CHAPTER 8 ANAPHY Transes

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

CHAPTER 8: NERVOUS SYSTEM 1. Central Nervous System (CNS): Consists of the


brain and spinal cord.
8.1 FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Includes
nerves and ganglia outside the CNS.
Functions of the Nervous System:
PNS connects CNS to the body:
1. Receiving sensory input:
o Monitors external and internal stimuli. 1. Sensory Division (Afferent): Transmits sensory
o Sensations like vision, hearing, taste, smell, information from receptors to the CNS via
touch, pain, body position, and temperature. sensory neurons.
o Subconscious processing of stimuli like blood 2. Motor Division (Efferent): Sends commands
pH, blood gases, and blood pressure. from CNS to muscles and glands via motor
2. Integrating information: neurons.
o Brain and spinal cord process sensory input.
Motor Division controls effectors:
o Responses can be immediate, stored as memory,
or ignored.  Includes skeletal muscles (voluntary
3. Controlling muscles and glands: control), cardiac and smooth muscles, and
o Nervous system stimulates skeletal muscles for glands (involuntary control).
body movements. Motor Division has two components:
o Also controls cardiac muscle, smooth muscle,
and many glands. 1. Somatic Nervous System: Connects CNS to
4. Maintaining homeostasis: skeletal muscles.
o Detects, interprets, and responds to internal and 2. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS):
external changes. Connects CNS to cardiac, smooth muscles,
o Regulates other systems to maintain a constant and glands.
internal environment.
5. Establishing and maintaining mental activity:
o Brain functions as the center for consciousness, ANS further divides into:
memory, and thinking.  Sympathetic Division: Activates "fight or
flight" responses.
 Parasympathetic Division: Promotes "rest
8.2 DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM and digest" activities.
Enteric Nervous System (ENS):
 Located in the digestive tract.
 Has sensory and motor neurons.
 Can function independently but is
connected to CNS and ANS for integration.

8.3 CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM


Two main types of cells in the nervous system:
 neurons
 glial cells.

Nervous system has two main divisions:


ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

NEURONS:

 Receive stimuli, conduct action potentials, and


transmit signals.
 Composed of a cell body, dendrites, and axons.
 Cell body contains a nucleus.
 Dendrites receive information and transmit it
towards the cell body.
 Axons conduct action potentials away from the GLIAL CELLS
cell body.
 Axon hillock is the point where the axon leaves
the cell body.
 Axons can be myelinated and may branch.

Types of Neurons:

Classified by function (e.g., sensory or motor) and


structure:
1. Multipolar neurons: Many dendrites and a single  Glial cells, or neuroglia, support the central
axon; found in the CNS and most motor nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous
neurons. system (PNS) but do not conduct action
2. Bipolar neurons: Two processes (one dendrite potentials.
and one axon); located in sensory organs.  They outnumber neurons and can divide, unlike
3. Pseudo-unipolar neurons: Single process that neurons.
splits into two extensions; found in most  CNS has four types of glial cells:
sensory neurons. 1. Astrocytes
2. Ependymal cells
3. Microglia
4. Oligodendrocytes.
 PNS glial cells include
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
1. Schwann cells  White matter contains myelinated axon bundles,
2. Satellite cells. appearing whitish.
 Astrocytes support CNS neurons, regulate  CNS white matter forms nerve tracts for action
signaling activity, and form the blood-brain potential propagation.
barrier.  PNS white matter consists of axon bundles
 Ependymal cells line fluid-filled cavities in the forming nerves.
CNS and help produce and move cerebrospinal
fluid.
 Microglia act as immune cells in the CNS by 8.4 ELECTRICAL SIGNALS AND NEURAL
removing bacteria and debris. PATHWAYS
 Oligodendrocytes provide insulation for axons
Resting Membrane Potential
in the CNS.
 In the PNS, Schwann cells insulate axons,  Cells have electrical properties at their
while satellite cells support and protect neuron membranes.
cell bodies from toxins like lead and mercury.  Ions cannot move freely across the cell
membrane; they cross through ion channels.
 Ion flow depends on concentration differences
MYELIN SHEATHS and electrical charges.
 Two types of ion channels:
1. leak (always open)
2. gated (opened by signals).
 Gated channels can be chemically or voltage-
gated.
 Inside of the cell membrane is negatively
 Myelin sheaths are specialized layers wrapping charged; outside is positively charged, creating
around some neurons' axons. polarization.
 Oligodendrocytes in the CNS and Schwann cells  Resting membrane potential is a small voltage
in the PNS create myelin sheaths. difference across the cell membrane.
 Axons with myelin sheaths are called  It's generated by uneven distribution of K+,
myelinated axons. Na+, and negatively charged proteins.
 Myelin acts as an insulator, blocking ion  Figure 8.7 illustrates factors behind the resting
movement across the cell membrane. membrane potential of neurons.
 Nodes of Ranvier are gaps in the myelin sheath
where ion movement can occur.
 Myelination increases the speed and efficiency
of action potential generation.
 Unmyelinated axons lack myelin sheaths but
rest in cell indentations.
 Nerves typically contain more unmyelinated
axons than myelinated axons.

ORGANIZATION OF NERVOUS TISSUE


 Nervous tissue has varying colors due to neuron
and glial cell arrangement.
 It's categorized into gray matter and white
matter.
PROCESS OF RESTING MEMBRANE
 Gray matter has neuron cell bodies and
POTENTIAL
dendrites with little myelin.
 In the CNS, gray matter on the brain's surface is Resting membrane potential results from ion
called the cortex; deeper clusters are nuclei. concentration differences and membrane
 The PNS also has gray matter, called ganglia. permeability.
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
1. Distribution of ions and proteins across the cell  Stimuli activate gated ion channels.
membrane:  Opening and closing of these channels alter cell
 Higher K+ concentration inside the cell. membrane permeability.
 Higher Na+ concentration outside the cell.  This alteration leads to action potentials, which
 Negatively charged proteins inside the cell are electrical signals.
contribute to the negative charge.  Action potentials are conducted along the cell
2. Movement of ions through leak channels: membrane.
 More K+ leak channels than Na+ leak  Voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels are
channels. responsible for action potential generation.
 K+ has greater permeability and influence.
 K+ diffuses out, Na+ diffuses in due to
concentration gradient.
 Negatively charged molecules inside attract
positive K+ back.
3. Sodium-potassium pump maintains ion levels:
 Compensates for ion leakage.
 Actively transports K+ into the cell and
Na+ out.
 Consumes significant ATP energy (25% of
all ATP in a typical cell, 70% in a neuron).

NEURON COMMUNICATION
 Neurons and muscle cells are excitable cells.
 They change their resting membrane
potential in response to stimuli.
 In muscle cells, this leads to contraction,
while in neurons, it enables communication.
 Neuron communication involves three
stages:
1. Generation of action potentials
2. Propagation of action potentials along
the cell membrane
3. Communication with target cells at the  At the end of the action potential sequence, the
synapse. cell undergoes repolarization and eventually
hyperpolarization.
 The process of regaining resting concentrations
of ions inside the cell is passive.
 During depolarization, voltage-gated Na+
channels open, allowing Na+ to enter the cell,
causing a positive charge inside.
 When the threshold depolarization is reached,
more Na+ channels open, leading to a rapid
influx of Na+
 Repolarization begins as voltage-gated K+
channels also open, allowing K+ to leave the
cell.
 This outward flow of K+ restores the cell
membrane to its resting potential.
 Hyperpolarization briefly occurs when the cell
ACTION POTENTIALS membrane becomes more negative than the
 Resting membrane potential of neurons changes resting potential.
in response to stimuli.
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
 The process of repolarization and 3. Synaptic cleft. (the space separating the
hyperpolarization is passive, driven by ion presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes)
concentration gradients and membrane  Communication at synapses usually involves
permeability changes. neurotransmitters.
 Steps in synaptic communication:
SUMMARY
1. Action potential opens Ca2+ channels in
 Resting membrane potential set by leak presynaptic terminal.
channels 2. Ca2+ influx triggers neurotransmitter
 Stimulation opens chemically gated channels, release.
leading to local potentials 3. Neurotransmitters cross the synaptic cleft.
 Strong local potentials activate voltage-gated 4. Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the
channels for action potential postsynaptic membrane.
 Action potentials are all-or-none; threshold  The response in the postsynaptic cell can be
reached = action potential stimulation or inhibition.
 All action potentials have the same magnitude  Neurotransmitters like acetylcholine and
 Stronger stimuli result in more frequent action norepinephrine play key roles.
potentials  Neurotransmitters are short-lived, broken down
 Neural signaling based on the number of action by enzymes or transported back to the
potentials presynaptic terminal.
 Drugs can affect neurotransmitter action, with
examples like cocaine, amphetamines, and
Action Potential Conduction serotonin reuptake inhibitors for depression.

 Action potential conduction occurs along the


cell membrane of neurons.
 There are two patterns of action potential
conduction:
1. continuous an
2. saltatory.
 Continuous conduction happens in
unmyelinated axons, where local currents
stimulate adjacent parts of the cell membrane.
 In myelinated axons, saltatory conduction
occurs, where action potentials jump from one
node of Ranvier to the next.
 Saltatory conduction is faster due to nodes of
Ranvier, resembling a child skipping.
 Conduction speed varies based on axon
diameter; larger, heavily myelinated axons
conduct faster.
 Rapidly conducted action potentials are essential
for quick responses to external stimuli.
 Myelinated axons require less energy for ion
distribution compared to unmyelinated ones.

The Synapse
 A synapse is a junction where neurons or
effector cells interact.
 Major components of a synapse:
1. Presynaptic terminal (the end of the axon NEURONAL PATHWAYS
forms)  CNS neurons organize into pathways:
2. Postsynaptic membrane (the membrane of 1. Simplest pathways:
the dendrite or effector cell is the)
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
a. Converging: Multiple neurons synapse  Spinal nerves arise from rootlets along the
with one postsynaptic neuron. dorsal and ventral surfaces, forming dorsal and
b. Diverging: One neuron's axon synapses ventral roots.
with multiple postsynaptic neurons.  Dorsal roots have dorsal root ganglia containing
 In CNS and many PNS synapses, single action sensory neuron cell bodies.
potential insufficient.  Motor neurons, both somatic and autonomic, are
 Summation needed for effect: found in ventral and lateral horns.
- Summation integrates subthreshold local  Ventral roots contain motor axons, while dorsal
potentials. roots contain sensory axons.
- Types:  Each spinal nerve carries both sensory and
1. Spatial summation (from different motor axons.
locations)
2. Temporal summation (overlapping in
time).
 Summation can stimulate or inhibit.
 Determines if postsynaptic neuron fires an
action potential.

8.5 CENTRAL AND PERIPHERAL NERVOUS


SYSTEMS
 Central Nervous System (CNS): Includes the
brain (skull) and spinal cord (vertebral column)
 Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Comprises
nerves and ganglia outside the CNS.
 PNS function: Collects info from body and
sends it via sensory neurons to CNS.
 CNS response: Can ignore, trigger reflex, or
evaluate incoming information.
 PNS also includes motor neurons, relaying CNS
commands to muscles and glands.
 PNS has 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs
of spinal nerves.

8.6 SPINAL CORD


 The spinal cord extends from the base of the
skull to the second lumbar vertebra.
 Spinal nerves communicate between the spinal
cord and the body, forming the cauda equina at
the inferior end.
 The spinal cord consists of white matter
(myelinated axons) and gray matter (neuron cell
bodies).
 White matter is organized into dorsal, ventral,
and lateral columns, housing ascending and
descending tracts.
 Gray matter resembles the letter H and includes
dorsal and ventral horns, with lateral horns
related to the autonomic nervous system.
REFLEXES
 The central canal is a fluid-filled space in the
center of the spinal cord.
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
o Sensory neurons transmit signals to the
spinal cord.
o Sensory neurons synapse with motor
neurons in the spinal cord's gray matter.
o Motor neurons stimulate the same
muscle to contract, causing the knee-jerk
response.
 Reflex: Involuntary reaction to a peripheral  Clinicians use the knee-jerk reflex to assess the
stimulus sent to CNS. functionality of higher CNS centers.
 Quick reactions: Reflexes are faster than  Descending neurons in the spinal cord can
conscious thought. modify the stretch reflex.
 Reflex arc: Neuronal pathway for reflexes.  Stretch reflexes help maintain posture and
coordinate muscle activity.
 Basic unit: Smallest functional nervous system
unit for stimulus-response.  After a severe spinal cord injury, spinal reflexes
are initially lost, but the knee-jerk reflex may
 Components:
return, often exaggerated.
1. Sensory receptor
2. Sensory neuron  Absence or exaggeration of the stretch reflex
3. Interneurons (in some cases) can indicate damage to neurons in the brain or
4. Motor neuron spinal cord that modify the reflex.
5. Effector organ (muscles or glands)
 Simplest arcs skip interneurons
Withdrawal Reflex
 Most reflexes in spinal cord or brainstem, not
higher brain centers.
Knee-Jerk Reflex

Function of Withdrawal Reflex:


- Remove limb or body part from painful
stimulus.
- Sensory receptors are pain receptors.
- Initiated by stimulation of pain receptors.
Steps of Withdrawal Reflex:
1. Painful stimuli activate pain receptors, causing
action potentials.
 The stretch reflex is a simple reflex involving
2. Sensory neurons transmit action potentials to the
muscle contraction in response to stretching.
spinal cord via dorsal root.
 An example of the stretch reflex is the knee-jerk
3. Sensory neurons synapse with interneurons in
reflex.
the spinal cord.
 When the quadriceps femoris muscle is
4. Interneurons further synapse with motor
stretched by tapping the patellar ligament:
neurons.
o Sensory receptors in the muscle are
5. Motor neurons stimulate flexor muscles to
stretched, activating the reflex. withdraw the limb from the painful stimulus.
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
8.7 SPINAL NERVES
 Spinal nerves originate from the union of dorsal
and ventral roots.
 They are mixed nerves containing sensory and
somatic motor neurons.
 Some spinal nerves also have parasympathetic
or sympathetic axons.
 They are categorized by the region of the
vertebral column from which they emerge.
 Dermatomes are areas of skin supplied with
sensory innervation by spinal nerves.
 Most spinal nerves form three major plexuses:
cervical, brachial, and lumbosacral.
 Plexuses reorganize neurons and supply specific
regions of the body.
 Cervical plexus (C1-C4) innervates neck
muscles and skin, including the phrenic nerve 8.8 BRAIN
for diaphragm function. Major Regions of the Brain:
 Brachial plexus (C5-T1) supplies the upper limb
and shoulder, including the axillary, radial, 1. Brainstem
musculocutaneous, ulnar, and median nerves. 2. Cerebellum
 Lumbosacral plexus (L1-S4) serves the lower
limb, including the obturator, femoral, tibial, 3. Diencephalon
and common fibular nerves, with the latter two 4. Cerebrum
forming the sciatic nerve.
Brainstem:
 Connects spinal cord to the rest of the brain
 Includes medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain
 Vital for functions like heart rate, blood
pressure, and breathing
Medulla Oblongata (Part of Brainstem):
 Inferior portion of brainstem
 Controls heart rate, blood vessel diameter,
breathing, and more
 Contains pyramids on the anterior surface for
motor control
Pons (Part of Brainstem):
 Located above medulla oblongata
 Connects cerebrum and cerebellum
 Involved in functions like breathing,
swallowing, and balance
Midbrain (Part of Brainstem):
 Smallest region of the brainstem
 Contains colliculi for auditory and visual
reflexes
 Houses substantia nigra involved in body
movements
 Functions in coordinating eye movements
Reticular Formation:
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
 Scattered nuclei throughout brainstem 5. Insula (fifth lobe): Located deep within the
 Regulates motor functions, consciousness, and lateral fissure, involved in taste perception.
sleep-wake cycle
 Arouses consciousness and responds to stimuli
8.9 SENSORY FUNCTIONS
Cerebellum:
 CNS receives various stimuli from inside and
 Connected to brainstem outside the body.
 Coordinates motor functions, discussed later  Much of this input goes unnoticed but is crucial
for survival.
Diencephalon:  Brainstem and diencephalon process input for
 Between brainstem and cerebrum homeostasis.
 Main components: thalamus, epithalamus,  Cerebrum and cerebellum handle input for
hypothalamus environmental awareness and motor control.
 A fraction of sensory input leads to conscious
Thalamus (Part of Diencephalon): perception.
 Largest part of diencephalon Ascending Tracts
 Relays sensory input to the cerebral cortex
 Influences mood and perception of pain
Epithalamus (Part of Diencephalon):
 Located above the thalamus
 Involved in emotional and visceral responses to
odors
 Contains the pineal gland
Hypothalamus (Part of Diencephalon):
 Most inferior part of diencephalon
 Maintains homeostasis for temperature, hunger,
thirst, and more
 Controls hormonal secretion from the pituitary
gland
 Involved in emotional responses and memory
Cerebrum:
 Largest part of the brain
 Divided into left and right hemispheres
 Surface has gyri (folds) and sulci (grooves)
increasing surface area

Each cerebral hemisphere is divided into lobes,


which are named for the skull bones overlying
them.
1. Frontal lobe: Controls voluntary motor
functions, motivation, aggression, mood, and
smell.
2. Parietal lobe: Receives and perceives sensory
information like touch, pain, temperature, and  Ascending tracts are pathways in the spinal cord
balance. and brainstem that carry sensory information to
3. Occipital lobe: Receives and perceives visual the brain.
input.  These tracts are specialized for specific sensory
4. Temporal lobe: Deals with smell, hearing, inputs like pain, temperature, touch, position,
memory, abstract thought, and judgment. and pressure.
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
 Tracts have names indicating their origin and 8.10 SOMATIC MOTOR FUNCTIONS
termination, with "spino-" often indicating a  The somatic motor system in the brain and
spinal cord origin. spinal cord controls posture, balance, and
 Most ascending tracts involve two or three movement of various body parts like trunk,
neurons, with relay through the thalamus before head, limbs, tongue, and eyes.
reaching the cerebral cortex.  It enables facial expressions, speech, and both
 Examples of ascending tracts include the involuntary and voluntary movements.
spinothalamic tract (pain and temperature) and  Involuntary movements are reflexes controlled
the dorsal column tract (touch, pressure, and by the spinal cord and brainstem and occur
proprioception). without conscious thought.
 Sensory tracts typically cross from one side of  Voluntary movements, like walking or typing,
the body to the other in the spinal cord or are consciously initiated but become automatic
brainstem. through practice.
 Ascending tracts can also terminate in the  Voluntary movements involve two types of
brainstem or cerebellum, transmitting motor neurons: upper motor neurons in the
proprioception information to the cerebellum. cerebral cortex and lower motor neurons in the
spinal cord or cranial nerve nuclei.
 Upper motor neurons connect to lower motor
Sensory Areas of the Cerebral Cortex neurons via descending tracts, which control
skeletal muscles
 Lower motor neurons form motor units
responsible for muscle control.
Motor Areas of the Cerebral Cortex
 Primary motor cortex in frontal lobe controls
voluntary muscle movements.
 It's located just in front of the central sulcus.
 It has a body map, similar to the somatosensory
cortex, with the head at the bottom.
 Premotor area plans and organizes movements
 Sensory areas of the cerebral cortex refer to before they're executed.
regions where sensations are perceived.  Prefrontal area in the frontal lobes is responsible
 Primary sensory areas are specific regions for motivation, emotional regulation, and
within the cerebral cortex. forward thinking.
 The primary somatosensory cortex is in the  Humans have a well-developed prefrontal area,
parietal lobe, handling general sensory input like which contributes to our emotional complexity
pain, pressure, and temperature. and capacity for foresight.
 Sensory fibers carrying input synapse in the
thalamus before relaying to the primary Descending Tracts
somatosensory cortex.
 There's a topographic map of the body in the
primary somatosensory cortex.
 Other primary sensory areas include the visual
cortex (occipital lobe), primary auditory cortex
(temporal lobe), and taste area (insula).
 Association areas border primary sensory areas
and help in recognition.
 For instance, visual input goes from the retina to
visual cortex and then to the visual association
area, where recognition occurs.
 Association areas also determine the
significance of sensory input.
 Examples of association areas are the auditory
association area and the somatosensory
association area.
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
 Descending tracts are named based on their
origin in the brain and their termination in the
spinal cord or brainstem.
 The corticospinal tracts start in the cerebral
cortex and end in the spinal cord, considered
direct tracts.
 Some tracts originate in the brainstem but are
indirectly controlled by the cortex, basal nuclei,
and cerebellum, known as indirect tracts.
 Descending tracts control various types of
movements.  Basal nuclei consist of corpus striatum and
 Lateral column tracts are crucial for goal- substantia nigra.
directed limb movements, especially skilled  They play a crucial role in planning, organizing,
hand movements. and coordinating motor movements and posture.
 Ventral column tracts, like the reticulospinal  Basal nuclei are connected through neural
tract, are important for posture, balance, and circuits with the thalamus and cerebral cortex.
limb position.  Feedback loops include stimulatory circuits for
 The lateral corticospinal tract is an example of a initiating voluntary movements and inhibitory
descending pathway. circuits to control muscle activity and tone.
 It begins in the cortex, descends into the  Disorders of basal nuclei result in difficulty with
brainstem, crosses over to the opposite side in movements like rising from a sitting position
the medulla oblongata, and continues into the and walking.
spinal cord.  People with these disorders may exhibit
 Crossover of axons in the brainstem or spinal increased muscle tone, uncontrolled movements
cord is common in descending pathways. at rest, and resting tremors.
 Upper motor neurons synapse with interneurons,  Examples of basal nuclei disorders include
which then synapse with lower motor neurons. Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and
 Lower motor neurons' axons extend to skeletal cerebral palsy.
muscle fibers, controlling movement.

Cerebellum
 The cerebellum is connected to the brainstem
through cerebellar peduncles.
 It has gray matter in its cortex with smaller gyri
and sulci compared to the cerebrum.
 Internally, it contains gray nuclei and white
nerve tracts.
 The cerebellum is responsible for maintaining
balance, muscle tone, and coordinating fine
motor movements.
 Damage to the cerebellum leads to decreased
muscle tone and clumsy fine motor skills.
 One of its primary functions is acting as a
comparator, comparing data from the motor
cortex and peripheral structures.

Cerebellar Comparator Function

Basal Nuclei
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Brain Waves and Consciousness:
 Electroencephalogram (EEG) records brain
electrical activity.
 Alpha waves in quiet wakefulness.
 Beta waves during intense mental activity.
 Delta waves in deep sleep or severe brain
disorders.
 Theta waves in children and during frustration
or certain disorders.
 Used for neurological diagnosis and treatment
planning.
Memory:
 Three stages: working, short-term, long-term.
1. Action potentials from cerebral motor cortex go  Working memory lasts seconds to minutes
to spinal cord for voluntary movements. (frontal cortex).
2. Motor cortex sends collateral branches to  Short-term memory lasts minutes to days
cerebellum for movement information. (synaptic changes).
3. Proprioceptive neurons send action potentials to  Long-term memory consolidation strengthens
cerebellum about body position. synaptic connections.
4. Cerebellum compares motor cortex intention  Declarative memory (facts) and procedural
with sensory input. memory (skills).
5. If a difference is found, cerebellum corrects it  Emotions influence long-term memory storage.
by sending signals to motor neurons.
 Cerebellum ensures smooth and coordinated Limbic System and Emotions:
movements.  Limbic system influences memory, emotions,
 Alcohol can inhibit cerebellum function, leading visceral responses, motivation, mood.
to uncoordinated movements.  Olfactory input crucial; connected to
 Cerebellum also helps cerebrum in learning hypothalamus.
motor skills for smooth, automatic execution.  Lesions in limbic system can cause abnormal
behaviors and emotions.

8.11 OTHER BRAIN FUNCTIONS


Communication Between Hemispheres: 8.12 MENINGES, VENTRICLES, AND
 Right hemisphere controls left side of the body, CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
receives input from it.
Meninges
 Left hemisphere controls right side of the body,
receives input from it.  Three connective tissue membranes that
 Commissures connect hemispheres, corpus surround and protect the brain and spinal cord.
callosum is the largest.  Includes:
 Different hemisphere specialization: left 1. Dura mater (tough mother) - the most
analytical, right spatial and artistic. superficial and thickest of the meninges.
Speech: 2. Arachnoid mater (spiderlike, as in
cobwebs) - a very thin, wispy membrane.
 Left cerebral cortex typically houses speech 3. Pia mater (affectionate mother) - tightly
areas. bound to the surface of the brain and
 Sensory speech area (Wernicke) in parietal lobe spinal cord.
understands speech.  Dura mater consists of two layers, with dural
 Motor speech area (Broca) in frontal lobe folds and dural venous sinuses.
controls speech movement.  Damage to veins between the cerebral cortex
 Damage to these areas can cause aphasia and dural venous sinuses can lead to subdural
(speech problems). hematoma.
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
 Epidural space between dura mater and  Parasympathetic (innervate glands, smooth muscle
vertebrae is used for epidural anesthesia during throughout the body, and cardiac muscle of the
childbirth. heart)
Neurons Associated with Cranial Nerves:
Ventricles  Sensory neurons.
 Somatic motor neurons.
 Fluid-filled cavities in the CNS.
 Parasympathetic neurons of the autonomic nervous
 Types of ventricles: system.
1. Lateral ventricles (one in each cerebral  Some cranial nerves are sensory only, some somatic
hemisphere). motor only, and others mixed with sensory, somatic
2. Third ventricle (midline cavity in the motor, and parasympathetic functions.
diencephalon). Cranial Nerves with Specific Functions:
3. Fourth ventricle (located at the base of the  Sensory Only: Olfactory, Optic, Vestibulocochlear.
cerebellum, connected to the third ventricle  Somatic Motor Only: Trochlear, Abducens,
via cerebral aqueduct). Accessory, Hypoglossal.
 Fourth ventricle is continuous with the central  Trigeminal Nerve: Sensory and somatic motor
canal of the spinal cord and opens into the (greatest general sensory distribution and supplies
subarachnoid space. sensory information to the brain from the skin of the
face).
 Oculomotor Nerve: Somatic motor and
parasympathetic.
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)  Facial, Glossopharyngeal, Vagus Nerves: Sensory,
 CSF bathes the brain and spinal cord, providing somatic motor, and parasympathetic.
Significance of Vagus Nerve:
protection.
 The vagus nerve is crucial for regulating thoracic
 Produced by choroid plexuses in the ventricles,
and abdominal organ functions, including heart rate,
composed of ependymal cells. respiration rate, and digestion.
 Fills brain ventricles, central canal of the spinal Crossing of Sensory and Motor Functions:
cord, and subarachnoid space.  Sensory input from the right side of the face via the
 Flow of CSF: trigeminal nerve (V) crosses in the brainstem and
1. Produced by choroid plexuses. projects to the left cerebral cortex.
2. Flows from lateral ventricles into the third  Motor output from the left cerebral cortex crosses in
ventricle. the brainstem to the right side of the face via the
3. Flows through cerebral aqueduct into the facial nerve (VII).
fourth ventricle.
4. Exits fourth ventricle into subarachnoid space,
some enters the central canal of the spinal cord.
5. CSF is absorbed into the blood through
arachnoid granulations in the superior sagittal
sinus.
 Blockage of ventricular openings or cerebral
aqueduct can lead to hydrocephalus, treated with
a shunt to drain excess fluid.

8.13 CRANIAL NERVES


Cranial Nerves:
 There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves (Roman
numerals I to XII).
 They serve two general categories of function:
sensory and motor.
Sensory Functions:
 Special senses (e.g., vision).
 General senses (e.g., touch and pain in the face).
Motor Functions:
 Somatic motor (innervate skeletal muscles in the
head and neck).
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
 Collateral ganglia project to target tissues in
abdominal and pelvic regions.
Anatomy of Parasympathetic Division:
 Preganglionic cell bodies in brainstem nuclei or
spinal cord (S2-S4).
 Axons of preganglionic neurons extend to
terminal ganglia near effector organs or
embedded in the walls of effector organs.
 Vagus nerve provides parasympathetic
innervation to thoracic and abdominal organs.
Autonomic Neurotransmitters:
 Preganglionic neurons (both sympathetic and
parasympathetic) secrete acetylcholine.
 Most sympathetic postganglionic neurons
8.14 AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM secrete norepinephrine.
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS):  Drugs can stimulate or inhibit autonomic
functions by mimicking or preventing these
 Comprises motor neurons carrying action neurotransmitters' actions.
potentials from CNS to periphery.
 Innervates smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and Functions of Sympathetic Division:
glands.  Prepares for physical activity.
 Functions controlled unconsciously.  Increases heart rate, blood pressure, and airflow.
Somatic Motor Pathways vs. Autonomic Nervous  Stimulates glucose release from the liver.
System:  Inhibits digestive activities.
 Promotes heat removal by vasodilation and
 Somatic: Lower motor neurons extend from increased perspiration.
CNS to skeletal muscle.
 Autonomic: Two neurons in series Functions of Parasympathetic Division:
(preganglionic and postganglionic) extend from  Consistent with resting conditions.
CNS to effector organs.
 Stimulates involuntary activities like digestion,
 Exception: Preganglionic neuron to adrenal defecation, and urination.
gland, where postganglionic neurons are
 Enhances digestion and absorption of food.
hormone-secreting cells.
 Lowers heart rate, blood pressure, and airflow.
Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System:
Dual Innervation:
 Sympathetic Division: Prepares for physical
 Most organs receive autonomic neurons from
activity, "fight-or-flight."
both divisions.
 Parasympathetic Division: Activates involuntary
 Usually, divisions affect target organs
functions, "rest-and-digest."
oppositely.
Anatomy of Sympathetic Division:  Sympathetic division dominates during physical
activity or stress, while the parasympathetic
 Preganglionic neuron cell bodies in spinal cord
division prevails during rest.
gray matter (T1 to L2).
 Both divisions can coordinate activity in some
 Axons exit through ventral roots, project to
situations.
sympathetic chain ganglia or collateral ganglia.
 Not all organs receive dual innervation (e.g.,
 Sympathetic chain ganglia form a chain along
sweat glands and blood vessels are primarily
both sides of the spinal cord.
innervated by sympathetic neurons, lens smooth
 Some preganglionic fibers synapse in muscles primarily by parasympathetic neurons).
sympathetic chain ganglia, while others form
splanchnic nerves to collateral ganglia.
 Collateral ganglia include celiac, superior
mesenteric, and inferior mesenteric ganglia.
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

8.15 ENTERIC NERVOUS SYSTEM


 The enteric nervous system (ENS) is a network
of plexuses within the digestive tract wall.
 It consists of three main types of neurons:
1. Sensory neurons connecting the digestive
tract to the central nervous system (CNS).
2. Sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons
connecting the CNS to the digestive tract.
3. Enteric neurons that are located entirely
within the enteric plexuses.
 Enteric neurons have the unique capability to
monitor and control the digestive tract
independently of the CNS through local
reflexes.
 For instance, when the digestive tract stretches,
enteric sensory neurons detect it and stimulate
enteric interneurons.
 Enteric interneurons then activate enteric motor
neurons, which, in turn, stimulate glands to
secrete.
 While the ENS can control digestive tract
activities independently of the CNS, the two
systems usually work together.
 The CNS can exert control through the
parasympathetic branches of the vagus nerve
and sympathetic nerves, primarily the
splanchnic nerves.
 Consequently, the ENS functions as an
independent subdivision of the peripheral
nervous system (PNS) but is integrated with the
autonomic nervous system (ANS).

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