SQL

BBM632 Database Systems

Dr. Fuat Akal
[email protected]

H.U. Computer Engineering Department

 SQL Part I: Introduction

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 Today’s Lecture

1. SQL introduction & schema definitions

2. Basic single-table queries

3. Multi-table queries

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 1. SQL Introduction & Definitions

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 What you will learn about in this section
1. What is SQL?

2. Basic schema definitions

3. Keys & constraints intro

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 SQL Motivation

• Dark times 5 years ago.

• Are databases dead?

• Now, as before: everyone sells SQL

• Pig, Hive, Impala

• “Not-Yet-SQL?”

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 SQL Introduction
• SQL is a standard language for querying and manipulating data

• SQL is a very high-level programming language SQL stands for

• This works because it is optimized well! Structured Query Language

• Many standards out there:

• ANSI SQL, SQL92 (a.k.a. SQL2), SQL99 (a.k.a. SQL3), ….
• Vendors support various subsets

Probably the world’s most successful parallel programming language (multicore?)

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 SQL is a…
• Data Definition Language (DDL)
• Define relational schemata
• Create/alter/delete tables and their attributes

• Data Manipulation Language (DML)

• Insert/delete/modify tuples in tables
• Query one or more tables – discussed next!

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 Tables in SQL
A relation or table is a
Product multiset of tuples
PName Price Manufacturer
having the attributes
specified by the schema
Gizmo $19.99 GizmoWorks

Powergizmo $29.99 GizmoWorks

Let’s break this
SingleTouch $149.99 Canon
definition down
MultiTouch $203.99 Hitachi

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 Tables in SQL
A multiset is an
unordered list (or: a set
Product
with multiple duplicate
PName Price Manufacturer instances allowed)
Gizmo $19.99 GizmoWorks

Powergizmo $29.99 GizmoWorks List: [1, 1, 2, 3]

Set: {1, 2, 3}
SingleTouch $149.99 Canon Multiset: {1, 1, 2, 3}

MultiTouch $203.99 Hitachi

i.e. no next(), etc. methods!

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 Tables in SQL

Product An attribute (or column)

PName Price Manufacturer is a typed data entry
present in each tuple in
Gizmo $19.99 GizmoWorks
the relation
Powergizmo $29.99 GizmoWorks

SingleTouch $149.99 Canon

MultiTouch $203.99 Hitachi NB: Attributes must have an

atomic type in standard SQL, i.e.
not a list, set, etc.

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 Tables in SQL

Product
PName Price Manufacturer

Gizmo $19.99 GizmoWorks

Powergizmo $29.99 GizmoWorks

SingleTouch $149.99 Canon

MultiTouch $203.99 Hitachi A tuple or row is a

single entry in the table
having the attributes
Also referred to sometimes as a record specified by the schema

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 Tables in SQL
Product
PName Price Manufacturer

Gizmo $19.99 GizmoWorks

The number of tuples is
Powergizmo $29.99 GizmoWorks the cardinality of the
relation
SingleTouch $149.99 Canon

MultiTouch $203.99 Hitachi

The number of
attributes is the arity of
the relation
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 Data Types in SQL
• Atomic types:
• Characters: CHAR(20), VARCHAR(50)
• Numbers: INT, BIGINT, SMALLINT, FLOAT
• Others: MONEY, DATETIME, …

• Every attribute must have an atomic type

• Hence tables are flat

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 Table Schemas
• The schema of a table is the table name, its attributes, and their
types:

Product(Pname: string, Price: float, Category:

string, Manufacturer: string)

• A key is an attribute whose values are unique; we underline a key

Product(Pname: string, Price: float, Category:

string, Manufacturer: string)

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 Key constraints
A key is a minimal subset of attributes that acts as a
unique identifier for tuples in a relation

• A key is an implicit constraint on which tuples can be in the relation

• i.e. if two tuples agree on the values of the key, then they must be
the same tuple!
Students(sid:string, name:string, gpa: float)

1. Which would you select as a key?

2. Is a key always guaranteed to exist?
3. Can we have more than one key?
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 NULL and NOT NULL
• To say “don’t know the value” we use NULL
• NULL has (sometimes painful) semantics, more detail later

Students(sid:string, name:string, gpa: float)

sid name gpa

123 Bob 3.9
143 Jim NULL Say, Jim just enrolled in his first class.

In SQL, we may constrain a column to be NOT NULL, e.g., “name” in this table
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 General Constraints
• We can actually specify arbitrary assertions
• E.g. “There cannot be 25 people in the DB class”

• In practice, we don’t specify many such constraints. Why?

• Performance!

Whenever we do something ugly (or avoid doing something

convenient) it’s for the sake of performance
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 Summary of Schema Information
• Schema and Constraints are how databases understand the semantics
(meaning) of data

• They are also useful for optimization

• SQL supports general constraints:

• Keys and foreign keys are most important
• We’ll give you a chance to write the others

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 2. Single-table queries

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 What you will learn about in this section
1. The SFW query

2. Other useful operators:

1. LIKE
2. DISTINCT
3. ORDER BY

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 SQL Query
• Basic form (there are many many more bells and whistles)

SELECT <attributes>
FROM <one or more relations>
WHERE <conditions>

Call this a SFW query.

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 Simple SQL Query: Selection
PName Price Category Manufacturer
Gizmo $19.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks
Selection is the operation
Powergizmo $29.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks
of filtering a relation’s
SingleTouch $149.99 Photography Canon
tuples on some condition
MultiTouch $203.99 Household Hitachi

SELECT *
FROM Product
WHERE Category = ‘Gadgets’

PName Price Category Manufacturer

Gizmo $19.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks
Powergizmo $29.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks
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 Simple SQL Query: Projection
PName Price Category Manufacturer
Projection is the Gizmo $19.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks
operation of producing an Powergizmo $29.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks
output table with tuples SingleTouch $149.99 Photography Canon
that have a subset of their MultiTouch $203.99 Household Hitachi
prior attributes
SELECT Pname, Price, Manufacturer
FROM Product
WHERE Category = ‘Gadgets’

PName Price Manufacturer

Gizmo $19.99 GizmoWorks
Powergizmo $29.99 GizmoWorks
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 Notation

Input schema Product(PName, Price, Category, Manfacturer)

SELECT Pname, Price, Manufacturer

FROM Product
WHERE Category = ‘Gadgets’

Output schema Answer(PName, Price, Manfacturer)

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 A Few Details
• SQL statements are case insensitive:
• Same: SELECT, Select, select
• Same: Product, product

• Values are not:

• Different: ‘Seattle’, ‘seattle’

• Use single quotes for constants:

• ‘abc’ - yes
• “abc” - no

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 LIKE: Simple String Pattern Matching
• s LIKE p: pattern matching on strings
• p may contain two special symbols:
• % = any sequence of characters
• _ = any single character

SELECT *
FROM Products
WHERE PName LIKE ‘%gizmo%’

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 DISTINCT: Eliminating Duplicates
Category
SELECT DISTINCT Category
FROM Product Gadgets
Photography
Household
Versus
Category
SELECT Category Gadgets
FROM Product Gadgets
Photography
Household
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 ORDER BY: Sorting the Results

SELECT PName, Price, Manufacturer

FROM Product
WHERE Category=‘gizmo’ AND Price > 50
ORDER BY Price, PName

Ties are broken by the Ordering is ascending,

second attribute on the unless you specify the
ORDER BY list, etc. DESC keyword.

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 3. Multi-table queries

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 What you will learn about in this section
1. Foreign key constraints

2. Joins: basics

3. Joins: SQL semantics

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 Foreign Key constraints
• Suppose we have the following schema:
Students(sid: string, name: string, gpa: float)
Enrolled(student_id: string, cid: string, grade: string)

• And we want to impose the following constraint:

• ‘Only bona fide students may enroll in courses’ i.e. a student
must appear in the Students table to enroll in a class
student_id alone is not a
Students Enrolled
key- what is?
sid name gpa student_id cid grade
101 Bob 3.2 123 564 A
123 Mary 3.8 123 537 A+

We say that student_id is a foreign key that refers to Students

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 Declaring Foreign Keys

Students(sid: string, name: string, gpa: float)

Enrolled(student_id: string, cid: string, grade: string)

CREATE TABLE Enrolled(

student_id CHAR(20),
cid CHAR(20),
grade CHAR(10),
PRIMARY KEY (student_id, cid),
FOREIGN KEY (student_id) REFERENCES Students(sid)
)

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 Foreign Keys and update operations
Students(sid: string, name: string, gpa: float)
Enrolled(student_id: string, cid: string, grade: string)

• What if we insert a tuple into Enrolled, but no corresponding

student?
• INSERT is rejected (foreign keys are constraints)!

DBA chooses (syntax in the book)

• What if we delete a student?
1. Disallow the delete
2. Remove all of the courses for that student
3. SQL allows a third via NULL (not yet covered)
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 Keys and Foreign Keys
Company
CName StockPrice Country What is a
GizmoWorks 25 USA foreign key vs.
Canon
Hitachi
65
15
Japan
Japan
a key here?

Product
PName Price Category Manufacturer
Gizmo $19.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks
Powergizmo $29.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks
SingleTouch $149.99 Photography Canon
MultiTouch $203.99 Household Hitachi

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 Joins
Product(PName, Price, Category, Manufacturer)
Company(CName, StockPrice, Country) Note: we will often omit
attribute types in schema
Ex: Find all products under $200 manufactured in Japan; definitions for brevity, but
return their names and prices. assume attributes are
always atomic types

SELECT PName, Price

FROM Product, Company
WHERE Manufacturer = CName
AND Country=‘Japan’
AND Price <= 200

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 Joins
Product(PName, Price, Category, Manufacturer)
Company(CName, StockPrice, Country)

Ex: Find all products under $200 manufactured in Japan;

return their names and prices.

SELECT PName, Price A join between tables returns

FROM Product, Company
all unique combinations of
WHERE Manufacturer = CName
AND Country=‘Japan’ their tuples which meet
AND Price <= 200 some specified join condition

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 Joins
Product(PName, Price, Category, Manufacturer)
Company(CName, StockPrice, Country)

Several equivalent ways to write a basic join in SQL:

SELECT PName, Price SELECT PName, Price

FROM Product, Company FROM Product
WHERE Manufacturer = CName JOIN Company ON Manufacturer = Cname
AND Country=‘Japan’ AND Country=‘Japan’
AND Price <= 200 WHERE Price <= 200

A few more later on…

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 Joins
Product
Company
PName Price Category Manuf
Gizmo $19 Gadgets GWorks Cname Stock Country
Powergizmo $29 Gadgets GWorks
GWorks 25 USA
Canon 65 Japan
SingleTouch $149 Photography Canon
Hitachi 15 Japan
MultiTouch $203 Household Hitachi

SELECT PName, Price

FROM Product, Company
WHERE Manufacturer = CName
PName Price
AND Country=‘Japan’
AND Price <= 200 SingleTouch $149.99
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 Tuple Variable Ambiguity in Multi-Table
Person(name, address, worksfor)
Company(name, address)

Which “address” does

SELECT DISTINCT name, address
this refer to?
FROM Person, Company
WHERE worksfor = name
Which “name”s??

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 Tuple Variable Ambiguity in Multi-Table
Person(name, address, worksfor)
Company(name, address)

SELECT DISTINCT Person.name, Person.address

FROM Person, Company
Both equivalent WHERE Person.worksfor = Company.name
ways to resolve
variable
ambiguity SELECT DISTINCT p.name, p.address
FROM Person p, Company c
WHERE p.worksfor = c.name

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 Meaning (Semantics) of SQL Queries
SELECT x1.a1, x1.a2, …, xn.ak
Almost never the fastest way
FROM R1 AS x1, R2 AS x2, …, Rn AS xn
WHERE Conditions(x1,…, xn) to compute it!

Answer = {}
for x1 in R1 do
for x2 in R2 do
…..
for xn in Rn do
if Conditions(x1,…, xn)
then Answer = Answer È {(x1.a1, x1.a2, …, xn.ak)}
return Answer

Note: this is a multiset union

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 An example of SQL semantics
SELECT R.A Output A
FROM R, S
WHERE R.A = S.B 3
A 3
1 A B C
Cross Apply
3 1 2 3
Product Projection
Apply
1 3 4
Selections /
B C 1 3 5 Conditions
A B C
2 3 3 2 3
3 3 4
3 4 3 3 4
3 3 5
3 5 3 3 5
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 Note the semantics of a join SELECT R.A
FROM R, S
WHERE R.A = S.B

Recall: Cross product (A X B) is the set of all

1. Take cross product: unique tuples in A,B
𝑋 = 𝑅×𝑆
Ex: {a,b,c} X {1,2}
= {(a,1), (a,2), (b,1), (b,2), (c,1), (c,2)}

2. Apply selections / conditions: = Filtering!

𝑌= 𝑟, 𝑠 ∈ 𝑋 𝑟. 𝐴 == 𝑟. 𝐵}

3. Apply projections to get final output: = Returning only some attributes

𝑍 = (𝑦. 𝐴, ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑦 ∈ 𝑌

Remembering this order is critical to understanding the output of certain queries (see later on…)
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 Note: we say “semantics” not “execution
order”

• The preceding slides show what a join means

• Not actually how the DBMS executes it under the cover

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 A Subtlety about Joins
Product(PName, Price, Category, Manufacturer)
Company(CName, StockPrice, Country)

Find all countries that manufacture some product

in the ‘Gadgets’ category.

SELECT Country
FROM Product, Company
WHERE Manufacturer=CName AND Category=‘Gadgets’

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 A subtlety about Joins
Product Company
PName Price Category Manuf Cname Stock Country
Gizmo $19 Gadgets GWorks GWorks 25 USA
Powergizmo $29 Gadgets GWorks Canon 65 Japan
Hitachi 15 Japan
SingleTouch $149 Photography Canon

MultiTouch $203 Household Hitachi

SELECT Country Country

FROM Product, Company
WHERE Manufacturer=Cname ?
AND Category=‘Gadgets’ ?
What is the problem ?
What’s the solution ?
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 An Unintuitive Query
SELECT DISTINCT R.A
FROM R, S, T
WHERE R.A=S.A OR R.A=T.A

What does it compute?

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 SQL Part II: Advanced

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 Today’s Lecture

1. Set operators & nested queries

2. Aggregation & GROUP BY

3. Advanced SQL-izing

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 1. Set Operators & Nested
Queries

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 What you will learn about in this section

1. Multiset operators in SQL

2. Nested queries

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 An Unintuitive Query
SELECT DISTINCT R.A
FROM R, S, T
WHERE R.A=S.A OR R.A=T.A

What does it compute?

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 An Unintuitive Query
SELECT DISTINCT R.A
FROM R, S, T
WHERE R.A=S.A OR R.A=T.A

S T

R But what if S = f?

Computes R Ç (S È T) Go back to the semantics!

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 An Unintuitive Query
SELECT DISTINCT R.A
FROM R, S, T
WHERE R.A=S.A OR R.A=T.A

• Recall the semantics!

1. Take cross-product
2. Apply selections / conditions
3. Apply projection
• If S = {}, then the cross product of R, S, T = {}, and the query result = {}!

Must consider semantics here.

Are there more explicit way to do set operations like this?
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 What does this look like in Python?
S T
SELECT DISTINCT R.A
FROM R, S, T R
R Ç (S È T)
WHERE R.A=S.A OR R.A=T.A

• Semantics:
Joins / cross-products are just nested for
1. Take cross-product
loops (in simplest implementation)!

2. Apply selections / conditions If-then statements!

3. Apply projection 56
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 What does this look like in Python?
S T
SELECT DISTINCT R.A
FROM R, S, T R
R Ç (S È T)
WHERE R.A=S.A OR R.A=T.A

output = {}

for r in R:
for s in S:
for t in T:
if r[‘A’] == s[‘A’] or r[‘A’] == t[‘A’]:
output.add(r[‘A’])
return list(output)

Can you see now what happens if S = []?

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 Multiset Operations

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 Recall Multisets
Multiset X
Tuple
Multiset X
(1, a) Tuple 𝝀(𝑿)
(1, a) (1, a) 2
(1, b) 1
(1, b)
(2, c) 3
(2, c)
Equivalent (1, d) 2
(2, c) Representations
(2, c)
of a Multiset
𝝀 𝑿 = “Count of tuple in X”
(1, d)
(Items not listed have
(1, d) implicit count 0)
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 Generalizing Set Operations to Multiset
Operations
Multiset X Multiset Y Multiset Z
Tuple 𝝀(𝑿) Tuple 𝝀(𝒀) Tuple 𝝀(𝒁)
(1, a) 2 (1, a) 5 (1, a) 2
(1, b)
(2, c)
0
3
∩ (1, b)
(2, c)
1
2
= (1, b)
(2, c)
0
2
(1, d) 0 (1, d) 2 (1, d) 0

For sets, this is

𝝀 𝒁 = 𝒎𝒊𝒏(𝝀 𝑿 , 𝝀 𝒀 ) intersection

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 Generalizing Set Operations to Multiset
Operations
Multiset X Multiset Y Multiset Z
Tuple 𝝀(𝑿) Tuple 𝝀(𝒀) Tuple 𝝀(𝒁)
(1, a)
(1, b)
2
0 ∪ (1, a)
(1, b)
5
1
=
(1, a)
(1, b)
7
1
(2, c) 3 (2, c) 2 (2, c) 5
(1, d) 0 (1, d) 2 (1, d) 2

For sets,
𝝀 𝒁 =𝝀 𝑿 + 𝝀 𝒀 this is union

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 Multiset Operations in SQL

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 Explicit Set Operators: INTERSECT

SELECT R.A
FROM R, S
WHERE R.A=S.A 𝑟. 𝐴 𝑟. 𝐴 = 𝑠. 𝐴 ∩ 𝑟. 𝐴 𝑟. 𝐴 = 𝑡. 𝐴}

INTERSECT

SELECT R.A Q1 Q2

FROM R, T
WHERE R.A=T.A

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 UNION

SELECT R.A
FROM R, S
WHERE R.A=S.A
𝑟. 𝐴 𝑟. 𝐴 = 𝑠. 𝐴 ∪ 𝑟. 𝐴 𝑟. 𝐴 = 𝑡. 𝐴}
UNION
Why aren’t there
SELECT R.A Q1 Q2
duplicates?
FROM R, T
WHERE R.A=T.A What if we want
duplicates?
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 UNION ALL

SELECT R.A
FROM R, S
WHERE R.A=S.A
𝑟. 𝐴 𝑟. 𝐴 = 𝑠. 𝐴 ∪ 𝑟. 𝐴 𝑟. 𝐴 = 𝑡. 𝐴}
UNION ALL

SELECT R.A Q1 Q2 ALL indicates

FROM R, T Multiset
WHERE R.A=T.A operations

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 EXCEPT

SELECT R.A
FROM R, S
WHERE R.A=S.A
𝑟. 𝐴 𝑟. 𝐴 = 𝑠. 𝐴 \{𝑟. 𝐴|𝑟. 𝐴 = 𝑡. 𝐴}
EXCEPT

SELECT R.A Q1 Q2 What is the

FROM R, T multiset version?
WHERE R.A=T.A

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 INTERSECT: Still some subtle problems…
Company(name, hq_city)
Product(pname, maker, factory_loc)

SELECT hq_city
FROM Company, Product “Headquarters of
WHERE maker = name
AND factory_loc = ‘US’
companies which
make products in
INTERSECT
US AND China”
SELECT hq_city
FROM Company, Product
WHERE maker = name
AND factory_loc = ‘China’

What if two companies have HQ in US: BUT one has factory in

China (but not US) and vice versa? What goes wrong?
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 INTERSECT: Remember the semantics!
Company(name, hq_city) AS C
Example: C JOIN P on maker = name
Product(pname, maker, C.name C.hq_city P.pname P.maker P.factory_loc
factory_loc) AS P X Co. Seattle X X Co. U.S.
Y Inc. Seattle X Y Inc. China
SELECT hq_city
FROM Company, Product
WHERE maker = name
AND factory_loc=‘US’
INTERSECT
SELECT hq_city
FROM Company, Product
WHERE maker = name
AND factory_loc=‘China’

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 INTERSECT: Remember the semantics!
Company(name, hq_city) AS C
Example: C JOIN P on maker = name
Product(pname, maker, C.name C.hq_city P.pname P.maker P.factory_loc
factory_loc) AS P X Co. Seattle X X Co. U.S.
Y Inc. Seattle X Y Inc. China
SELECT hq_city
FROM Company, Product
WHERE maker = name
AND factory_loc=‘US’
INTERSECT
X Co has a factory in the US (but not China)
SELECT hq_city Y Inc. has a factory in China (but not US)
FROM Company, Product
WHERE maker = name
AND factory_loc=‘China’
But Seattle is returned by the query!

We did the INTERSECT

on the wrong attributes!
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 One Solution: Nested Queries
Company(name, hq_city)
Product(pname, maker, factory_loc) “Headquarters of
companies which
SELECT DISTINCT hq_city make products in
FROM Company, Product
WHERE maker = name US AND China”
AND name IN (
SELECT maker
FROM Product
WHERE factory_loc = ‘US’) Note: If we hadn’t
AND name IN ( used DISTINCT here,
SELECT maker
FROM Product
how many copies of
WHERE factory_loc = ‘China’) each hq_city would
have been returned?
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 High-level note on nested queries
• We can do nested queries because SQL is compositional:

• Everything (inputs / outputs) is represented as multisets- the output of one

query can thus be used as the input to another (nesting)!

• This is extremely powerful!

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 Nested queries: Sub-queries Returning
Relations
Another Company(name, city)
example: Product(name, maker)
Purchase(id, product, buyer)

SELECT c.city “Cities where one

FROM Company c can find
WHERE c.name IN ( companies that
SELECT pr.maker manufacture
FROM Purchase p, Product pr products bought
WHERE p.product = pr.name by Joe Blow”
AND p.buyer = ‘Joe Blow‘)

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 Nested Queries
Is this query equivalent?

SELECT c.city
FROM Company c,
Product pr,
Purchase p
WHERE c.name = pr.maker
AND pr.name = p.product
AND p.buyer = ‘Joe Blow’

Beware of duplicates!
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 Nested Queries

SELECT DISTINCT c.city SELECT DISTINCT c.city

FROM Company c, FROM Company c
Product pr, WHERE c.name IN (
Purchase p SELECT pr.maker
WHERE c.name = pr.maker FROM Purchase p, Product pr
AND pr.name = p.product WHERE p.product = pr.name
AND p.buyer = ‘Joe Blow’ AND p.buyer = ‘Joe Blow‘)

Now they are equivalent

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 Subqueries Returning Relations
You can also use operations of the form: ANY and ALL not supported by
• s > ALL R SQLite.
• s < ANY R
• EXISTS R

Ex: Product(name, price, category, maker)

SELECT name Find products that

FROM Product are more expensive
WHERE price > ALL( than all those
SELECT price produced by
FROM Product “Gizmo-Works”
WHERE maker = ‘Gizmo-Works’)
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 Subqueries Returning Relations
You can also use operations of the form:
• s > ALL R
• s < ANY R
• EXISTS R

Ex: Product(name, price, category, maker)

SELECT p1.name Find ‘copycat’

FROM Product p1 products, i.e.
WHERE p1.maker = ‘Gizmo-Works’ products made by
AND EXISTS( competitors with
SELECT p2.name
the same names as
FROM Product p2
WHERE p2.maker <> ‘Gizmo-Works’ <> means !=
products made by
AND p1.name = p2.name) “Gizmo-Works”
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 Nested queries as alternatives to INTERSECT
and EXCEPT INTERSECT and EXCEPT not in
some DBMSs!
(SELECT R.A, R.B SELECT R.A, R.B
FROM R) FROM R
INTERSECT WHERE EXISTS(
(SELECT S.A, S.B SELECT *
FROM S) FROM S
If R, S have no
WHERE R.A=S.A AND R.B=S.B)
duplicates, then
can write without
sub-queries
(SELECT R.A, R.B SELECT R.A, R.B (HOW?)
FROM R) FROM R
EXCEPT WHERE NOT EXISTS(
(SELECT S.A, S.B SELECT *
FROM S) FROM S
WHERE R.A=S.A AND R.B=S.B)
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 A question for Database Fans & Friends
• Can we express the previous nested queries as
single SFW queries?

• Hint: show that all SFW queries are monotone

(roughly: more tuples, more answers).
• A query with ALL is often not monotone

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 Correlated Queries
Movie(title, year, director, length)
Find movies whose
SELECT DISTINCT title title appears more
FROM Movie AS m than once.
WHERE year <> ANY(
SELECT year
FROM Movie
WHERE title = m.title)

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 Complex Correlated Query
Product(name, price, category, maker, year)

SELECT DISTINCT x.name, x.maker Find products (and their

FROM Product AS x manufacturers) that are
WHERE x.price > ALL( more expensive than all
SELECT y.price products made by the
FROM Product AS y same manufacturer
WHERE x.maker = y.maker before 1972
AND y.year < 1972)

Can be very powerful (also much harder to optimize)

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 Basic SQL Summary
• SQL provides a high-level declarative language for manipulating data
(DML)

• The workhorse is the SFW block

• Set operators are powerful but have some subtleties

• Powerful, nested queries also allowed.

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H.U. Computer Engineering Department 82
 2. Aggregation & GROUP BY

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 What you will learn about in this section
1. Aggregation operators

2. GROUP BY

3. GROUP BY: with HAVING, semantics

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 Aggregation
SELECT AVG(price) SELECT COUNT(*)
FROM Product FROM Product
WHERE maker = “Toyota” WHERE year > 1995

• SQL supports several aggregation operations:

• SUM, COUNT, MIN, MAX, AVG

Except COUNT, all aggregations

apply to a single attribute

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 Aggregation: COUNT

• COUNT applies to duplicates, unless otherwise stated

SELECT COUNT(category) Note: Same as COUNT(*).

Why?
FROM Product
WHERE year > 1995

We probably want:
SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT category)
FROM Product
WHERE year > 1995
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 More Examples
Purchase(product, date, price, quantity)

SELECT SUM(price * quantity)

FROM Purchase

What do these mean?

SELECT SUM(price * quantity)
FROM Purchase
WHERE product = ‘bagel’

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 Simple Aggregations
Purchase
Product Date Price Quantity
bagel 10/21 1 20
banana 10/3 0.5 10
banana 10/10 1 10
bagel 10/25 1.50 20

SELECT SUM(price * quantity)

FROM Purchase 50 (= 1*20 + 1.50*20)
WHERE product = ‘bagel’
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 Grouping and Aggregation
Purchase(product, date, price, quantity)

SELECT product, Find total sales

SUM(price * quantity) AS TotalSales after 10/1/2005
FROM Purchase per product.
WHERE date > ‘10/1/2005’
GROUP BY product

Let’s see what this means…

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 Grouping and Aggregation
Semantics of the query:

1. Compute the FROM and WHERE clauses

2. Group by the attributes in the GROUP BY

3. Compute the SELECT clause: grouped attributes and aggregates

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 1. Compute the FROM and WHERE clauses
SELECT product, SUM(price*quantity) AS TotalSales
FROM Purchase
WHERE date > ‘10/1/2005’
GROUP BY product

Product Date Price Quantity

FROM
Bagel 10/21 1 20
Bagel 10/25 1.50 20
Banana 10/3 0.5 10
Banana 10/10 1 10

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 2. Group by the attributes in the GROUP BY
SELECT product, SUM(price*quantity) AS TotalSales
FROM Purchase
WHERE date > ‘10/1/2005’
GROUP BY product

Product Date Price Quantity GROUP BY Product Date Price Quantity

Bagel 10/21 1 20 10/21 1 20
Bagel
Bagel 10/25 1.50 20 10/25 1.50 20
Banana 10/3 0.5 10 10/3 0.5 10
Banana
Banana 10/10 1 10 10/10 1 10

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 3. Compute the SELECT clause: grouped
attributes and aggregates
SELECT product, SUM(price*quantity) AS TotalSales
FROM Purchase
WHERE date > ‘10/1/2005’
GROUP BY product

Product Date Price Quantity

SELECT Product TotalSales
10/21 1 20
Bagel
10/25 1.50 20 Bagel 50
10/3 0.5 10
Banana Banana 15
10/10 1 10

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 GROUP BY v.s. Nested Quereis
SELECT product, Sum(price*quantity) AS TotalSales
FROM Purchase
WHERE date > ‘10/1/2005’
GROUP BY product

SELECT DISTINCT x.product,

(SELECT Sum(y.price*y.quantity)
FROM Purchase y
WHERE x.product = y.product
AND y.date > ‘10/1/2005’) AS TotalSales
FROM Purchase x
WHERE x.date > ‘10/1/2005’
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 HAVING Clause

SELECT product, SUM(price*quantity) Same query as

FROM Purchase before, except that
WHERE date > ‘10/1/2005’ we consider only
GROUP BY product
HAVING SUM(quantity) > 100
products that have
more than
100 buyers
HAVING clauses contains conditions on aggregates

Whereas WHERE clauses condition on individual tuples…

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 General form of Grouping and Aggregation
SELECT S
FROM R1,…,Rn
WHERE C1
GROUP BY a1,…,ak
HAVING C2

• S = Can ONLY contain attributes a1,…,ak and/or aggregates over other attributes
• C1 = is any condition on the attributes in R1,…,Rn
• C2 = is any condition on the aggregate expressions

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 General form of Grouping and Aggregation
SELECT S
FROM R1,…,Rn
WHERE C1
GROUP BY a1,…,ak
HAVING C2

Evaluation steps:
1. Evaluate FROM-WHERE: apply condition C1 on the
attributes in R1,…,Rn
2. GROUP BY the attributes a1,…,ak
3. Apply condition C2 to each group (may have aggregates)
4. Compute aggregates in S and return the result
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 Group-by v.s. Nested Query
Author(login, name)
Wrote(login, url)

• Find authors who wrote ³ 10 documents:

• Attempt 1: with nested queries
SELECT DISTINCT Author.name This is
FROM Author SQL by
a novice
WHERE COUNT(
SELECT Wrote.url
FROM Wrote
WHERE Author.login = Wrote.login) > 10
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 Group-by v.s. Nested Query
• Find all authors who wrote at least 10 documents:
• Attempt 2: SQL style (with GROUP BY)

SELECT Author.name This is

SQL by
FROM Author, Wrote an expert
WHERE Author.login = Wrote.login
GROUP BY Author.name
HAVING COUNT(Wrote.url) > 10

No need for DISTINCT: automatically from GROUP BY

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 Group-by vs. Nested Query
Which way is more efficient?

• Attempt #1- With nested: How many times do we do a SFW query

over all of the Wrote relations?

• Attempt #2- With group-by: How about when written this way?

With GROUP BY can be much more efficient!

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 3. Advanced SQL-izing

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 What you will learn about in this section
1. Quantifiers

2. NULLs

3. Outer Joins

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 Quantifiers
Product(name, price, company)
Company(name, city)

SELECT DISTINCT Company.cname Find all companies

FROM Company, Product that make some
WHERE Company.name = Product.company products with price
AND Product.price < 100 < 100

An existential quantifier is a
logical quantifier (roughly)
of the form “there exists”
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 Quantifiers
Find all companies
Product(name, price, company) with products all
Company(name, city) having price < 100

Equivalent
SELECT DISTINCT Company.cname
FROM Company
WHERE Company.name NOT IN( Find all companies
SELECT Product.company that make only
FROM Product.price >= 100) products with price
< 100
A universal quantifier is of
the form “for all”
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 NULLS in SQL
• Whenever we don’t have a value, we can put a NULL

• Can mean many things:

• Value does not exists
• Value exists but is unknown
• Value not applicable
• Etc.

• The schema specifies for each attribute if can be null (nullable attribute) or
not

• How does SQL cope with tables that have NULLs?

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 Null Values
• For numerical operations, NULL -> NULL:
• If x = NULL then 4*(3-x)/7 is still NULL

• For boolean operations, in SQL there are three values:

FALSE = 0
TRUE = 1
UNKNOWN

• If x = NULL then x =“Joe” is UNKNOWN

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 Null Values
• C1 AND C2 = min(C1, C2)
• C1 OR C2 = max(C1, C2)
• NOT C1 = 1 – C1

SELECT * Won’t return e.g.

FROM Person (age=20
WHERE (age < 25) height=NULL
AND (height > 6 AND weight > 190) weight=200)!

Rule in SQL: include only tuples that yield TRUE (1.0)

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 Null Values
Unexpected behavior:

SELECT *
FROM Person
WHERE age < 25 OR age >= 25

Some Persons are not included !

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 Null Values
Can test for NULL explicitly:
• x IS NULL
• x IS NOT NULL

SELECT *
FROM Person
WHERE age < 25 OR age >= 25
OR age IS NULL

Now it includes all Persons!

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 RECAP: Inner Joins
By default, joins in SQL are “inner joins”:
Product(name, category)
Purchase(prodName, store)

SELECT Product.name, Purchase.store

FROM Product
JOIN Purchase ON Product.name = Purchase.prodName
Both equivalent:
SELECT Product.name, Purchase.store Both INNER JOINS!
FROM Product, Purchase
WHERE Product.name = Purchase.prodName

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 INNER JOIN:
Product Purchase
name category prodName store

Gizmo gadget Gizmo Wiz

Camera Photo Camera Ritz

OneClick Photo Camera Wiz

name store
SELECT Product.name, Purchase.store
FROM Product Gizmo Wiz
INNER JOIN Purchase
Camera Ritz
ON Product.name = Purchase.prodName
Camera Wiz
Products that never sold (with no Purchase tuple) will be lost!
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 Outer Joins
• An outer join returns tuples from the joined relations that don’t have a
corresponding tuple in the other relations
• I.e. If we join relations A and B on a.X = b.X, and there is an entry in A with X=5, but
none in B with X=5…
• A LEFT OUTER JOIN will return a tuple (a, NULL)!

• Left outer joins in SQL: SELECT Product.name, Purchase.store

FROM Product
LEFT OUTER JOIN Purchase ON
Product.name = Purchase.prodName

Now we’ll get products even if they didn’t sell

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 LEFT OUTER JOIN:
Product Purchase
name category prodName store

Gizmo gadget Gizmo Wiz

Camera Photo Camera Ritz

OneClick Photo Camera Wiz

name store

Gizmo Wiz
SELECT Product.name, Purchase.store
FROM Product Camera Ritz
LEFT OUTER JOIN Purchase
ON Product.name = Purchase.prodName Camera Wiz

OneClick NULL
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 Other Outer Joins

• Left outer join:

• Include the left tuple even if there’s no match

• Right outer join:

• Include the right tuple even if there’s no match

• Full outer join:

• Include the both left and right tuples even if there’s no match

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 Summary

SQL is a rich programming language

that handles the way data is processed
declaratively

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 Acknowledgements
The course material used for this lecture is mostly taken and/or
adopted from the course materials of the CS145 Introduction to
Databases lecture given by Christopher Ré at Stanford University
(http://web.stanford.edu/class/cs145/).

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