Narvacan Al John Aldrix P.

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Process Instrumentation • Manufacturers control the production

process for three reasons:
Process Control & Instrumentation 1. Reduce Variability – Process control
- Manipulated Variable can reduce variability in the end
- Disturbance product, which ensures a consistently
- Process high-quality product.
- Controlled Variable 2. Increase Efficiency – Some processes
- Unmeasured Output(s) need to be maintained at a specific
point to maximize efficiency. For
Importance of Control example, a control point might be the
• Refining, combining handling and temperature at which a chemical
otherwise manipulating fluids to reaction takes place. Accurate control of
profitably produce end products can be temperature ensures process efficiency.
a precise, demanding, and potentially Manufactures save money by
hazardous process. minimizing the resources required to
• Small changes in a process can have a produce the end product.
large impact on the end result. 3. Ensure Safety – A run-away process,
Variations in proportions, temperature, such as an out-of-control nuclear or
flow, turbulence, and many other chemical reaction, may result if
factors must be carefully and manufacturers do not maintain precise
consistently controlled to produce the control of all the processing variables.
desired end product with a minimum of The consequence of a run-away process
raw materials and energy. can be catastrophic.
• Process control technology is the tool
that enable manufactures to keep their Different Ways to Ensure/Improve Precise
operations running within a specified Process Instrumentation
limit and to set more precise limits to 1. Invest in Quality Instruments
maximize profitability, ensure quality - Investing in high-quality instrument
and safety. is one of the best ways to ensure
accurate and reliable data. The
Process Control accuracy and reliability of your
• It refers to the methods that are used to instrumentation can help you
control process variables when control processes more precisely,
manufacturing a product. which can result in better quality
• Example: Factors such as the proportion products as well as increased
of one ingredient to another, the efficiency.
temperature os the materials, how well 2. Use Automation
the ingredients are mixed, and the - Implementing automated
pressure under which the materials are instrumentation can help to reduce
held can significantly impact the quality the time and effort needed for
of an end product. manual data collection. Automated
systems can also provide more
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accurate readings, as they are not

subject to human error. • Fluid pressure
• Fluid flow rate
3. Develop Standardized Procedures • The temperature of an object
- Developing standardized • Fluid volume stored in a vessel
procedures is another great way to • Chemical concentration
ensure the accuracy and • Machine position, motion, or
consistency of your instrumentation acceleration
readings. These procedures should • Physical dimension(s) of an object
be regularly reviewed and updated • Count (inventory) of objects
in order to ensure that they are still • Electrical voltage, current, or resistance
relevant and effective.
4. Regularly Calibrate Instruments
- Regular calibration of your
instruments is essential for accurate
readings. You should ensure that all
instruments are calibrated by a
professional at least once a year, or
more often if necessary due to
changes in the process
environment.
5. Implement Continuous Improvement
Programs Process Control Terms
- Implementing continuous Process variable
improvement programs is a great • A process variable is a condition of the
way to keep your instrumentation process fluid (a liquid or gas) that can
up-to-date and running optimally. change the manufacturing process in
Continuous improvement programs some way.
allow you to identify areas for - Pressure
improvement, develop solutions, - Flow
and track progress over time. - Level
- Temperature
Part II. Elements of Control Loop - Density
- pH (acidity or alkalinity)
Control Loop - Liquid interface (the relative
• Control loops in the process control amounts of different liquids that are
industry work in the same way, combined in a vessel)
requiring three tasks to occur: - Mass
- Measurement - Conductivity
- Comparison
- Adjustment
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that signal to the desired value for that

Setpoint process variable (called the setpoint),
• The setpoint is a value for a process and calculates an appropriate output
variable that is desired to be signal value to be sent to a final control
maintained. For example, if a process element (FCE) such as an electric motor
temperature needs to kept within 5 °C or control valve.
of 100 °C, then the setpoint is 100 °C. A
temperature sensor can be used to help Final Control Element
maintain the temperature at setpoint. • A device that receives the signal from a
• If the temperature reading is 110 °C, controller to directly influence the
then the controller determines that the process. Examples: variable-speed
process is above setpoint and signals electric motor, control valve, electric
the fuel valve of the burner to close heater.
slightly until the process cools to 100 °C.
Manual and Automatic Control
Primary Sensing Element • Before process automation, people,
• A device that directly senses the process rather than machines, performed many
variable and translates that sensed of the process control tasks. For
quantity into an analog representation example, a human operator might have
(electrical voltage, current, resistance; watched a level gauge and closed a
mechanical force, motion, etc.). valve when the level reached the
Examples: thermocouple, thermistor, setpoint.
bourdon tube, microphone, • Control operations that involve human
potentiometer, electrochemical cell, action to make an adjustment are called
accelerometer. manual control systems. Conversely,
control operations in which no human
Lower and Upper Range Values intervention is required, such as an
• The values of process measurement automatic valve actuator that responds
deemed to be 0% and 100% of a to a level controller, are called
transmitter’s calibrated range. For automatic control systems.
example, if a temperature transmitter is
calibrated to measured a range of Close and Open Control Loops
temperature starting at 300 degrees • A closed control loop exists where a
Celsius and ending at 500 degrees process variable is measured, compared
celsius, 300 degrees would be the LRV to a setpoint, and action is taken to
and 500 degrees the URV. correct any deviation from setpoint.
• An open control loop exists where the
Controller process variable is not compared, and
• A device that receives a process variable action is taken not in response to
(PV) signal from a primary sensing feedback on the condition of the
element (PSE) or transmitter, compares process variable, but is instead taken
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without regard to process variable if the control system held the process
conditions. fluid at 100.5 °C consistently, even
though the setpoint is 100 °C, then an
DIFFERENTIATE MEASURED VARIABLES, offset of 0.5 °C exists.
PROCESS VARIABLES, AND MANIPULATED Load Disturbance
VARIABLES. • A load disturbance is an undesired
change in one of the factors that can
Error affect the process variable. In the
• Error is the difference between the temperature control loop example,
measured variable and the setpoint and adding cold process fluid to the vessel
can be either positive or negative. The would be a load disturbance because it
objective of any control scheme is to would lower the temperature of the
minimize or eliminate error. process fluid.
• Therefore, it is imperative that error be
well understood. Any error can be seen Control Algorithm
as having three major components. • A control algorithm is a mathematical
Magnitude, Duration, and Rate of expression of a control function. Using
change the temperature control loop example,
V in the equation below is the fuel valve
Magnitude position, and e is the error. The
• The magnitude of the error is simply the relationship in a control algorithm can
deviation between the values of the be expressed as:
setpoint and the process variable. • V =f ( ±∅)
• The magnitude of error at any point in
time compared to the previous error
provides the basis for determining the
change in error. The change in error is
also an important value.

Duration
• Duration refers to the length of time
that an error condition has existed.
Components of Control Loops
Rate of Change
• The rate of change is shown by the Primary Elements/Sensors
slope of the error plot. • In all cases, some kind of instrument is
measuring changes in the process and
Offset reporting a process variable
• Offset is a sustained deviation of the measurement.
process variable from the setpoint. In • Some of the greatest ingenuity in the
the temperature control loop example, process control field is apparent in
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sensing devices. Because sensing 3. Digital signal

devices are the first element in the Pneumatic Signal
control loop to measure the process • Pneumatic signals are signals produced
variable, they are also called primary by changing the air pressure in a signal
elements. pipe in proportion to the measured
Transducers and Converters change in a process variable.
• A transducer is a device that translates a • The common industry standard
mechanical signal into an electrical pneumatic signal range is 3–15 psig. The
signal. 3 corresponds to the lower range value
• For example, inside a capacitance (LRV) and the 15 corresponds to the
pressure device, a transducer converts upper range value (URV).
changes in pressure into a proportional
change in capacitance. Analog Signal
• A converter is a device that converts • The most common standard electrical
one type of signal into another type of signal is the 4–20 mA current signal.
signal. For example, a converter may With this signal, a transmitter sends a
convert current into voltage or an small current through a set of wires.
analog signal into a digital signal. • The current signal is a kind of gauge in
• In process control, a converter used to which 4 mA represents the lowest
convert a 4–20 mA current signal into a possible measurement, or zero, and 20
3–15 psig pneumatic signal is called a mA represents the highest possible
current-to-pressure converter. measurement.

Transmitters Digital Signal

• A transmitter is a device that converts a • Digital signals are the most recent
reading from a sensor or transducer addition to process control signal
into a standard signal and transmits that technology. Digital signals are discrete
signal to a monitor or controller. levels or values that are combined in
❑ Pressure transmitters specific ways to represent process
❑ Flow transmitters variables and also carry other
❑ Temperature transmitters information, such as diagnostic
information.
❑ Level transmitters
• The methodology used to combine the
digital signals is referred to as protocol.
Signals
• Manufacturers may use either an open
• There are three kinds of signals that
or a proprietary digital protocol. Open
exist for the process industry to
protocols are those that anyone who is
transmit the process variable
developing a control device can use.
measurement from the instrument to a
Proprietary protocols are owned by
centralized control system.
specific companies and may be used
1. Pneumatic signal
only with their permission.
2. Analog signal
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control element to take corrective

Indicators action.
• While most instruments are connected • Local controllers are usually one of the
to a control system, operators three types: pneumatic, electronic or
sometimes need to check a programmable. Controllers also
measurement on the factory floor at the commonly reside in a digital control
measurement point. An indictor makes system.
this reading possible. • Controllers may perform complex
• An indicator is a human-readable device mathematical functions to compare
that displays information about the Activities a set of data to setpoint or
process. Indicators may be as simple as they may perform simple addition or
a pressure or temperature gauge or subtraction functions to make
more complex, such as a digital read- comparisons. Controllers always have
out device. an ability to receive input, to perform a
• Some indicators simply display the mathematical function with the input,
measured variable, while others have and to produce an output signal.
control buttons that enable operators to
change settings in the field. Correcting/Final Control Elements
• The correcting or final control element
Recorders is the part of the control system that
• A recorder is a device that records the acts to physically change the
output of a measurement devices. manipulated variable. In most cases, the
Many process manufacturers are final control element is a valve used to
required by law to provide a process restrict or cut off fluid flow, but pump
history to regulatory agencies, and motors, louvers, solenoids, and other
manufacturers use recorders to help devices can also be final control
meet these regulatory requirements. elements. Final control elements are
• In addition, manufacturers often use typically used to increase or decrease
recorders to gather data for trend fluid flow. For example, a final control
analyses. By recording the readings of element may regulate the flow of fuel to
critical measurement points and a burner to control temperature, the
comparing those readings over time flow of a catalyst into a reactor to
with the results of the process, the control a chemical reaction, or the flow
process can be improved. of air into a boiler to control boiler
combustion.
Controllers
• A controller is a device that receives Actuators
data from a measurement instrument, • An actuator is the part of a final control
compares that data to a programmed device that causes a physical change in
setpoint, and, if necessary, signals a the final control device when signalled
to do so. The most common example of
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an actuator is a valve actuator, which Process Control Modes

opens or closes a valve in response to - Two-Position Control Mode
control signals from a controller. - Continuous / Throttling Control
Actuators are often powered Mode
pneumatically, hydraulically, or
electrically. Diaphragms, bellows, Two-Position Control Mode
springs, gears, hydraulic pilot valves, • In this type of Control Mode, the Final
pistons, or electric motors are often Controlling Element (FCE) is position
parts of an actuator system. only either On/Off or Close/Open.

Types of Two-Position Control:

- On-Off Control (Binary Control)
- Differential Gap Control
- Time-Cycle Control

On-Off Control
• On-Off Control is the most common
type of two-position control. As soon as
the Measured Value (MV) differs from
the desired Set Point (SP), the Final
Control Element (FCE) is driven to one
extreme or the other.
On-Off Control:
If MV > SP; LICV-100 is CLOSE
If MV < SP; LICV-100 is OPEN
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Differential Gap Control Two-Position Controller

• It is similar to on-off control except that Output: The output of an on-off controller
a band or gap exist around the control depends on the following factors:
point. When the measured variable - Direction of control error
exceeds the upper boundary of the gap, - Controller action, I/I or I/D
the final operator is closed. It will
remain closed until the measured
variable drops below the lower Direction of control error:
boundary. The final operator will remain
open until the measured variable again • Positive Error or Positive Deviation:
exceeds the upper boundary. Also known as "over-error" or
"overshoot," a positive error occurs
when the process variable (PV) is
greater than the desired setpoint (SP).
In other words, the system's current
state is higher or above the target value.
To correct this positive error, the control
system typically takes action to reduce
the PV and bring it back toward the
setpoint.
Time-Cycle Control: • Negative Error or Negative Deviation:
• In this type of control, a time base (for Also known as "under-error," a negative
example 60 sec.) is established. During error occurs when the process variable
this time period, the final operator is (PV) is less than the desired setpoint
closed for a certain percentage of time (SP). In this case, the system's current
and open remainder. The ratio of the state is lower or below the target value.
closed-to-open time is determined by To correct this negative error, the
the relationship between the measured control system typically takes action to
variable and the control point. increase the PV and bring it closer to
the setpoint.

Controller action, I/I or I/D

Integral-Integral Control (I/I)

• It is a sophisticated control strategy
used in some complex control systems,
especially in scenarios where precise
control of multiple interacting variables
is required. In I/I control, both the inner
and outer control loops incorporate
integral control.
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Integral-Derivative Control (I/D) Continuous Controller

• It combines both integral and • Automatically compare the value of the
derivative control components to PV to the SP to determine if an error
achieve precise and stable control in exists. If there is an error, the controller
situations where different parts of a adjusts its output according to the
control system require these specific parameters that have been set in the
actions. It's often used in complex controller.
control scenarios, such as cascade
control strategies. The tuning parameters essentially determine:
- How much correction should be made?
Two-Position Control The magnitude of the correction
• It is one of the simplest and the least (change in controller output) is
expensive form of automatic control. determined by the proportional mode
However, it does not meet the of the controller.
requirements usually demanded by - How long should the correction be
today's sophisticated process where applied? The duration of the
significant level of oscillation is not adjustment to the controller output is
allowed. determined by the integral mode of the
• Therefore, throttling type of controlled controller.
was developed to meet the demand for - How fast should the correction be
more precise regulation of the applied? The speed at which a
controlled variable. correction is made is determined by the
derivative mode of the controller.
Throttling/Continuous
• Control Continuous Control positions Why Controllers Need Tuning?
the Final Controlling Element (FCE) in • Controllers are tuned in an effort to
more than two positions. This means match the characteristics of the control
that the Final Controlling Element (FCE) equipment to the process so that two
can be positioned at any point within its goals are achieved.
throttling range, not just On or Off. ❑ The system responds quickly to
errors. ❑ The system remains stable (PV
does not oscillate around the SP).
Gain
• Controller tuning is performed to adjust
the manner in which a control valve (or
other final control element) responds to
a change in error.
• In particular, we are interested in
adjusting the gain of the controller such
that a change in controller input will
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result in a change in controller output to the percentage change in controller

that will, in turn, cause sufficient change input?" Proportional Gain is expressed
in valve position to eliminate error, but 𝟏𝟎𝟎
as Gain, (Kc) =
𝑮𝒂𝒊𝒏
not so great a change as to cause
instability or cycling.
• Gain is defined simply as the change in
output divided by the change in input. Proportional Band
• Proportional Band (PB) is another way
Gain Plot
of representing the same information
• The Figure below is simply another and answers this question: "What
graphical way of representing the percentage of change of the controller
concept of gain. input span will cause a 100% change in
controller output?"
Gain Kc =∆ Output % / ∆ Input %

Proportional Gain
• The proportional mode is used to set
the basic gain value of the controller.
The setting for the proportional mode
may be expressed as either:
1. Proportional Gain
LIMITS OF PROPORTIONAL ACTION
2. Proportional Band
• Responds Only to a Change in error –
Proportional Gain Proportional action responds only to a
change in the magnitude of the error.
• In electronic controllers, proportional
action is typically expressed as • Does Not Return the PV to Setpoint -
proportional gain. Proportional action will not return the
PV to setpoint. It will, however, return
• Proportional Gain (Kc) answers the
the PV to a value that is within a
question: "What is the percentage
defined span (PB) around the PV
change of the controller output relative
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Controller Output - In a proportional only

controller, the output is a function of the change
in error and controller gain.
𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆, % = (𝑬𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆, %)
(𝑮𝒂𝒊𝒏)
Example: If the setpoint is suddenly changed
10% with a proportional band setting of 50%,
the output will change as follows:

High Gain Example

• In the example, the proportional band is
small resulting in high gain, which is
causing instability. Notice that the
process variable is still not on set point.

Loop Gain
• Every loop has a critical or natural
frequency. Thisis the frequency at which
cycling may exist. This critical frequency
is determined by all of the loop
components. If the loop gain is too high
at this frequency, the PV will cycle
around the SP; i.e., the process will
become unstable.
Reset Windup
• is described as a situation where the
Low Gain Example
controller output is driven from a
• In the example below, the proportional
desired output level because of a large
band is high (gain is low). The loop is
difference between the set point and
very stable, but an error remains
the process variable.
between SP and PV. determined by all
of the loop components. If the loop gain
Shutdown
is too high at this frequency, the PV will
• Reset windup is common on shut down
cycle around the SP; i.e., the process
because the process variable may go to
will become unstable.
zero but the set point has not changed,
therefore this large error will drive the
output to one extreme.
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Startup
• At start up, large process variable 2. An electronic loop controller outputs a signal
overshoot may occur because the reset of 8.55 mA to a direct-responding control valve
speed prevents the output from (where 4 mA is shut, and 20 mA is wide open).
reaching its desired value fast enough. How far open should the control valve be at this
MV signal level?
Anti Reset Windup
• Controllers can be modified with an
anti-reset windup (ARW) device. The
purpose of an anti-reset option is to 3. If the setpoint is suddenly changed 10% with
allow the output to reach its desired a proportional band setting of 50%. What would
value quicker, therefore minimizing the be the control output change?
overshoot.

4. A ph transmitter has a calibrated range of 4ph

to 10ph. With a 4-20 mA output signal.
Calculate the pH sensed by the transmitter if its
Formulas: output is 11.3 mA.

Y = MX + B
Y = is the equivalent current in milliamps
X = the desired percentage of signal
M = the span of the 4-20 mA range
B = the offset value, or the “live zero” of 4 mA

Current = (16 mA) (X / 100%) + (4 mA) 5. A pneumatic temperature transmitter 1

Pressure = (12 psi) (X / 100%) + (3 psi) ranged 50 to 140 degrees Fahrenheit and has a
3-15 PSI output signal. Calculate the pneumatic
output pressure if the temperature is 79
Problem Solving degrees Fahrenheit.

1. A flow transmitter is ranged 0 to 350 gallons

per minute, 4-20 mA output, direct responding.
Calculate the current signal value at a flow rate
of 204 GPM.
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System
• Arrangement of components to perform
a task.
• Three basic elements of a system:
✓ Input - current
✓ Process - filament
✓ Output – light
Control System
• To force or direct a system to produce
an output without considering the
input, mathematical equations.

Transfer Functions
• Modelling a system, interaction of input
to output

Mathematical Model
- Differential equation
- Transfer Function
- State space
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Control System Engineering Process Control Loops

• To understand how the process can
manage. Ziegler-Nichols Tuning Method
• Two types of control loop: Start with closed-loop system with a
- Open Loop Control System proportional controller.
- Closed Loop Control System 1. Begin with a low value of gain, Kp
2. Reduce the integrator and derivative
PID Controller gains to 0.
• Want something to be constant. 3. Increase Kp from 0 to some critical
• Kd -> oscillations value Kp = Kcr at which sustained
• Kp -> error oscillations occur. If it does not occur,
• Ki -> steady-state error then another method has to be applied.
4. Note that the value Kcr and the
corresponding period of sustained
oscillation, Pcr sustained oscillation with
period Pcr. (Pcr is measured in sec.)

Advantages of Ziegler-Nichols Tuning

1. It does not require expert knowledge.
2. It does not require model / simulation of
system.
3. Often produces good initial Kp, Ki, Kd.

Disadvantages of Ziegler-Nichols Tuning

1. It is not mathematically rigorous.
2. Requires a stable system.
3. If you do not have a model / simulation, real
experiment could be costly.
4. Requires a system that can be driven unstable
with increasing proportional gain
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Flow Control Loops

• Generally, flow control loops are
regarded as fast loops that respond to
changes quickly. Therefore, flow control
equipment must have fast sampling and
response times. Because flow
Feedback Control transmitters tend to be rather sensitive
• A feedback loop measures a process devices, they can produce rapid
variable and sends the measurement to fluctuations or noise in the control
a controller for comparison to setpoint. signal.
If the process variable is not at setpoint,
control action is taken to return the
process variable to setpoint.

Level Control Loops

• The speed of changes in a level control
loop largely depends on the size and
shape of the process vessel and the flow
rate of the input and outflow pipes.
Examples of Single Control Loops • Manufacturers may use one of many
different measurement technologies to
Pressure Control Loops determine level, including radar,
• Pressure control loops vary in speed— ultrasonic, float gauge, and pressure
that is, they can respond to changes in measurement.
load or to control action slowly or
quickly. The speed required in a
pressure control loop may be dictated
by the volume of the process fluid.
High-volume systems tend to change
more slowly than low-volume systems.

Temperature Control Loops

• Temperature control loops are not very
quick to respond because it takes time
to change the temperature of a liquid or
gas in a process. To speed things up, we
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often use a strategy called Feedforward Plus Feedback Control

"feedforward control." • Because of the difficulty of accounting
• We measure temperature using sensors for every possible load disturbance in a
like RTDs or thermocouples. These feedforward system, feedforward
sensors send information to controllers, systems are often combined with
which can adjust things to keep the feedback systems. Controllers with
temperature on track. summing functions are used in these
combined systems to total the input
from both the feedforward loop and the
feedback loop and send a unified signal
to the final control element.

Multi-Variable / Advance Control Loops

Multivariable Loops

Cascade Control
• Cascade control is a control system in
which a secondary (slave) control loop is
set up to control a variable that is a
major source of load disturbance for
another primary (master) control loop.
Feedforward Control
The controller of the primary loop
• Feedforward control is a control system
determines the setpoint of the
that anticipates load disturbances and
summing controller in the secondary
controls them before they can impact
loop.
the process variable. For feedforward
control to work, the user must have a
mathematical understanding of how the
manipulated variables will impact the
process variable.
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example, in a boiler control system, if

Batch Control fuel flow outpaces air flow, then
• Batch processes are those processes uncombusted fuel can build up in the
that are taken from start to finish in boiler and cause an explosion.
batches. For example, mixing the • Selective control is used to allow for an
ingredients for a juice drink is often a air-rich mixture, but never a fuel-rich
batch process. Typically, a limited mixture. Selective control is most often
amount of one flavor is mixed at a time. used when equipment must be
• For these reasons, it is not practical to protected or safety maintained, even at
have a continuous process running. the cost of not maintaining an optimal
Batch processes often involve getting process variable setpoint.
the correct proportion of ingredients
into the batch. Level, flow, pressure, Fuzzy Control
temperature, and often mass • Fuzzy control is a form of adaptive
measurements are used at various control in which the controller uses
stages of batch processes. fuzzy logic to make decisions about
adjusting the process. Fuzzy logic is a
Ratio Control form of computer logic where whether
• Imagine a process in which an acid must something is or is not included in a set is
be diluted with water in the proportion based on a grading scale in which
two parts water to one part acid. If a multiple factors are accounted for and
tank has an acid supply on one side of a rated by the computer.
mixing vessel and a water supply on the • The essential idea of fuzzy control is to
other, a control system could be create a kind of artificial intelligence
developed to control the ratio of acid to that will account for numerous
water, even though the water supply variables, formulate a theory of how to
itself may not be controlled. This type of make improvements, adjust the
control system is called ratio control. process, and learn from the result.

Selective Control
• Selective control refers to a control
system in which the more important of
two variables will be maintained. For