flange.
Source: Society of Manufacturing Engineers.
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 Using scoring, embossing (Fig. 4.134)

 Stamping and progressive-die operations:
 Hold the number of features to a minimum in order to minimize tooling costs.
 Closely spaced features may provide insufficient clearance for punches and may
require two punches.
 Deep drawing:
 Relief angles of at least 3o on each wall are easier to produce a vertical wall in a
deep-drawn cup.
 Cups with sharp internal radii are difficult to produce.

Figure 4.134 Application of scoring of embossing to obtain a sharp

inner radius in bending. Unless properly designed, these features can
lead to fracture. Source: Society of Manufacturing Engineers.

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4.5. Processing of Metal Powders LUYỆN KIM BỘT

 Definition: Powder metallurgy (P/M) is the process, in which metal

powders are compacted into desired shapes and heated without
melting (sintered) to form solid shapes.

4.5.1. PRODUCTION OF METAL POWDERS

Figure 4.135 Outline of processes and operations involved in making powder-metallurgy parts.
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1) Methods of powder production

• Most metal powders can be made by several methods. The choice depends on
requirements of end product .
• The microstructure, bulk and surface properties, chemical purity, porosity, shape,
size distribution of the particles depend on the process used.
• These properties determine flow and permeability during compaction and sintering
operations
• Particle size: 0.1 – 1000μm.

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 Atomization
 Atomization produces a liquid-metal stream by injecting molten metal through a small orifice.
 The stream is broken up by jets of inert gas or air – Gas atomization (Fig. 4.136a) or water –
Water atomization (Fig. 4.136b).

Figure 4.136 Methods of metal-powder production by atomization; (a) gas atomization;

(b) water atomization.
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• The size and the shape of the particles formed depends on the temperature of the
molten metal, rate of flow, nozzle size, and jet characteristics.
• In centrifugal atomization, the molten-metal stream drops onto a rapidly rotating
disk or cup, so that centrifugal forces break up the molten-metal stream (Fig.
4.136c). In another variation of this method, a consumable electrode is rotated
rapidly in a helium-filled chamber (Fig. 4.136d).
(d)
Figure 4.136
Methods of metal-
powder production
by atomization; (c)
centrifugal
atomization with a
spinning disk or
cup, (d)
atomization with a
rotating
consumable
electrode;

Điện cực nóng chảy

Điện cực không nóng chảy Chapter 4 - 102
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2) Particle size, shape and distribution

• Particle size is measured by screening through sieves. Mesh size is indirectly
proportionate to sieve opening.
• Particle shape is characterized by aspect ratio (ratio of the largest dimension to the
smallest one of the particle), usually 1 – 10.
• Shape factor (SF), also called shape index, is the ratio of the surface area of the
particle to its volume.

Figure 4.140 (a) A plot of the weight of particles as a function of particle size. The most populous
size is termed the mode. In this case, it is between 75µm and 90µm. (b) Cumulative particle-size
distribution as a function of weight. Source: Reprinted with permission from Randall M. German,
Powder Metallurgy Science, Princeton, NJ: Metal Powder Industries Federation, 1984. Chapter 4 - 103
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3) Blending metal powders

* Purpose of mixing
powders:
- To create special physical
& mechanical properties
and characteristics, e.g.
alloying.
- To obtain uniformity,
even in case of a single
metal. Figure 4.141 Common
equipment geometries for mixing
- To improve powder flow or blending powders: (a)
characteristics by mixing cylindrical, (b) rotating cube, (c)
double cone, and (d) twin shell.
with lubricants. Source: Reprinted with
permission from R. M. German,
- To use additives to Powder Metallurgy Science.
Princeton, NJ; Metal Powder
facilitate sintering. Industries Federation, 1984.

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4.5.2. COMPACTION OF METAL POWDERS

1) Equipment
thép cacbon 250 MPa là bị phá hỏng

• Pressure for metal powders: 70 – 800

MPa.
• Press capacity: 1.8 – 2.7 MN (200 – 300
lực ép rất cao
tons).
• Crank-, eccentric-type mechanical
presses.
• Toggle or knuckle joint presses.
• Hydraulic press (up to 45MN).

Figure 4.142: A 7.3 MN (825-ton) mechanical press

for compacting metal powder. Source: Courtesy of
Cincinnati Incorporated.

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2) Isostatic pressing
 Hot isostatic pressing (HIP) ép nóng

• Pressure: 100 MPa

• Pressurizing medium: inert gas or vitreous fluid
• Temperature: up to 1200 oC.
• Typical high density products: superalloy component in aircraft, tungsten carbide
cutting tools, tool steels.
Figure 4.143 Schematic
illustration of hot isostatic
pressing (HIP). The pressure and
temperature variation vs. time are
shown in the diagram. Source:
Preprinted with permission from
R.M. German, Powder
Metallurgy Science. Princeton,
NJ; Metal Powder Industries
Federation, 1984.

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ép nguội

 Cold isostatic pressing (CIP)

• Pressure: 400 MPa, sometimes up
to 1000 MPa.
• Typical product: automotive cylinder
liner.

Figure 4.144 Schematic diagram of

cold isostatic pressing (CIP), as applied
to forming a tube. The powder is
enclosed in a flexible container around
a solid core rod. Pressure is applied
isostatically to the assembly inside a
high-pressure chamber. Source:
Reprinted with permission from R.M.
German, Powder Metallurgy Science.
Princeton, NJ; Metal Powder Industries
Federation, 1984.

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3) Miscellaneous compacting and shaping processes

ép tạo biên dạng

• Powder-injection molding (PIM):Đúc bột

• Also called metal-injection molding (MIM): blending of very fine metal powders (<
10μm) with 25 – 45% polymer or a wax-based binder, with subsequent die
casting-like processing. Parts undergo then debinding to remove the plastic, and
sintered at high temperature (e.g. 1375 oC)
• Powder rolling: Cán ép bột

Figure 4.145 An example of powder rolling.

Source: Metals Handbook (9th ed.), Vol. 7.
American Society for Metals.

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• Extrusion: Ép nén bột

• Compacting of powders by
extrusion: encasing in metal
thiêu kết
container, hot extruding, sintering,
further reheating and close-die
Dưới nhiệt độ nóng chảy nhưng phải dủ cao tạo
nhiệt độ liên kết
forging.
• Pressureless compaction:
• Filling metal powders by gravity in
a die. Application: filters.

Figure 4.146 Spray deposition (Osprey process) in

which molten metal is sprayed over a rotating mandrel
to produce seamless tubing and pipe.

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thiêu kết

4.5.3. SINTERING

• Sintering: green compacts are TABLE 17.2 Sintering Temperature and Time for
held in a controlled-atmosphere Various Metals
Temperature Time
furnace with temperature below
Material (° C) (Min)
melting point, but high enough Copper, brass, and bronze 760–900 10–45
to allow bonding of powders Iron and iron-graphite 1000–1150 8–45
• Temperature (0.7 – 0.9 melting Nickel 1000–1150 30–45
point), time (10 min. for Fe, 8 Stainless steels 1100–1290 30–60
Alnico alloys 1200–1300 120–150
hours for W, Ta) and furnace (for permanent magnets)
atmosphere (hydrogen, Ferrites 1200–1500 10–600
associated ammonia, nitrogen, Tungsten carbide 1430–1500 20–30
etc.; no oxygen) are important in Molybdenum 2050 120
Tungsten 2350 480
sintering. Tantalum 2400 480

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• Sintering mechanisms:
khuếch tán

• Diffusion: solid-state material transport

Hóa hơi

• Vapor-phase transport
Dạng lỏng

• Liquid-phase sintering

Figure 4.147 Schematic illustration of

two mechanisms for sintering metal
powders:
(a) solid-state material transport;
(b) liquid-phase material transport.
R = particle radius,
r = neck radius, and
r = neck profile radius.

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Biến dạng tạo hình của chất dẻo và vật liệu compozit

4.6. Forming and Shaping Plastics and

Composite Materials

Figure 4.148 Composite

Materials In Aircraft -
Source: FireNet
International web site,
http://www.fire.org.uk/avi
ation/library/comp.htm,
viewed 18 July 2003

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Chất dẻo nhiệt dẻo

1. Thermoplastics
cấu trúc hóa học
nhựa tái chế

giữ nguyên
 Chemical structure remains unchanged during
heating and shaping trong quá trình nhiệt và tạo hình

 More important commercially, comprising more

Được dùng phổ biến
than 70% of total plastics tonnage
Nhựa nhiệt cứng

2. Thermosets Ko thể tái chế

 Undergo a curing process during heating and

shaping, causing a permanent change
(cross-linking) in molecular structure
 Once cured, they cannot be remelted

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4.6.1. EXTRUSION Ép

• Widely used for thermoplastics and elastomers to mass produce

items such as tubing, pipes, hose, structural shapes, sheet and
film, continuous filaments, and coated electrical wire
• Carried out as a continuous process; extrudate is then cut into
desired lengths
• Most plastic products are made by extrusion
• Raw material (granules, pellets, powders) are placed into a
hopper, then fed into the barrel of a screw extruder.
• Breaker plate and die
• Typical ratio of barrel length L and its diametter D: from 5 – 30.
• Typical D = 25 – 300 mm.

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Figure 4.149 (a) Schematic illustration of a typical extruder. Source: Encyclopedia of

Polymer Science and Engineering (2nd ed.). Copyright © 1985. Reprinted by permission of
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Die Configurations and Extruded Products:

Đầu ra sẽ quyết định biên dạng của sản phẩm

 The shape of the die orifice determines the

cross-sectional shape of the extrudate
 Common die profiles and corresponding
extruded shapes:
 Solid profiles Đặc

 Hollow profiles, such as tubes rỗng

 Wire and cable coating bọc ( dây điện

 Sheet and film tạo ra tấm mỏng

 Filaments sợi

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1) Miscellaneous Extrusion Processes

 Extrusion of Solid Profiles:

 Regular shapes such as
 Rounds tròn

 Squares hình vuông

 Irregular cross sections such as

 Structural shapes
 Door and window moldings
 Automobile trim
 House siding

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 Hollow Profiles
 Examples: tubes, pipes, hoses, and other cross-sections
containing holes

 Wire and Cable Coating

 Polymer melt is applied to bare wire as it is pulled at high speed
through a die
 Wire provides rigidity during cooling - usually aided by passing
coated wire through a water trough .
 Polymer Sheet and Film
 Film - thickness below 0.5 mm.
 Packaging - product wrapping material, grocery bags, and garbage bags
 Stock for photographic film
 Pool covers and liners for irrigation ditches
 Sheet - thickness from 0.5 mm to about 12.5 mm
 Flat window glazing
 Thermoforming stock

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Extrusion Die for Coating Wire

Figure 4.151 Side view

cross-section of die
for coating of
electrical wire by
extrusion

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2) Production of Polymer Reinforcing Fibers

chất dẻo đc tăng cường bởi các sợi

Fiber and Filament Products

 Definitions:
Sợi ngắn
 Fiber - a long, thin strand whose length is at least 100 times its
cross-section
Sợi dài

 Filament - a fiber of continuous length

 Applications:
 Fibers and filaments for textiles
 Reinforcing materials in polymer composites
 Natural fibers (cotton, wool) constitute ~ 25% of total fiber market
 Synthetic fibers (polyester, nylon, …) constitute ~ 75% of total fiber
market

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Fiber and Filament Production - Spinning

 For synthetic fibers, spinning = extrusion of polymer melt or solution
through a spinneret, then drawing and winding onto a bobbin
khuôn có nhiều lỗ nhỏ
(Spinneret = die with multiple small holes)
 Starting polymer is heated to molten state and pumped through
spinneret

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4.6.2. INJECTION MOLDING

 Polymer is heated to a highly plastic state and forced to flow under high
pressure into a mold cavity where it solidifies and the molding is then
removed from cavity
 Complex and intricate shapes are possible
 Shape limitations:
 Capability to fabricate a mold whose cavity is the same geometry as part
 Shape must allow for part removal from mold
 Part size from ~ 50 g up to ~ 25 kg, e.g., automobile bumpers
 Injection molding is economical only for large production quantities
due to high cost of mold chỉ hiệu quả khi sản xuất số lượng lớn

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xilanh và piston

Dùng cơ cấu trục vít

Đúc ép

Figure 4.153 Schematic illustration of injection molding with (a) plunger, (b)
reciprocating rotating screw, (c) a typical part made from an injection molding machine
cavity, showing a number of parts made from one shot; note also mold features such as
sprues, runners, and gates.

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Polymer for Injection Molding:

 Injection molding is the most widely used molding
process for thermoplastics
 Some thermosets and elastomers are injection molded
 Modifications in equipment and operating parameters must
be made to avoid premature cross-linking of these materials
before injection
The Mold:
 The special tool in injection molding
 Custom-designed and fabricated for the part to be
produced
 When production run is finished, the mold is replaced
with a new mold for the next part

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Shrinkage Co ngót

 Reduction in linear size during cooling from molding to room

temperature
 Polymers have high thermal expansion coefficients, so significant
shrinkage occurs during solidification and cooling in mold

Shrinkage Factors yếu tố co ngót

 Fillers in the plastic tend to reduce shrinkage

 Injection pressure – higher pressures force more material into
mold cavity to reduce shrinkage
 Compaction time - similar effect – longer time forces more
material into cavity to reduce shrinkage
 Molding temperature - higher temperatures lower polymer melt
viscosity, allowing more material to be packed into mold to
reduce shrinkage

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Thermoplastic Foam Injection Molding

Molding of thermoplastic parts that possess dense outer skin
surrounding lightweight foam center
 Part has high stiffness-to-weight ratio suited to structural
applications
 Produced either by introducing a gas into molten plastic in
injection unit or by mixing a gas-producing ingredient with
starting pellets
 A small amount of melt is injected into mold cavity, where it
expands to fill cavity
 Foam in contact with cold mold surface collapses to form
dense skin, while core retains cellular structure

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Injection Molding of Thermosets

 Equipment and operating procedure must be modified
to avoid premature cross-linking of thermoset
polymer
 Reciprocating-screw injection unit with shorter barrel length
 Temperatures in barrel are relatively low
 Melt is injected into a heated mold, where
cross-linking occurs to cure the plastic
 Curing in the mold is the most time-consuming step in the
cycle
 Mold is then opened and part is removed

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Phương pháp thổi

4.6.3. BLOW MOLDING

Definition: Molding process in which air pressure is used to inflate soft

plastic into a mold cavity:
 Important for making one-piece hollow plastic parts with thin walls,
such as bottles
 Because these items are used for consumer beverages in mass
markets, production is typically organized for very high quantities
 Accomplished in two steps:
1. Fabrication of a starting tube, called a parison
2. Inflation of the tube to desired final shape
 Forming the parison is accomplished by either
 Extrusion or
 Injection molding

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 Extrusion Blow Molding:

Figure 4.159 Extrusion blow molding: (1) extrusion of parison; (2) parison is pinched at the top
and sealed at the bottom around a metal blow pin as the two halves of the mold come together; (3)
the tube is inflated so that it takes the shape of the mold cavity; and (4) mold is opened to remove
the solidified part.

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 Injection Blow Molding:

Figure 4.160 Injection blow molding: (1) parison is injected molded around a blowing rod; (2)
injection mold is opened and parison is transferred to a blow mold; (3) soft polymer is inflated to
conform to the blow mold; and (4) blow mold is opened and blown product is removed.

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4.6.4. THERMOFORMING
Gia công nhiệt

phim được nung nóng và tác động vào làm biến dạng theo hình dạng khuôn
tấm màng nhựa nhiệt hoặc
Definition: Flat thermoplastic sheet or film is heated and deformed into desired shape
using a mold
nung nóng
 Heating usually accomplished by radiant electric heaters located on one or both sides
of starting plastic sheet or film
màng nhựa và phim

 Widely used in packaging of products and to fabricate large items such as bathtubs,
sử dụng rộng rãi
contoured skylights, and internal door liners for refrigerators
Applications: để đóng gói
vỉ túi da

 Thin films: blister packs and skin packs for packaging commodity products such as
dụng cụ nhỏ
cosmetics, toiletries, small tools, and fasteners (nails, screws, etc.)
đồ dùng vệ sinh cấ nhân

 For best efficiency, filling process to containerize item(s) is immediately

downstream from thermoforming
tấm dày hơn bảng hiệu quảng cáo

 Thicker sheet stock: boat hulls, shower stalls, advertising displays and signs, bathtubs,
certain toys, contoured skylights, internal door liners for refrigerators
một số đồ chơi

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Figure 4.162 Various thermoforming processes for thermoplastic sheet. These processes are
commonly used in making advertising signs, cookie and candy trays, panels for shower stalls, and
packaging.

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Figure 4.163 Vacuum thermoforming: (1) a flat plastic

sheet is softened by heating. (2) the softened sheet is
placed over a concave mold cavity. (3) a vacuum draws the
sheet into the cavity. (4) plastic hardens on contact with the
cold mold surface, and the part is removed and
subsequently trimmed from the web.

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Figure 4.164 Use of a positive mold in vacuum thermoforming: (1) the heated plastic sheet is
positioned above the convex mold. (2) the clamp is lowered into position, draping the sheet over
the mold as a vacuum forces the sheet against the mold surface.

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Ép khuôn

4.6.5. COMPRESSION MOLDING

Dùng rộng rãi cho quá trình gcong nhựa nhiệt

 A widely used molding process for thermosetting plastics

dùng được cả cho cao su các vật liệu tổng hợp polyme

 Also used for rubber tires and polymer matrix composite parts
và

 Molding compound available in several forms: powders or pellets, liquid,

or preform
 Amount of charge must be precisely controlled to obtain repeatable
consistency in the molded product
 Molds for Compression Molding:
 Simpler than injection molds
 No sprue and runner system in a compression mold
 Process itself generally limited to simpler part geometries due to lower flow
capabilities of thermosetting materials
 Mold must be heated, usually by electric resistance, steam, or hot oil circulation

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Figure 4.165 Compression molding for thermosetting plastics: (1) charge is loaded, (2)
and (3) charge is compressed and cured, and (4) part is ejected and removed.

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4.6.6. TRANSFER MOLDING

 Charge is loaded into a chamber immediately ahead of

mold cavity, where it is heated; pressure is then applied to
force soft polymer to flow into heated mold where it cures
 Two variants:
 Pot transfer molding - charge is injected from a "pot" through
a vertical sprue channel into cavity
 Plunger transfer molding – plunger injects charge from a
heated well through channels into cavity

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 Pot Transfer Molding

Figure 4.167 (a) Pot transfer molding: (1) charge is loaded into pot, (2) softened
polymer is pressed into mold cavity and cured, and (3) part is ejected.

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 Plunger Transfer Molding

Figure 4.167 (b) plunger transfer molding: (1) charge is loaded into pot, (2)
softened polymer is pressed into mold cavity and cured, and (3) part is ejected.

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Compression vs. Transfer Molding

 In both processes, scrap is produced each cycle as leftover
material, called the cull
 The thermosetting scrap cannot be recovered
 Transfer molding is capable of molding more intricate part
shapes than compression molding but not as intricate as
injection molding
 Transfer molding lends itself to molding with inserts, in
which a metal or ceramic insert is placed into cavity prior
to injection, and the plastic bonds to insert during molding

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4.6.7. CASTING
 Pouring liquid resin into a mold, using gravity to fill
cavity, where polymer hardens
 Both thermoplastics and thermosets are cast
 Simpler mold
 Suited to low quantities
Casting, Potting and Encapsulation
Figure 4.169
Schematic
illustration of

(a) casting,

(b) potting,

(c) encapsulation
of plastics.

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4.6.8. FOAM MOLDING

 Polymer foam: A polymer-and-gas mixture that gives the material a

porous or cellular structure
 Properties of a Foamed Polymer
 Low density
 High strength per unit weight
 Good thermal insulation
 Good energy absorbing qualities

 Types of Polymer Foams

 Elastomeric - matrix polymer is a rubber, capable of large elastic
deformation
 Flexible - matrix is a highly plasticized polymer such as soft PVC
 Rigid - polymer is a stiff thermoplastic such as polystyrene or a
thermoset such as a phenolic.

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 Structural foam technology

is used for > 40 years.
 Elimination of sink marks by
adding a small amount of
blowing agents (i.e. baking
powder)
 Foam structure in core when
adding more blowing agent
 The pressure of the blowing
agent/or high pressure gas
works as holding pressure

Figure 4.170 Scaled up cross section of a structural foam

molding.
Source: http:// www.battenfeld.ru

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Low Pressure Injection Molding

Processes
 Very short filling time.
 Injection of melt is done after roughly
0,03 sec, die complete filling is done by
foaming.

Figure 4.171 (left) Cross section of a typical

structural foam molding, PS. (right)
Influence of filling time to foam structure.
Source: http:// www.battenfeld.ru

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Low Pressure Injection Molding Processes

 Molds with expanding cores.
 Better surface quality by injecting in lower wall thickness.

Figure 4.172 (left) Core in forward position; complete filling with melt.
(right) Core in backward position; foaming of the melt in skin lower density in the core.
Source: http:// www.battenfeld.ru

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4.6.9. COLD FORMING AND

SOLID-PHASE FORMING
 Cold Forming
 A process of changing the
shape, primarily
thermoplastics sheet or
billet in the solid phase,
through plastic
(permanent) deformation
with the use of pressure
dies
 The polymer must be
sufficiently ductile at
room temperature
(polystyrene, acrylics,
thermosets are not)
 Its deformation must be
nonrecoverable (to
minimize springback and Figure 4.173
creep of the formed part)

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 Cold forming: polypropylene (PP), polycarbonate (PC), ABS, rigid

PVC.
 Advantages
 Strength, toughness, uniform elongation
 Superior porperties of high molecular-weight plastics
 Forming speeds not affected by part thickness. Cycle times shorter than in
molding processes.

 Solid-phase (solid-state) forming:

 Processing temperature: 10 – 20 oC below the melting temperature
of the plastic (for a crystalline polymer)
 Forming operation takes place while the polymer is still in a solid
state

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