Course of materials sciences

INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING

Dr Nyatchouba Nsangue Bruno Thierry

PhD in Marine Technology
 Introduction
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
1. List six different property classifications of
materials that determine their applicability.
2. Cite the four components that are involved in
the design, production, and utilization of materials,
and briefly describe the interrelationships
between these components.
3. Cite three criteria that are important in the
materials selection process.
4. (a) List the three primary classifications of solid materials, and then cite the distinctive
chemical feature of each.
(b) Note the four types of advanced materials and, for each, its distinctive feature(s).
5. (a) Briefly define smart material/system.
(b) Briefly explain the concept of nanotechnology as it applies to materials.
 1.1 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
• Please take a few moments and reflect on what your life would be like without all of the materials that
exist in our modern world. Believe it or not, without these materials we wouldn’t have automobiles,
cell phones, the internet, airplanes, nice homes and their furnishings, stylish clothes, nutritious (also
“junk”) food, refrigerators, televisions, computers . . . (and the list goes on). Virtually every segment of
our everyday lives is influenced to one degree or another by materials. Without them our existence
would be much like that of our Stone Age ancestors.

• The earliest humans had access to only a very limited number of materials, those that occur naturally:
stone, wood, clay, skins, and so on. With time, they discovered techniques for producing materials that
had properties superior to those of the natural ones; these new materials included pottery and various
metals. Furthermore, it was discovered that the properties of a material could be altered by heat
treatments and by the addition of other substances. At this point, materials utilization was totally a
selection process that involved deciding from a given, rather limited set of materials, the one best suited
for an application by virtue of its characteristics. It was not until relatively recent times that scientists
came to understand the relationships between the structural elements of materials and their properties.
This knowledge, acquired over approximately the past 100 years, has empowered them to fashion, to a
large degree, the characteristics of materials.
 Why Study Materials Science and Engineering?

❑ Why do engineers and scientists study materials? Simply, because things engineers design are made of
materials. Many an applied scientist or engineer (e.g., mechanical, civil, chemical, electrical), is at one
time or another exposed to a design problem involving materials— for example, a transmission gear, the
superstructure for a building, an oil refinery component, or an integrated circuit chip. Of course,
materials scientists and engineers are specialists who are totally involved in the investigation and design
of materials.
❑ Many times, an engineer has the option of selecting a best material from the thousands available. The
final decision is normally based on several criteria. First, the in-service conditions must be characterized,
for these dictate the properties required of the material. Only on rare occasions does a material possess the
optimum or ideal combination of properties. Thus, it may be necessary to trade one characteristic for
another. The classic example involves strength and ductility; normally, a material having a high strength
has only a limited ductility. In such cases, a reasonable compromise between two or more properties may
be necessary.
 CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS

Solid materials have been conveniently grouped

into three basic categories: metals, ceramics, and
polymers, a scheme based primarily on chemical
makeup and atomic structure. Most materials fall
into one distinct grouping or another. In addition,
there are the composites that are engineered
combinations of two or more different materials. A
brief explanation of these material classifications
and representative characteristics is offered next.
Another category is advanced materials—those
used in high-technology applications, such as
semiconductors, biomaterials, smart materials, and
nanoengineered material
 1. Metals
• Metals are composed of one or more metallic elements (e.g., iron, aluminum, copper,
titanium, gold, nickel), and often also nonmetallic elements (e.g., carbon, nitrogen, oxygen)
in relatively small amounts.9 Atoms in metals and their alloys are arranged in a very orderly
manner (as discussed in Chapter 3) and are relatively dense in comparison to the ceramics
and polymers .With regard to mechanical characteristics, these materials are relatively stiff
and strong, yet are ductile (i.e., capable of large amounts of deformation without fracture),
and are resistant to fracture , which accounts for their widespread use in structural
applications. Metallic materials have large numbers of nonlocalized electrons—that is, these
electrons are not bound to particular atoms. Many properties of metals are directly
attributable to these electrons. For example, metals are extremely good conductors of
electricity and heat, and are not transparent to visible light; a polished metal surface has a
lustrous appearance. In addition, some of the metals (i.e., Fe, Co, and Ni) have desirable
magnetic properties.
Metallic bonds
– Strong, ductile, resistant to fracture
– High thermal & electrical conductivity
– Opaque, reflective.
 2. Ceramics
• Ceramics are compounds between metallic and nonmetallic elements; they are most frequently
oxides, nitrides, and carbides. For example, common ceramic materials include aluminum oxide (or
alumina, Al2O3), silicon dioxide (or silica, SiO2), silicon carbide (SiC), silicon nitride (Si3N4),
and, in addition, what some refer to as the traditional ceramics—those composed of clay minerals
(e.g., porcelain), as well as cement and glass. With regard to mechanical behavior, ceramic materials
are relatively stiff and strong—stiffnesses and strengths are comparable to those of the metals .

• In addition, they are typically very hard. Historically, ceramics have exhibited extreme brittleness
(lack of ductility) and are highly susceptible to fracture . However, newer ceramics are being
engineered to have improved resistance to fracture; these materials are used for cookware, cutlery,
and even automobile engine parts. Furthermore, ceramic materials are typically insulative to the
passage of heat and electricity (i.e., have low electrical conductivities,) and are more resistant to
high temperatures and harsh environments than are metals and polymers. With regard to optical
characteristics, ceramics may be transparent, translucent, or opaque, and some of the oxide
ceramics (e.g., Fe3O4) exhibit magnetic behavior.
Ionic bonding
–Brittle, glassy, elastic
–Non-conducting (insulative to the passage of
heat & electricity)
–Transparent, translucent, or opaque
–Some exhibit magnetic behavior (e.g. Fe3O4)
 3. Polymers
• Polymers include the familiar plastic and rubber materials. Many of them are organic compounds
that are chemically based on carbon, hydrogen, and other nonmetallic elements (i.e., O, N, and Si).
Furthermore, they have very large molecular structures, often chainlike in nature, that often have a
backbone of carbon atoms. Some common and familiar polymers are polyethylene (PE), nylon,
poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC), polycarbonate (PC), polystyrene (PS), and silicone rubber. These
materials typically have low densities .
• whereas their mechanical characteristics are generally dissimilar to those of the metallic and
ceramic materials—they are not as stiff or strong as these other material types.
• However, on the basis of their low densities, many times their stiffnesses and strengths on a
per-mass basis are comparable to those of the metals and ceramics. In addition, many of the
polymers are extremely ductile and pliable (i.e., plastic), which means they are easily formed
into complex shapes. In general, they are relatively inert chemically and unreactive in a large
number of environments. Furthermore, they have low electrical conductivities (Figure 1.8) and
are nonmagnetic. One major drawback to the polymers is their tendency to soften and/or
decompose at modest temperatures, which, in some instances, limits their use.
Covalent bonding → sharing of e’s
–Soft, ductile, low strength, low density
–Thermal & electrical insulators
–Optically translucent or transparent.
–Chemically inert and unreactive
–Sensitive to temperature changes
 4. Composites
• A composite is composed of two (or more) individual materials that come from the categories previously
discussed—metals, ceramics, and polymers. The design goal of a composite is to achieve a combination
of properties that is not displayed by any single material and also to incorporate the best characteristics of
each of the component materials. A large number of composite types are represented by different
combinations of metals, ceramics, and polymers. Furthermore, some naturally occurring materials are
composites—for example, wood and bone. However, most of those we consider in our discussions are
synthetic (or human-made) composites.
• One of the most common and familiar composites is fiberglass, in which small glass fibers are embedded
within a polymeric material (normally an epoxy or polyester). The glass fibers are relatively strong and
stiff (but also brittle), whereas the polymer is more flexible. Thus, fiberglass is relatively stiff, strong, and
flexible. In addition, it has a low density.
• Another technologically important material is the carbon fiber–reinforced polymer (CFRP) composite—
carbon fibers that are embedded within a polymer. These materials are stiffer and stronger than glass
fiber–reinforced materials but more expensive. CFRP composites are used in some aircraft and aerospace
applications, as well as in high-tech sporting equipment (e.g., bicycles, golf clubs, tennis rackets, skis/
snowboards) and recently in automobile bumpers. The new Boeing 787 fuselage is primarily made from
such CFRP composites .
– Light, strong, flexible
– High costs
 Figure 1.12 is one such diagram; here logarithm of stiffness (modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus) is
plotted versus the logarithm of density. Here it may be noted that data values for a specific type (or
“family”) of materials (e.g., metals, ceramics, polymers) cluster together and are enclosed within an
envelope (or “bubble”) delineated with a bold line; hence, each of these envelopes defines the property
range for its material family.
• This is a simple, comprehensive, and concise display of the kind of information contained in both Figures 1.4 and
1.5 that shows how density and stiffness correlate with one another among the various kinds of materials. Charts
such as Figure 1.12 may be constructed for any two material properties—for example, thermal conductivity
versus electrical conductivity. Thus, a relatively large number of plots of this type are available given the possible
combinations of pairs of the various material properties.
In Figure 1.12, envelopes for three important engineering material families are included that were not
discussed previously in this section. These are as follows:
• Elastomers—polymeric materials that display rubbery-like behavior (high degrees
of elastic deformation).
• Natural materials—those that occur in nature; for example, wood, leather, and cork.
• Foams—typically polymeric materials that have high porosities (contain a large volume fraction of small
pores), which are often used for cushions and packaging.
 ADVANCED MATERIALS
• Materials utilized in high-technology (or high-tech) applications are sometimes termed advanced
materials. By high technology, we mean a device or product that operates or functions using
relatively intricate and sophisticated principles, including electronic equipment (cell phones, DVD
players, etc.), computers, fiber-optic systems, high-energy density batteries, energy-conversion
systems, and aircraft.

• These advanced materials are typically traditional materials whose properties have been enhanced
and also newly developed, high-performance materials. Furthermore, they may be of all material
types (e.g., metals, ceramics, polymers) and are normally expensive. Advanced materials include
semiconductors, biomaterials, and what we may term materials of the future (i.e., smart materials
and nanoengineered materials).

• The properties and applications of a number of these advanced materials—for example, materials
that are used for lasers, batteries, magnetic information storage, liquid crystal displays (LCDs), and
fiber optics.
 •Semiconductors
➢ Semiconductors have electrical properties that
are intermediate between those of electrical
conductors (i.e., metals and metal alloys) and
insulators (i.e., ceramics and polymers).
➢ Furthermore, the electrical characteristics of
these materials are extremely sensitive to the
presence of minute concentrations of impurity
atoms, for which the concentrations may be
controlled over very small spatial regions.
➢ Semiconductors have made possible the advent
of integrated circuitry that has totally
revolutionized the electronics and computer
industries (not to mention our lives) over the past
four decades.
 •Biomaterials

• The length and the quality of our lives are being extended and improved, in part, due to advancements in
the ability to replace diseased and injured body parts. Replacement implants are constructed of
biomaterials—nonviable (i.e., nonliving) materials that are implanted into the body, so that they function
in a reliable, safe, and physiologically satisfactory manner, while interacting with living tissue. That is,
biomaterials must be biocompatible—compatible with body tissues and fluids with which they are in
contact over acceptable time periods. Biocompatible materials must neither elicit rejection or
physiologically unacceptable responses nor release toxic substances. Consequently, some rather stringent
constraints are imposed on materials in order for them to be biocompatible.

• Over the past several years the development of new and better biomaterials has accelerated rapidly; today,
this is one of the “hot” materials areas, with an abundance of new, exciting, and high-salary job
opportunities. Example biomaterial applications include joint (e.g., hip, knee) and heart valve
replacements, vascular (blood vessel) grafts, fracture-fixation devices, dental restorations, and generation
of new organ tissues.
 Example – HIP IMPLANT
• Requirements
– mechanical
strength (many
cycles)
– good lubricity
– biocompatibility

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 •Smart materials

• Smart (or intelligent) materials are a group of new and state-of-the-art materials now being developed
that will have a significant influence on many of our technologies. The adjective smart implies that these
materials are able to sense changes in their environment and then respond to these changes in
predetermined manners—traits that are also found in living organisms. In addition, this smart concept is
being extended to rather sophisticated systems that consist of both smart and traditional materials.

• Four types of materials are commonly used for actuators: shape-memory alloys, piezoelectric ceramics,
magnetostrictive materials, and electrorheological/magnetorheological fluids. Shape-memory alloys are
metals that, after having been deformed, revert to their original shape when temperature is changed.
Piezoelectric ceramics expand and contract in response to an applied electric field (or voltage);
conversely, they also generate an electric field when their dimensions are altered .The behavior of
magnetostrictive materials is analogous to that of the piezoelectrics, except that they are responsive to
magnetic fields. Also, electrorheological and magnetorheological fluids are liquids that experience
dramatic changes in viscosity upon the application of electric and magnetic fields, respectively.
 •Nanomaterials
➢ One new material class that has fascinating properties and tremendous technological promise
is the nanomaterials, which may be any one of the four basic types—metals, ceramics,
polymers, or composites. However, unlike these other materials, they are not distinguished on
the basis of their chemistry but rather their size; the nano prefix denotes that the dimensions of
these structural entities are on the order of a nanometer (10-9 m)—as a rule, less than 100
nanometers (nm; equivalent to the diameter of approximately 500 atoms).

➢ Prior to the advent of nanomaterials, the general procedure scientists used to understand the
chemistry and physics of materials was to begin by studying large and complex structures and
then investigate the fundamental building blocks of these structures that are smaller and
simpler. This approach is sometimes termed top-down science. However, with the
development of scanning probe microscopes (Section 4.10), which permit observation of
individual atoms and molecules, it has become possible to design and build new structures
from their atomic-level constituents, one atom or molecule at a time (i.e., “materials by
design”).
 MODERN MATERIALS’ NEEDS
• A number of today’s important technological sectors involve energy. There is a recognized need to find
new and economical sources of energy, especially renewable energy, and to use present resources more
efficiently. Materials will undoubtedly play a significant role in these developments—for example, the
direct conversion of solar power into electrical energy. Solar cells employ some rather complex and
expensive materials. To ensure a viable technology, materials that are highly efficient in this conversion
process yet less costly must be developed.
• In conjunction with improved solar cell materials, there is also a marked need for new materials for
batteries that provide higher electrical energy-storage densities than those presently available and at lower
costs. The current cutting-edge technology uses lithium-ion batteries; these offer relatively high storage
densities, but also present some technological challenges.

• Furthermore, environmental quality depends on our ability to control air and water pollution. Pollution
control techniques employ various materials. In addition, materials processing and refinement methods
need to be improved so that they produce less environmental degradation—that is, less pollution and less
despoilage of the landscape from the mining of raw materials. Also, in some materials manufacturing
processes, toxic substances are produced, and the ecological impact of their disposal must be considered.
 The Materials Selection Process
1. Pick Application Determine required Properties
Properties: mechanical, electrical, thermal,
magnetic, optical, deteriorative.

2. Properties Identify candidate Material(s)

Material: structure, composition.

3. Material Identify required Processing

Processing: changes structure and overall shape
ex: casting, sintering, vapor deposition, doping
forming, joining, annealing.

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 STRUCTURE, PROCESSING, & PROPERTIES

• One aspect of Materials Science is the investigation of relationships that exist

between the processing, structures, properties, and performance of materials.
• The performance of a material depends on its properties
• Properties depend on structure ex: hardness vs structure of steel
• Processing can change structure
Ex: structure vs cooling rate of steel

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Fig 1.1 The four components of the discipline of materials science and engineering and their
interrelationship
• Transmittance:
-- Aluminum oxide may be transparent, translucent, or
opaque depending on the material’s structure (i.e.,
single crystal vs. polycrystal, and degree of porosity).
polycrystal: polycrystal:
single crystal no porosity some porosity

Fig. 1.2, Callister &

Rethwisch 9e.
(Specimen preparation,
P.A. Lessing)

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 STRUCTURE OF MATERIALS

• By structure we mean how some

internal components of the material is
(are) arranged.
• In terms of dimensionality, structural
elements include subatomic, atomic,
microscopic, and macroscopic
 Structure, Processing, & Properties
• Properties depend on structure
ex: hardness vs structure of steel
(d)
600

Hardness (BHN)
30 μm
500 (c)
Data obtained from Figs. 12.31(a) and
12.32 with 4 wt% C composition, and from
400 (b) Fig. 17.8, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
(a) Micrographs adapted from (a) Fig. 12.19;
4 μm
300 (b) Fig. 11.29; (c) Fig. 12.33; and (d) Fig.
12.21, Callister & Rethwisch 9e. (Figures
30 μm 12.19, 12.21, & 12.33 copyright 1971 by United
200 30 μm States Steel Corporation. Figure 9.30 courtesy
of Republic Steel Corporation.)

100
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Cooling Rate (ºC/s)
• Processing can change structure
ex: structure vs cooling rate of steel
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QUESTIONS?