CHAPTER 8 ANAPHY Transes
CHAPTER 8 ANAPHY Transes
CHAPTER 8 ANAPHY Transes
NEURONS:
Types of Neurons:
NEURON COMMUNICATION
Neurons and muscle cells are excitable cells.
They change their resting membrane
potential in response to stimuli.
In muscle cells, this leads to contraction,
while in neurons, it enables communication.
Neuron communication involves three
stages:
1. Generation of action potentials
2. Propagation of action potentials along
the cell membrane
3. Communication with target cells at the At the end of the action potential sequence, the
synapse. cell undergoes repolarization and eventually
hyperpolarization.
The process of regaining resting concentrations
of ions inside the cell is passive.
During depolarization, voltage-gated Na+
channels open, allowing Na+ to enter the cell,
causing a positive charge inside.
When the threshold depolarization is reached,
more Na+ channels open, leading to a rapid
influx of Na+
Repolarization begins as voltage-gated K+
channels also open, allowing K+ to leave the
cell.
This outward flow of K+ restores the cell
membrane to its resting potential.
Hyperpolarization briefly occurs when the cell
ACTION POTENTIALS membrane becomes more negative than the
Resting membrane potential of neurons changes resting potential.
in response to stimuli.
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
The process of repolarization and 3. Synaptic cleft. (the space separating the
hyperpolarization is passive, driven by ion presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes)
concentration gradients and membrane Communication at synapses usually involves
permeability changes. neurotransmitters.
Steps in synaptic communication:
SUMMARY
1. Action potential opens Ca2+ channels in
Resting membrane potential set by leak presynaptic terminal.
channels 2. Ca2+ influx triggers neurotransmitter
Stimulation opens chemically gated channels, release.
leading to local potentials 3. Neurotransmitters cross the synaptic cleft.
Strong local potentials activate voltage-gated 4. Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the
channels for action potential postsynaptic membrane.
Action potentials are all-or-none; threshold The response in the postsynaptic cell can be
reached = action potential stimulation or inhibition.
All action potentials have the same magnitude Neurotransmitters like acetylcholine and
Stronger stimuli result in more frequent action norepinephrine play key roles.
potentials Neurotransmitters are short-lived, broken down
Neural signaling based on the number of action by enzymes or transported back to the
potentials presynaptic terminal.
Drugs can affect neurotransmitter action, with
examples like cocaine, amphetamines, and
Action Potential Conduction serotonin reuptake inhibitors for depression.
The Synapse
A synapse is a junction where neurons or
effector cells interact.
Major components of a synapse:
1. Presynaptic terminal (the end of the axon NEURONAL PATHWAYS
forms) CNS neurons organize into pathways:
2. Postsynaptic membrane (the membrane of 1. Simplest pathways:
the dendrite or effector cell is the)
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
a. Converging: Multiple neurons synapse Spinal nerves arise from rootlets along the
with one postsynaptic neuron. dorsal and ventral surfaces, forming dorsal and
b. Diverging: One neuron's axon synapses ventral roots.
with multiple postsynaptic neurons. Dorsal roots have dorsal root ganglia containing
In CNS and many PNS synapses, single action sensory neuron cell bodies.
potential insufficient. Motor neurons, both somatic and autonomic, are
Summation needed for effect: found in ventral and lateral horns.
- Summation integrates subthreshold local Ventral roots contain motor axons, while dorsal
potentials. roots contain sensory axons.
- Types: Each spinal nerve carries both sensory and
1. Spatial summation (from different motor axons.
locations)
2. Temporal summation (overlapping in
time).
Summation can stimulate or inhibit.
Determines if postsynaptic neuron fires an
action potential.
Cerebellum
The cerebellum is connected to the brainstem
through cerebellar peduncles.
It has gray matter in its cortex with smaller gyri
and sulci compared to the cerebrum.
Internally, it contains gray nuclei and white
nerve tracts.
The cerebellum is responsible for maintaining
balance, muscle tone, and coordinating fine
motor movements.
Damage to the cerebellum leads to decreased
muscle tone and clumsy fine motor skills.
One of its primary functions is acting as a
comparator, comparing data from the motor
cortex and peripheral structures.
Basal Nuclei
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Brain Waves and Consciousness:
Electroencephalogram (EEG) records brain
electrical activity.
Alpha waves in quiet wakefulness.
Beta waves during intense mental activity.
Delta waves in deep sleep or severe brain
disorders.
Theta waves in children and during frustration
or certain disorders.
Used for neurological diagnosis and treatment
planning.
Memory:
Three stages: working, short-term, long-term.
1. Action potentials from cerebral motor cortex go Working memory lasts seconds to minutes
to spinal cord for voluntary movements. (frontal cortex).
2. Motor cortex sends collateral branches to Short-term memory lasts minutes to days
cerebellum for movement information. (synaptic changes).
3. Proprioceptive neurons send action potentials to Long-term memory consolidation strengthens
cerebellum about body position. synaptic connections.
4. Cerebellum compares motor cortex intention Declarative memory (facts) and procedural
with sensory input. memory (skills).
5. If a difference is found, cerebellum corrects it Emotions influence long-term memory storage.
by sending signals to motor neurons.
Cerebellum ensures smooth and coordinated Limbic System and Emotions:
movements. Limbic system influences memory, emotions,
Alcohol can inhibit cerebellum function, leading visceral responses, motivation, mood.
to uncoordinated movements. Olfactory input crucial; connected to
Cerebellum also helps cerebrum in learning hypothalamus.
motor skills for smooth, automatic execution. Lesions in limbic system can cause abnormal
behaviors and emotions.