MSCE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

DAVID HARRY MZURA-CHIMA

 CHAPTER 1. MAP WORK AND MAP INTERPRETATION
OBJECTIVES
Using a topographic map, Students should be able to:
 Identify various landforms
 Describe drainage patterns
 Describe various land uses shown on a map
 Measure distance between points
 Calculate areas on a map
 Reduce and enlarge maps
 Draw cross-sections and river profiles
 Determine intervisibility between two points
 Calculate gradient and Interpret information from geographical information
system
 Interpret information from geographical information system

MAPS
A map is a representation of all, or part of the surface of the earth on a flat sheet of paper.

Map scale and features

Scale shows the relationship that exists between the map and the portion of the earth’s surface which the
map represents.

TYPES OF SCALE

1. STATEMENT:
In this form, the scale is written in words, as a statement. i.e., 1 centimetre (cm) to 50,
000 cm or 1cm to 5km.

2. REPRESENTATIVE FRACTION OR RATIO SCALE

The scale is written as a fraction. The numerator of the fraction is always 1 as it
shows the map distance whereas the denominator, the larger figure, shows ground
distance. i.e., 1:50 000, 1: 100 000

3. LINEAR SCALE
This method uses a horizontal line to show the distance in kilometres and parts of a
kilometre. The line is divided into equal parts where the calculations for full
kilometres start at 1 going towards the right and parts of a kilometre starting at 1
going towards the left.
LARGE AND SMALL-SCALE MAPS

Large-scale maps show a small area and accurate details of the land surface. They are
called large-scale because they have a large scale and show more detail of the land
surface. Examples of large-scale maps can be: 1:25 000; 1:10 000; 1:5 000 and 1:2 500.
The ratio of a large-scale map has a small denominator.

Small-scale maps actual distances are greatly reduced. Small-scale maps cover large
areas like the maps of the world found in atlases. Examples of small-scale maps are:
1:1 00 000 (1cm to 10km) 1:500 000; 1:250 000. The ratio of a small-scale map has a
large denominator.

Remember: a large-scale map is a big piece of paper showing a small area. A small-scale
map is a small piece of paper showing a large area.

MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCES ON MAPS

Distances can be measured between two points on a map. These two points may involve
roads, railway lines, footpaths, rivers, etc.

INSTRUMENTS USED
There are several instruments that one can use to measure distances on maps such as: a
string, paper or pair of dividers.

1. USING A THIN STRING

Take a length of thin string, which is not elastic.

STEPS TO FOLLOW
i. Mark the beginning and end of the line that you are supposed to measure.
ii. Mark the beginning of the string as you stretch it across the line.
iii. Mark on the string and on the map any curve you come across.
iv. After marking all bends and curves and reaching the end, measure the marked
length against the linear scale.

2. PIECE OF PAPER WITH A STRAIGHT EDGE

STEPS TO FOLLOW
i. Mark at one end of the paper the point where you will begin to measure.
ii. Make a second mark at the end of the first straight length.
iii. With the pencil still on the second mark, twist the paper so that you get your
second straight length along the straight edge of the paper.
iv. Continue the process until you reach the end of the line you are measuring.
v. Refer the marks on the paper to the linear scale of the map to find the total
distance required.

NOTE: Be careful that the paper does not slip from the mark.
 3. PAIR OF DIVIDERS

STEPS TO FOLLOW
i. Extend the pair of dividers from the starting point up to where they may end.
ii. If the line is longer, rotate the dividers along it and carefully note the number of
rotations made.
iii. Refer the length from the pair of dividers to the linear scale on the map to find the
total distance required.

MEASUREMENT OF AREAS ON MAPS

A. REGULAR SHAPES
i. Measure the two sides ( where you have Length and breadth)
ii. Divide the Length by two then breadth by two as well.( as each grid is 2cm
which represents a kilometre assuming the scale is 1:50 000)
iii. Multiply the figures to get total area which should be given in km²

OR: count the number of boxes covered by the shape and multiply by area of 1 square
box.

B. IRREGULAR SHAPES
i. Calculate the number of full boxes.
ii. Calculate the number of half boxes and divide them by two. ( in order to have
full boxes)
iii. Add full and the number of half boxes (that have been divided by two) to find
the total number of boxes.
iv. Multiply the sum by 1km² to come up with total area. (as each box is 1km² if
scale is 1:50 000)

TOTAL AREA=56+24+31+42=132 km²

2
 Making maps bigger and smaller
Maps can be enlarged or reduced according to different sizes.

Enlarging a map using the grid blocks

i. The initial scale of the map is multiplied by the amount by which the map is to be enlarged.
ii. Measure the width and length of the original map and multiply each side by 2 (if the scale is
1:50 000)
iii. Draw the new frame on the piece of paper, the sides as twice as big as the original map
iv. Add the grid lines which will be twice as far apart as on the original map
v. Copy the content of each square from the original map onto your enlarged map.

To reduce the map you follow the same steps but draw each block smaller to fit the
required size. The reduced map will have a smaller scale with less ground detail and
reduced distances.

DIRECTION
Directions are based on the four main points of the cardinal points which are:
 north  east
 south  west

However, there are other sub-cardinal points making a total of sixteen points. Most maps
depict three types of north:
a. True north and this is based on the North Pole.
b. Grid north on which the grid system of the map is based.
c. Magnetic north which is based on the direction in which a compass needle
points.

MAGNETIC VARIATION
The difference between magnetic north and true north due to magnetic north’s variation
from place to place.
FINDING DIRECTION
Find the direction of point B from A
a. find the north direction on the map
b. draw the four main points of the compass, making sure that the north to south
line is parallel to the one given on the map and the same for the east to west line
c. join points A and B with a straight line and the line joining the two points and
going from A to B and it gives the direction of B from A which is south-east

BEARINGS
Directions from a place can be measured as an angle (bearing). The compass has four
sectors of 90ºeach (which gives a total of 360º). By establishing the N-S line, the location
of a place can be expressed in degrees in a clockwise direction from north.

CALCULATING BEARING
Calculate bearing of D from C
a. draw a north to south line through point C
b. join points C and D with a straight line
c. using the north line as a starting point move clockwise until you come across the
line joining C and D
d. obtain bearing by measuring angle x (in the example it is 240º
GRID REFERENCES
Maps are covered with vertical and horizontal lines. These lines form a pattern of squares
which is called the map grid. The grid lines are composed of northings and eastings.

Eastings are the lines whose numbers increase towards the east from the west while
northings are the lines whose numbers increase towards the north from the south

HOW TO GIVE A FOUR FIGURE GRID REFRENCE

Eastings are given first followed by northings (two digits for eastings and followed by
two digits for northings). Using the diagram used to give six figure grid reference the four
figure is 18 for eastings and 44 for northings which is 1844.

HOW TO GIVE A SIX FIGURE GRID REFRENCE

Eastings are always given first followed by the northing (three digits for eastings
followed by three digits for northings). The third digit in each case is an estimate of the
number of tenths, eastward (for eastings) and northward (for northings).

Using the figure, give the six figure grid reference for the grey mark and the red dot
a. come up with eastings which is 18
b. come up with the third digit for eastings which is 7 for grey and 5for the red dot
(this means 7/10 and 5/10 eastwards of grid line 18)
c. come up with northings which is 44
 d. come up with the third digit for northings which is 8 for grey and 3 for red (this
means 8/10 and 3/10 northwards of gridline 44)
e. the full grid reference is 187448 for 185443

Representing relief on maps

Relief is the name given to the surface forms that we see in the landscape. Such forms
include plains, valleys, mountains, ridges and hills. Drainage features, such as lakes,
rivers and basins, are also part of the relief. There are many ways of showing relief on
topographical maps. e.g., the use of contour lines, symbols, shading and layer colouring,
form lines, bench marks trigonometrical points, spot heights and hachure marks.

1. Contour lines
These are accurately surveyed lines drawn on a map joining places having the same
altitude or height above sea level. The height of the land surface is always measured from
sea level. Places far away from the sea which are higher than the level of the sea are said
to be above sea level. The coastline, where the sea meets the land is given the value ‘0’
metres or feet.

Symbols used to give height above sea level

Symbols are used to show high points on topographical maps. The most common
symbols are spot heights and trigonometrical beacons (sometimes called trig, beacons).
The height is marked against the symbol on the map.
a. Contour lines
where contour lines are close together they show that the land is steep. Where
they are far apart, the slope of the land is gentle or it is a plain. On printed
topographic maps, the contour lines are brown in colour.

b. Spot heights are black dots with a corresponding height number . 1265
c. Trigonometrical beacons are triangles shown in black 1265
d. Bench marks use a black arrow. The height is indicated against the symbol.
1265
2. Layer tinting
Layer tinting is commonly used in atlas maps. Various shades of colours are used to show
variations in height. For example, green or yellow may be used to show lower land and
varying shades of brown for the higher surfaces. Study maps in your atlas to see how
various shades of colour are used to show height above sea level. Note that the colours
used may change from atlas to atlas, so you should always refer to the key to see what the
colours mean.

3. Hill shading
On some small-scale maps, parts of the map are shaded to form a shadow effect. This is
done to emphasise the high and low areas of a map. The high land areas are normally
shaded in the darkest colour. Hill shading does not tell you the actual height of the land, it
merely shows the differences in height.

4. Hachuring
Hachures are short lines used to show the direction of slopes. Where there are steep
slopes, the hachures are darker and closer together. For gentle slopes the hachures are
widely spaced.

Cross-sections and gradients

1. Cross-sections
A cross-section is a side view of a piece of land. We use cross-sections to see the slope
and form of the land between two points. Cross-sections are drawn using a vertical scale
to represent the contour heights between two points. The horizontal scale is the same as
the one used on the map.

HOW TO DRAW A CROSS SECTION ALONG THE LINE AB

a. Take a piece of paper with a straight edge which is slightly longer than AB. Place
the piece of paper along the AB line and mark A as the beginning of your cross
section and B where your cross section will end. Then start from A and make a
vertical mark on the paper where every contour line meets the line AB. Indicate
the height of the contour line against every mark.
b. In your notebook draw a horizontal line the length of AB and mark the ends.
c. Draw perpendicular lines at each end. These lines must be at right angles.
d. Measuring upwards from AB, on the perpendicular lines make marks ½cm apart,
and then draw horizontal parallel lines.
e. The base line represents the lowest height that you might have recorded on the
AB line. Mark this neatly at the side of the vertical line and then add 50ft every
½cm as you move up.
f. Place the marked paper along the base line so that A on the paper falls on the A
on your scale. Transfer the contours marked on the paper to the base line of the
scale. Using a ruler and a pencil lightly draw vertical lines up to the line which
represents the contour line (height).
 g. After transferring all the heights to the vertical scale, join the points with a
smooth curve starting from A and ending at B. Hilltops will have an upward curve
and valleys will have a down ward curve.

An example of a cross section

2. Gradient
The angle of slope of the land is known as gradient. It is also known as the amount of rise
and fall of land in a certain horizontal distance. This is the ratio of the height between two
points on land and the distance between them.

To express this properly do the following:

a. Determine the difference in height between the two places by examining the
contour lines. The difference in height is called the vertical interval (VI) e.g.
(145-125=20m)
b. Measure the distance between the two points. The distance between the points is
the horizontal equivalent (HE) or you can call it horizontal Distance (HD) for
easy understanding (5km).
c. Convert both measurements to the same unit. The gradient of slope can be
calculated using the formula:
VI or VI = 20 = 20 =1
HD HE 5km 5000 250

INTERPRETATION
If you travel from the bottom going upwards every 250m you rise up by 1m and when
you travel from the top going downwards every 250m you drop by 1m.
INTERVISIBILITY
This is to determine if two points on a map are visible or not from each other. Take the
following steps:

a. Find the two points on the map and note their heights from the nearest contour
lines and then join them with a straight line having marked them AB.
b. Carefully observe the height of the contour lines cutting the line joining the points
A and B.
i. If the heights in between are not higher than those for A, then the two
points are intervisible.
ii. If the heights in between are higher than those for B, then the two points
are not intervisible.
c. Sometimes the question demands that you support your answer with a diagram,
and then you have to construct a cross section. Join the two places with a straight
line. This line is known as the line of sight; if it passes clear of any land between
the two points.

GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS)

A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer system that records, stores, and
analyzes information about the features that make up the Earth's surface.

A GIS can generate 2- or 3-dimensional images of an area, showing such natural features
as hills and rivers along with artificial features such as roads and power lines. Scientists
use GIS images as models, making precise measurements, gathering data, and testing
ideas with the help of the computer.
A GIS is designed to accept geographic data from a variety of sources, including maps,
satellite imageries, photographs, and printed text and statistics.

The applications of a GIS are vast and continue to grow. By using GIS, scientists can
research changes in the environment; engineers can design road systems; electrical
companies can manage their complex networks of power lines; governments can track the
uses of land; and fire and police departments can plan emergency routes. Many private
businesses have begun to use a GIS to plan and improve their services.

GIS is a unique integration of computer hardware, software, peripherals, procedural

techniques, organizational structure, people and institution for capturing, manipulating,
storing, analyzing, modulating, modelling and displaying geographically referenced data
for solving complex human related problems. This suggests that GIS is neither the
software nor hardware, it neither is the procedure to solve problem, but a good integration
of all these components of GIS. It plays five important capabilities.

Table 1: GIS Capabilities

Query Task Description
What is it? Location To find out what exist at a particular
location; kind of development.
Where is it? Condition To identify what exist at a given location
and what could exist.
What has changed since? Trends To find the differences within an area over
time.
What spatial pattern exists? Patterns To know the concentration of certain
activities and where they are located.
What if? Modelling To determine what happens, if a certain
action is taken.

USES OF GIS IN THE MODERN WORLD

a. Poverty reduction programs: GIS technology help in better planning of various

natural resources and land use thereby helping in balanced development in poverty
reduction programs.
b. Disaster management: The technology helps in various measures for prediction,
mitigation and management of disaster such as erosion, solid waste, floods, etc.
c. Education: By educating school children, tertiary institutions students, and the
general public on the issues of environmental awareness through better illustrations
by GIS technology.
d. Agriculture: This technology provides suitable tools to various agriculture crops,
yield forecasting and monitoring agriculture areas.
e. Forestry: Application of these technologies in forestry sector helps better inventory
of forest resources, sustainable use of forest resources, reforestation activities, and the
management of community forests.
f. Biodiversity: Also helps in better management of biodiversity through better mapping
of resources, and strategies for biodiversity conservation.
g. Tourism: Tourism is one of the important sectors of the national economy. The use of
this technology assists the industry with better planning of tourism infrastructure,
generation and dissemination of such by virtual reality, better quality maps, etc.
h. Health and Medicine: This technology helps in monitoring and management of areas
under herbs, designing herbs plantation areas, monitoring disease and epidemics, etc.

Data representation
GIS data represents real objects (such as roads, land use, elevation, trees, waterways, etc.)
with digital data determining the mix. Real objects can be divided into two abstractions:
discrete objects (e.g., a house) and continuous fields (such as rainfall amount, or
elevations). Traditionally, there are two broad methods used to store data in a GIS for
both kinds of abstractions mapping references: raster images and vector. Points, lines,
and polygons are the stuff of mapped location attribute references. A new hybrid method
of storing data is that of identifying point clouds, which combine three-dimensional
points with RGB information at each point, returning a "3D colour image". GIS Thematic
maps then are becoming more and more realistically visually descriptive of what they set
out to show or determine.

An example of use of layers in a GIS application.

In this example, the forest cover layer (light green) is at the bottom, with the topographic
layer over it. Next up is the stream layer, then the boundary layer, then the road layer.
The order is very important in order to properly display the final result. Note that the
pond layer was located just below the stream layer, so that a stream line can be seen
overlying one of the ponds.

DRAINAGE PATTERNS
The way rivers and lakes receive and distribute water is called drainage. The area drained
by a river and its tributaries is called a basin or catchment area.

FACTORS THAT DETERMINE DRAINAGE PATTERNS

a. Slope of the land
b. Differences in the hardness of the rock
c. General relief pattern of an area
 d. Amount of rainfall in a region

TYPES OF DRAINAGE PATTERNS

There are four major drainage patterns. These are dendritic, trellis, radial and intermittent
(disappearing).

1. Dendritic patterns.
The tributaries converge with the main river from many directions (this resembles
branches of a tree). The rivers join at an acute angle. They are found where rocks have
the same resistance to weathering and erosion. The rivers follow the angle of slope from
the source to the mouth.

2. The radial drainage pattern.

This is where many rivers flow from one source or watershed in an outwards direction
like the spokes on a bicycle wheel. Usually the source is a hill with the rivers flowing in
all directions downstream.

3. Trellis.
This is a regular and rectangular pattern found where rivers and their tributaries normally
flow more or less parallel to each other. These patterns are found in areas where there are
alternate bands of soft and hard rock. The rivers find it easier to follow weak cross-
jointing lines in softer rock.

4. Intermittent or disappearing.
Where river courses are indefinite, or disappear into marshes or underground, the pattern
is intermittent or disappearing. The rivers disappear and reappear later before reaching
the mouth.
REFLEFCTIVE QUESTIONS
1. a. List the three types of scale.
b. which two of the three types of scale are mostly used on maps?
c. differentiate between a large scale and a small scale map.
2. What symbols are used to depict highest points on a map?
3. a. Define a drainage pattern.
b. Using the map at the end of this book identify the drainage patterns
c. Differentiate the drainage patterns mentioned
4. Calculate:
a. the area covered by Dowa forest reserve
b. the length of S31 road
5. Draw a cross section across Northing 87 from Eastings 00 to 08.
6. a. In which direction is Nanthomba river flowing
b. Find the bearing of 511 from 4784
c. What is the direction of Kanthumbo from Kafumphe School.
7. a. Reduce the map to half its original size between Eastings 00 to 04 and
between Northings 85 to 90 and show the road junction and the game
reserve
b. Enlarge the map to twice its original size between Eastings 03 to 07
and between Northings 87 to 91 and show the road junction and the
cultivation
8. Calculate the gradient between 5570 and BH Q242
9. Describe the relief, vegetation and land use that is found to the west of
Eastings 02 and Northings 83 t0 87.
10. What feature is found in grid reference 033882?
 CHAPTER 2. LITHOSPHERE
OBJECTIVES
Students should be able to:
 Draw a labelled diagram of the internal structure of the earth
 Describe the characteristics of the different layers of the internal structure of the
earth
 Explain the continental drift theory and the plate tectonics theory
 Describe features produced along plate boundaries
 Describe mountain building processes associated with plate tectonic
 Analyse the effects of mountain building process on human activity
 Explain formation of volcanoes
 Locate major areas of volcanic activity and assess the effects of volcanism
 Explain causes of earthquakes and describe their effects
 Explain the relationship among fold mountains, earthquakes and volcanic zones
 Identify the most stable parts of the earth
 Explain the formation of rocks and asses their importance

LITHOSPHERE
Lithosphere is the soft crust which surrounds the mantle of the earth, being separated
from the latter by the Mohovicic discontinuity. It consists of the thin, loose layer known
as the soil and the mass of hard rock upon which the soil lies and extends to a depth of
about 33 km below the earth’s surface. It projects above the hydrosphere to form
continents.

The word lithosphere comes from the Greek word lithos which means rock or stone.
Thus lithosphere means sphere of rocks. The study of rocks is called lithology.

Earth’s structure

The earth is made up of several almost concentric layers. The core or barysphere is 3,476
km in radius, mantle or mesosphere is 2 900 km thick, and the crust or lithosphere ranges
from 5 km to 48 km thick. The lithosphere is made up of two parts:
 1. Upper part: forms the continents and its main minerals are silica and alumina (sial).
The rocks are granitic.

2. Lower part: the rocks are denser basaltic rocks which form the ocean floors. The main
minerals are silica and magnesium (sima).
The materials of the lithosphere are rocks and minerals. The main rocks include
sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks.

Sedimentary rocks
These rocks cover 75% of the earth’s surface but make up only 5% of the volume of the
lithosphere. Sedimentary rocks’ are products of weathering. Solid rock is broken into
small particles called sediments or clastics and others may be formed by chemical and
organic processes. These are non-clastic rocks. The chemical rocks are often referred to
as hydrogenic particularly if they are formed in water. The organic ones are called
biogenic or carbonaceous rocks.

Clastic rocks
The sediments are deposited in geosynclines (sea and oceans bordering the continents)
where they are compacted (squeezed) and lithified or cemented together to form hard
rocks. Sometimes these rocks are said to be mechanically formed.

PROCESS OF FORMATION FOR SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Clastic rocks named according to the size and shape of their sediments

Name Texture Composition Remarks

Clastic Conglomerate Round pebbles Any kind of rock Gobbles held together
Breccia angular pebbles any kind of rock sand, clay and cement
sandstone sand-sized grains Quartz grains may be calcite
Siltstone very fine grains mostly quartz and clay gritty feel
Shale microscopic grains mostly clay, mica occurs in layers
Non Limestone Coarse to small crystals Calcite, small shells Fine texture
clastic Chert ( flint) microscopic crystals Chalcedony Cement in rocks
Alabaster microscopic to course gypsum evaporate
Rock salt Cubic crystals halite evaporate
Peat, lignite course to microscopic products of plant decay fragments of plants
or coal plant fragments without oxygen

Nonclastic rocks
These include precipitates such as calcite, evaporates such as salt, and organic deposits
such as coal and limestone. Nonclastic rocks are named according to composition. All of
them have interlocking crystals except peat, lignite, coal sequence.

Characteristics of sedimentary rocks

a. They are layered or stratified (the clastic rocks particularly).
b. They are fossilised (they contain fossils).
c. They are non-crystalline particularly the clastic rocks.

Igneous rocks
The name igneous comes from a Latin word ignis which means fire. These are the rocks
which have solidified from molten magma. They may have solidified:
i. After reaching the earth’s surface hence they are called lava, or volcanic, or
extrusive rocks.
ii. In channels connecting the molten magma reservoirs with the exterior. Such
rocks are called hypabysal rocks.
iii. Well below the surface under pressure. These rocks are known as intrusive, or
plutonic or abyssal rocks.

The magma that cools on the surface does it so fast that the atoms do not have time to
rearrange themselves hence the rocks have fine texture. Magma that cools beneath the
surface harden slowly therefore the rocks are coarse-grained.

Crystallization order from a magna

Characteristics of igneous rocks

a. the rocks are crystalline
b. the rocks are non-stratified
c. the rocks are non-fossiliferous (don’t contain fossils)
Some of the igneous rocks

Origin Texture Rock name Dominant minerals

Extrusive Glassy Obsidian Orthoclase, amphibole, quartz
Pumice orthoclase, amphibole, quartz
Fine- grained Scoria plagioclase, olivine, pyroxene
Ryolite Orthoclase, mica
Andesite plagioclase
Basalt plagioclase, olivine, pyroxene, mica
Intrusive Course grained Granite Orthoclase, amphibole, quartz, mica
Diorite plagioclase, pyroxene, amphibole, mica
Gabbro plagioclase, pyroxene,
Periodite olivine, pyroxene

Metamorphic rocks

Rocks which were originally igneous or sedimentary but have been changed in character
and appearance due to:

a. Heat: causes the minerals to recrystallize sometimes

b. Pressure: alters the rock structure
c. Water: dissolves some rock material and deposits other materials thereby
changing the composition of the rock.

The metamorphic changes which are by pressure are referred to as dynamic. The first
sign of metamorphism is the rearrangement of minerals in bands or layers which is called
foliation. Where heat dictates what changes are supposed to take place, that kind of
process is called thermal or contact metamorphism. Where pressure and heat operate
together over a large area, the metamorphism is called regional.

Sometimes gases move through rock pores and come into contact with different rock
elements. Chemical reactions take place hence new minerals are formed. This kind of
metamorphism is known as metasomatism. All metamorphic rocks formed from
sedimentary rocks are called metasediment.
Some of the metamorphic rocks

REFLECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. a. Into which three groups can rocks be classified?
b. Name two important characteristics of each group.
c. Briefly state the manner in which each group of rocks has been formed.
d. Name one specific rock from each group and describe its appearance.
2. What is the crust made up of?
3. Graphite, slate, marble and gneiss are examples of what type of rocks?
4. Give the metamorphic forms of the following rocks:
a. Sandstone
b. limestone
 5. List down the characteristics of igneous rocks.
6. Using a flow diagram explain how sedimentary rocks are formed.
7. Differentiate between SIAL and SIMA.
8. What separates the earth’s solid crust from the mantle?
9. Explain the following:
a. Metasomatism?
b. Metamorphism?
10. List the characteristics of nonclastic sedimentary rocks.

THE ROCK CYCLE

Rock cycle is the changing of rocks from one kind to another under different conditions.
This happens due to high temperatures and great pressures that take place beneath the
earth’s surface. Weathering is predominant on the surface.

Sedimentary rocks may be buried so deep that they melt and the rocks formed will be
igneous rocks. Sometimes the minerals in buried sedimentary rocks are rearranged while
the rock remains solid. Changes that take place while the rock remains solid are called
metamorphism and the rocks that result are metamorphic. The metamorphic rocks can be
uplifted and be weathered to form sedimentary rocks or they can melt and igneous rocks
can be formed.

Weathering
Weathering refers to the decomposition and disintegration of rocks after being exposed to
atmosphere. It is one of the main processes of denudation.

Denudation is the breaking away of rocks by various agencies and removal of the broken
down materials.
TYPES OF WEATHERING

1. PHYSICAL OR MECHANICAL
The rocks are broken down into small particles without changing their chemical
composition
a. Frost action /shattering: rain water will usually fill the cracks and pores of rocks, and
when it expands as a result of freezing it exerts great pressure on the rocks. The
changing actions of freezing and melting (freeze-thaw process) over a long period
make the rocks to break up. The rock particles that break away (block disintegration)
from the main rock are always angular in shape and they collect at the foot of the
slope as scree or talus.

b. Repeated temperature changes /thermal expansion: Rocks expand when heated and
contract when cooled. If this occurs now and again, the rocks crack and break away
particularly the outer layers. This is very common in deserts where temperature
changes are rapid and may lead to peeling off like the layers of an onion. This process
is called exfoliation.

c. Biotic agencies/ Biological: Tree roots that grow in rock cracks may have their roots
widen these cracks until the rock breaks. Animal hooves and men in mining, farming
and road construction all contribute to physical weathering.
2. CHEMICAL
This is a very slow and gradual decomposition of rocks at the end of which rock minerals
are changed in the process.

Chemical weathering happens to:

 attack certain minerals selectively.
 occur in rocks where there is change in its wetness and dryness.
 be common at the base of slopes because of its wetness and warmth.

a. Solution: Some minerals just dissolve in water e.g. salt.

b. Carbonation: rain water contains carbon dioxide is solution form which forms a weak
carbonic acid. This acid dissolves calcium bicarbonate in limestone.

c. Oxidation: rain water containing oxygen from the air disintegrates rocks containing
iron minerals. Iron in a ferrous state is changed by the addition of oxygen into a
ferric state and this causes rusting in rocks.
d. Hydration: Some rocks do absorb water and as a result they swell which puts them at
a vulnerable point for breakdown. This may lead to rock disintegration.

Importance of weathering
a. It changes hard rock into small particles, the parent matter of the soil.
b. It prepares rock materials for transportation by the agents of land erosion such as
flowing water and wind.
c. It lowers land surfaces
d. It creates and changes the appearance of landforms.

Rock structure and landforms

Rocks are composed of different materials as some are soft while others are hard. Other
rocks are resistant to agents of weathering and erosion. Mostly, the weakness or
resistance of rocks is influenced by their mode of formation and age. When forces of
denudation are in operation, the weak rocks form valleys or other types of depressions,
while the resistant ones stand out as inselbergs, hills, plateaus, or mountains.

Forces which produce landforms

Internal Forces that operates within the crust

1. Earth movements
(a) Vertical: These are up and down movements which cause the crustal rocks to fault
and it produces features like plateaus, block mountains, basins, and some types of
escarpment.

(b) Lateral: This is sideways movements which cause the crustal rocks to fold and
produces features like fold mountains, sometimes rift valleys, and block mountains.

2. Volcanic eruptions
(a) External: When lava erupts and reaches the surface it produces features such as lava
plains and plateaus, volcanic cones, and geysers.

(b) Internal: Sometimes lava solidifies within the crust and produces features such as
dykes, sills, batholiths, and laccoliths.

External Forces that operate on the earth’s surface

1. Denudation
(a) Weathering: Rocks break-up because of the alternate heating and cooling, chemical
actions, and the action of living organisms. This produces features such as screes,
earth pillars, exfoliation domes, and soil.

(b) Erosion: Rocks do break-up by the action of rock particles being moved over the
earth’s surface by water, wind and ice. Features produced include valleys, cliffs,
pene plains, river and coastal terraces, escarpments, rock basins.
(c) Transport: This is when the rock particles are moved over the earth’s surface by
water, wind and ice.

2. Deposition
(a) By water: This produces features like flood plains, levees, alluvial fans, deltas,
beaches, lake plains, marine alluvial plains.

(b) By ice: features that are produced include boulder clay, outwash plains, moraines,
drumlins, eskers.

(c) By wind: features produced include loess plains, sand dunes.

(d) By living organisms: They produce coral reefs.

(e) By evaporation and precipitation: features produced include salt deposits.

(f) Of organic matter: features produced include coal, oil.

Main crustal movements

The earth’s surface or interior is not particularly quiet because mostly it is on the move.
The two major movements are:

a. vertical movement also known as epeirogenic. The epeirogenic movements cause rift
valleys and sometimes block mountains.

b. Horizontal movement also called orogenic or lateral .Generally orogenic movements

are responsible for mountain building (both fold and volcanic), marine ridges and
trenches. Rift valleys can also be formed by orogenic movements.

Since the dawn of geological time, not less than nine orogenic movements have taken
place, folding and faulting the earth’s lithosphere. The folding and faulting of the
lithospheric rocks is called diastrophism. Some of them took place in pre-Cambrian times
but others have taken place quite recently, that is, about 30 million years ago.

The orogenic periods and examples

Age
Period (million Orogenesis Example
years)
Tertiary 30 Alpine Rockies, Andes, Atlas, Alps, Himalayas, etc
Urals, Appalachians, Harz, Pennines and
Permian 240 Hercynian
Welsh highlands, Siberian plateau
 REFLECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. What is a rock cycle?
2. Differentiate denudation from weathering.
3. Explain what happens during:
a. Repeated temperature changes?
b. Frost action?
c. Hydration?
d. Oxidation?
4. Describe what happens during:
a. Epeirogenic movement and give three examples of features formed.
b. Orogenic movement and give two examples of features formed.
5. List down and explain with examples the:
a. Internal forces that operate within the crust.
b. External forces that act on the surface of the earth.

FOLD MOUNTAINS
Fold mountains are by far the most important and widespread. Large-scale lateral
(horizontal) earth movements are responsible for their formation. The movements are
caused by:

a. increased load of the overlying rocks

b. convectional movements in the mantle
c. magma intrusions into the lithosphere
d. expansion and contraction of some parts of the earth.

These movements subject the rocks to compressional forces that produce folding. The
land produces upfolds which are called anticlines and downfolds which are called
synclines.
The formation of (a) normal land surface (b) simple fold, (c) an assymetrical fold (d) an
overfold and (e) an overthrust fold

The diagrams show how a simple fold is formed. The rock layers which bend up form an
up fold or anticline; those that bend down form a down fold or syncline. The sides of a
fold are called the limbs. If compression continues, a simple fold is first changed into an
asymmetrical fold where one limb is steeper than the other, then into an overfold where
one limb is pushed over the other. If pressure continues the rocks fracture and the limb of
the fold is thrust forward over the other limb. This is called an overthrust fold or a thrust
fault.

Formation of Fold mountains

Characteristics of fold mountains

a. they are long and high
b. they are associated with volcanoes especially in the Circum-Pacific fold mountain
system
c. they contain rich minerals such as tin, copper, gold and petroleum
d. they are generally found on the western continental margins and their interiors are
badly folded
e. they are characterized by volcanic intrusions

Systems of young fold mountains

1. Alpine System: Example of these mountains includes the Alps, Atlas, Ararat, Jura,
Caucasus, Himalayas.

2. Circum-Pacific system: Example of these mountains includes the Rockies, Andes,

Kolyama, Anadyr, Cherskiy.
Influences of young fold mountains
(i) some of them contain rich minerals; good examples can be the copper as well as gold
in Nevada and tin in Bolivia.
(ii) Others often receive heavy rain or snow which may give rise to important rivers of
the world like the Indus and Ganges from the Himalayan Mountains, Colorado and
Columbia from the Andes Mountains. These rivers may be used for hydro electric
power (HEP) or irrigation.
(iii) Some mountains or mountain ranges have valuable timber resources, like the western
Rockies which have coniferous softwoods and the foothills of Himalaya which have
teak.
(iv) Mostly they act as communication and climate harriers in the sense that the
construction of communication lines is very difficult. Sometimes regions on one side
may have a different climate from the other side as is the case with the western
Rockies which have mild winters and warm summers with rain throughout the year
whilst on the east the Prairies have cold winters and hot summers that produce
maximum rain in summer.

Block mountains
The two forces either, Compressional or tensional usually cause two almost parallel faults
in the rock strata. The middle part to either tensional or Compressional force will either
be lowered or raised respectively. The uplifted blocks form horsts if they are horizontal
or tilted blocks if they are tilted.

Characteristics of block mountains

a. The faulted side is very steep.
b. They are usually long especially when formed along rift valley.
c. In some cases the side facing away from the faulted side is generally less steep.
Examples
Horsts Tilt Blocks
Vosges, Black Forest, Ruwenzori range, Sierra Nevada, Wasatch Mountain, Central
Harz, Mt Sinai, Akaba Massif, Meseta, Bohomia, Arabian Plateau, Brazilian Plateau,
Deccan Plateau

Viscous lava accumulates over time and builds up to a mountain. Such a mountain is
usually made up of ash, cinder, trapped mud and volcanic bombs. Volcanic bombs are
chunks of rock. These mountains are steep-sided. Sometimes they are called mountains of
accumulation.

Residual mountains
These are mountains that are formed as a result of denudational process. As denudation
proceeds, rocks that are resistant to erosion stand out to form a mountain and the weaker
rocks get eroded away to form valleys.

c.

(A) landform with a mountain range (B) erosion takes place (C) the remnant of a
mountain

Plate tectonics
This is the breaking and bending of crustal rocks and is generally referred to as tectonic
activity or diastrophism. The study of these activities and the structures they produce is
called tectonic.
The earth crust is divided into seven large and several smaller rigid plates which are
carried by semi molten rocks. These plates move or are carried on a soft layer between
crust and mantle called asthenosphere by horizontally moving convectional currents.

Continental crust (Sial) 35 to 70 Oceanic crust (sima) 6 to 10 km

Thickness
km on average on average
very old, mainly over 1500 million very young, mainly under 200
Age of rocks
years million years
Weight of heavier with an average density of
lighter with an average density of 2.6
rocks 3.0
light in colour;
Nature of numerous types, dark in colour; few types, mainly
rocks many contain silica and oxygen, basalt
granite is the most common

Differences between continental and oceanic crust

Continental crust, or sial, is composed of older, lighter rock of granitic type. It is
dominated by minerals rich in silicon (Si) and aluminium (Al), from which the term
SIAL is derived. Oceanic crust, or sima, Consists of much younger and denser rock of
basaltic composition. Its dominant minerals are silicon and magnesium (Ma) from which
the term SIMA is derived.

Plate movement
As a result of convection currents generated by heat from the centre of the earth, plates
may move towards, away from or sideways along adjacent plates. It is at plate boundaries
that most of the world’s major land- forms occur, and where earthquake, volcanic and
mountain building zones are located.

‘Rules’ and generalisations of plate tectonics

1. Continental crust does not sink because of its relatively low density and so is
permanent, whereas oceanic crust, being denser, does sink into the mantle.
Oceanic crust is continually being formed and destroyed.
2. Continental plates, such as the Eurasian Plate, may consist of both continental
and oceanic crust.
 3. Continental crust may extend far beyond the margins of the landmass.
4. Plates cannot overlap. This means that either they must be pushed upwards on
impact to form mountains or one plate must be forced downwards into the
mantle and destroyed.
5. No ‘gaps’ may occur on the earth’s surface so, if two plates are moving apart,
new oceanic crust originating from the mantle must be formed.
6. As the earth is neither expanding nor shrinking in size then as new oceanic crust
is being formed at one place in the world, elsewhere older oceanic crust must be
being destroyed.
7. Plate movement is slow (though not in geological terms) but is usually
continuous. Sudden movements are detected as earthquakes.
8. Most significant landforms (Fold Mountains, volcanoes, island arcs, deep sea
trenches, and batholith intrusions) are found at plate boundaries. Very little
change occurs in the centre of plates.

Plate boundaries and the direction in which they are moving

Type of plate boundary Description of changes Examples

A. constructive margins Two plates move away from each other Mid-Atlantic ridge (Americas moving away from
(spreading or diverging) new oceanic crust appears forming mid- Eurasia, Africa)
oceanic ridges with volcanoes East Pacific Rise (Nazca and Pacific plates moving
apart)
B. Destructive margins Oceanic crust moves towards continental Nazca sinks under South America Plate (Andes) Juan de
(subduction zones) crust but being heavier sinks and is Fuca sinks under North America Plate (Rockies)
Collision zone destroyed forming deep sea trenches and island arcs of the west Indies and Aleutians
islands arcs with volcanoes Indian collided with Eurasia forming Himalayas
two continental crusts collide and as Africa collided with Eurasia forming Alps
neither can sink, are forced up into fold
mountains
C. Conservative or passive margins Two plates move sideways past each San Andreas fault in California
(transform faults) other-land is neither formed nor destroyed
Note: centres of plates are rigid…….. rigid plates form
a. shield lands of ancient worn down rocks Canadian ( Laurentian ) shield, Brazilian shield
b. depressions on edges of the shield Mississipi-Missouri, Amazon, Australian
developing into large river basins
(….with one exception) ( Africa dividing to form a rift valley and (African Rift Valley and the Red Sea)
possibly a new sea)
There are three major movements of plates.

1. CONVERGENCE/DESTRUCTIVE MARGIN
Two plates move towards each other and they collide forming a destructive
margin whereby one plate descends into the mantle. This process is also called
subduction. Features formed in these zones are: oceanic trenches, volcanic
islands, fold mountains, and volcanoes including earthquakes.

2. SHEARING/ CONSERVATIVE MARGIN

In this type of margin, plates’ move past each other. This movement is also
responsible for earthquakes. The boundary between shearing plates is called also
called a transform fault.

San Andreas fault is an example of a transform fault

 3. SPREADING / DIVERGENCE/CONSTRUCTIVE MARGIN
The plates move away from each other and new crust is created at the boundary.
This movement is responsible for the marine ridges such as Mid-Atlantic Ridge;
Chagos - Laccadive, South West and South East Indian ridges in the Indian Ocean
but also the great African Rift Valley.

The Location of the African Rift Valley and the idealized cross-section.

Continental drift
Paleomagnetic studies have shown that the earth was once a single continent. It is in its
present status due to the movements of tectonic plates. The plates which carry the
continents as passengers have moved apart. The movements of the plates are influenced
by convection currents deep down in the mantle.

Continental drift and physical occurrences

Period Million Years Physical occurrence
ago
Permian 225 Single supercontinent called Pangea surrounded by a
super ocean known as Panthlassa.
Early 200 Pangea breaks apart. The land blocks separate slowly
Triassic and undergo horizontal rotation
Late Triassic 180 The land blocks form two main land masses namely
Laurasia in the North and Gondwana in the South.
Later Laurasia breaks into North America, Greenland,
Europe and Asia. Gondwana breaks into South
America, Africa, Madagascar, India, Australia,
Antarctica
Late Jurassic 135 Landmasses formed from Laurasia and Gondwana
gradually move apart.
Late 65 India moves northwards to join Asia, South America
Cretaceous drifts northwards to join North America which is
moving westwards. Australia detaches itself from
Antarctica and drifts eastward. Antarctica moves
southwards
Quaternary Less than 1 The continents attain their present position but continue
to drift apart

Evidence for continental drift

1. Magnetism of ancient rocks. Rocks are magnetised in the direction of magnetic
north when solidifying. Using Paleomagnetic dating it is possible to show where
the position of the rocks were formed.
2. There is a climatic change as continents drift from one latitude to another as such
rocks formed under different climatic conditions are also different.
3. There is evidence of glacial deposits in Congo Basin, fossilised trees in Antarctica
and coral lime stones in Greenland. This shows that these areas were under
different climate conditions unlike the ones that they are experiencing now.
4. Rocks of West Africa and those of Brazil are similar and this can only mean that
the two regions were once joined together.
5. The southern continents fit into a jig-saw.
6. There is an almost identical geological sequence of rock layers in South Africa,
Deccan Plateau (India), plateaux of South America and Antarctica.
7. Folded ranges of Argentina are similar in structure and age to the folded Cape
Ranges of South Africa.

Weaknesses of the continental drift theory.

1. The theory is very general and lacks specifics details on how this happened as
there is lack of a satisfactory explanatory mechanism for plate motion.
2. Quite a number ancient animal and ancient plant fossils as well as ancient
climatic data indicate that continents have never moved.
 3. There is a problem in matching some of the continents. For instance Central
America has to be removed to make North and South America match up to
Europe and Africa.
4. Some of the evidence for the theory could be explained by using other theories.
5. Climate changes. Some of these areas might have been experiencing a different
climate than the one they are experiencing now. E.g. South Africa started
receiving snow in 2008.

RIFT VALLEYS
As the earth’s crust bends, folding occurs. But when it cracks faulting takes place.
Faulting may be a result of two forces which are tension or compression. These are the
forces that either lengthen or shorten the earth’s crust as a result causing a section of it to
sink or rise above the surrounding level.

1. Tensional forces pull the crust apart resulting in the formation of faults. If the
block surrounded by the faults does not move or rise and the land on either side
sinks, the outstanding block becomes a horst or a block mountain. Tension may
also cause the central portion to sink down to form a rift valley. The edges of such
valleys are very steep, and the valleys are usually long and deep, usually with a
flat floor.

2. Compressional forces may produce a thrust or reverse fault and shorten the crust.
A block may be raised or lowered in relation to the surrounding areas. In the first
case a horst may be produced and in the latter a rift valley may result, e.g., the
Great East African rift valley which is 7200 km long with 5600 km within Africa.
The valley is 30— 100 km wide. In Germany a rift valley is called graben.

compression compression
 REFLECTIVE QUESTIONS

1. Explain the meanings of the following terms, illustrating your answer with
diagrams.
a. dip slope and scalp slope
b. syncline
1. Using diagrams explain which forces are responsible for the formation of:
a. Fold mountains?
b. Block mountains?
c. Rift valleys?
2. State the importance and disadvantages of young fold mountains.
3. Explain the following terms:
a. Plate tectonics
b. Diastrophism
c. Lithospheric slabs
d. Asthenosphere
4. Why is it that most earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur along plate
boundaries?
5. a. Draw and explain the three major plate movements.
b. List at least four strengths and weaknesses of the continental drift theory.
6. Draw simple diagrams to illustrate each of the following:
a. a recumbent fold
b. a normal fault
c. how a rift valley is formed

EARTHQUAKES
These are sudden movements of the earth or vibrations in the lithosphere which might be
caused by:

1. plate shearing.
2. Collision.
3. Volcanic eruptions.

OCCURRENCE
They generally occur along plate boundaries. The main types of regions are:
1. Mid-oceanic ridges.
2. Ocean deeps and volcanic Islands.
3. Regions of crustal compression.

NATURE OF EARTHQUAKES
The point of origin in the lithosphere is called focus. The point directly above focus on
the earth’s surface is known as epicentre. This is where shock waves first hit earth’s
surface. Shock waves give rise to earthquakes or vibrations which cause a great deal of
damage.

TYPES OF SHOCK WAVES

1. BODY WAVES
These travel through the crust and are of two types:
a. Primary waves which cause the crustal rocks to move backwards and forwards
in the direction of wave movement.
b. Secondary waves which cause crustal rocks to move from side to side at right
angles to the direction of wave movement.

2. SURFACE WAVES
These travels through the surface rocks and are of two types:
a. Love (L) waves that causes surface rocks to move from side to side at right
angles to the direction of wave movement.
b. Rayleigh (R) waves that cause the surface rocks to have a vertical circular
movement.

MEASUREMENT OF AN EARTHQUAKE
The intensity of an earthquake is measured by a seismograph which records vibrations of
the earthquake. The magnitude is measured on the Richter scale with a range from 0 to 9.

Magnitude of an earthquake
This is the total amount of energy released by an earthquake. The higher the number on
the scale the more destructive the earthquake.

EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES
a. Cause landslides.
b. Can raise or lower coastal rocks, or parts of the sea floor.
c. Can displace lithosphere vertically or horizontally

VULCANISM
This refers to all the various ways by which molten rocks and gases are forced into the
earth’s crust and on to its surface. Vulcanicity therefore includes volcanic eruptions (the
formation of volcanic cones, lava plateaus and geysers), and the formation of volcanic
features such as batholiths, sills and dykes, etc, in the crust.

ORIGIN OF VOLCANOES
Great pressure exerted on the rocks by the crust keeps them in semi-solid state. Friction
of tectonic plates at the boundaries raises the temperature which makes the rocks to
become molten and semi-fluid. The disturbances by the crust caused by deep faulting or
rock folding due to the collision of the crustal plates forces plates to dip into the mantle
where it melts and forms magma which may find its way to the surface through a vent.
Picture of an active volcano erupting showing molten lava flowing down the side of a
mountain

TYPES OF LAVAS
1. BASIC: very hot and highly fluid and flows quietly affecting extensive areas.
They give rise to lava plains and plateaus.
2. ACID: very viscous and therefore flow slowly. They are explosive, often
throwing out volcanic bombs or pyroclasts. They give rise to steep-sided cones.

TYPES OF VOLCANOES
1. ACTIVE: If they erupt frequently.
2. DORMANT: If they are known to erupt and likely to erupt in future.
3. EXTINCT: If they have not erupted in historic times, or those which have
completely stopped erupting.

Features of volcanoes
.
INTERNAL FEATURES OF A VOLCANO
1. BATHOLITH is a dome-shaped mass of granite formed by magma which
accumulates in the crust. It forms the substructure of the mountain and it can
extend up to several kilometres. Batholiths form surface features only after they
have been exposed by denudation. A small batholith is called a boss.
2. LACOLITH is formed when the magma is viscous and it has made a heap at a
particular level. A well formed laccolite has a flat base and a shaped upper
surface. Sometimes it can be as big as a mountain.
3. SILL is a sheet of igneous rocks formed when magma forces its way into the
bedding plane of sedimentary rocks and solidifies there. Some sills form ridge-
like escarpments when exposed by erosion.
4. DYKE is a sheet of igneous rock formed when magma cuts across rock layers and
solidifies there. Dykes may be vertical or inclined and like sills they give rise to
waterfalls or rapids.

Magma sometimes reaches the surface through a vent (hole), or fissure (crack). The
magma that reaches the surface is called lava. When lava comes out through a vent, it
forms a volcano which is cone shaped but when it emerges from a fissure, it may build up
a lava plain or lava plateau.

EXTRUSIVE FEATURES
1. LAVA PLAINS are formed when basic lava flows into lower plains. These areas
are very fertile and are good settlement areas.
2. LAVA PLATEAUS are solidified mass of rock material formed from acidic lava.
3. LAVA CONES are formed of alternate layers of lava or cinders and ash.
4. LAVA PITS /CALDERAS are formed when a composite volcano explodes
violently that it’s top is blown off leaving a crater which is greatly enlarged.
When water accumulates in a crater it is called a caldera lake.
5. SPRINGS occur where hot water comes to the surface from underground for
example Mawira at Liwonde.
6. GEYSERS occur where steam comes to the surface from underground due to the
heating of water by the hot rocks beneath the surface.
7. VOLCANIC MOUNTAINS like Kenya, Kilimanjaro
 8. FUMAROLES which are emissions of gases and steam fissures around dormant
volcanoes.

WORLD VOLCANO DISTRIBUTION

Most volcanoes are found along the plate boundaries where subduction is taking place.
The greatest concentration is found in the Circum-Pacific region commonly called the
Pacific ring of fire which extends from Southern Chile through Central America to
Alaska then turns eastwards to Kamchatka peninsula down to Japan and proceeds to
Philippines, and from there eastwards to New Guinea and ends in New Zealand. Another
important belt starts from Japan westwards through North China and Himalaya into the
Mediterranean region.

ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF VOLCANOES

a. Loss of life and property during eruption.
b. Surfaces of volcanoes remain barren for long time and some remain rugged to
cross.
c. Volcanic ash conserves moisture and so where volcanic ashes fall is light, soil
productivity is often improved.
d. Most volcanoes possess natural resources of rugged mountains, e.g., timber.
e. Tourism enhancement because volcanoes give rise to scenic features of great
beauty.
f. source of crushed rock for concrete aggregate or railroad ballast or substratum
 REFLECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Define the following:
a. vulcanicity
b. tectonic plates
2. Differentiate the two types of lavas.
3. State the importance and disadvantages of volcanoes
4. What causes earthquakes?
5. Explain how the following occurs during earthquakes:
a. Body waves?
b. Surface waves?
6. Explain the main differences in appearance and origin between the following:
a. Batholiths and lava flow
b. Sill and dyke
c. Crater and caldera
7. Why is Malawi experiencing a lot of earth tremors?
8. How different is a seismograph and a Richter scale?
9. Illustrating your answer with diagrams explain how the following are formed:
a. Geyser
b. Cinder cone
10. What are the following:
a. Focus
b. epicentre

PLATEAUS
A plateau is a raised upland with extensive level surface, and usually descends steeply to
the surrounding lowland. It is sometimes called tableland.

CLASSIFICATION OF PLATEAUS
1. TECTONIC PLATEAUX: these are formed by the earth’s movements which
cause uplift, and are normally of great size, and fairly uniform altitude. They
include Harz of Germany, Meseta of central Liberia.
2. VOLCANIC PLATEAUX: molten lava may come out from the earth’s crust and
spread over its surface to form successive sheets of basaltic lava. These cool down
and solidify to form a lava plateau. E.g. Patagonia and Parana of South America,
Columbia and Snake of North America, Drakensburg and Ethiopian of Africa,
 Siberian, Deccan, Mongolian, Arabian of Asia; Icelandic of Europe; Kimberly in
Australia.

IMPORTANCE OF PLATEAUS
Many have rich mineral resources e.g.
a. The African plateau yields gold, copper, diamonds, manganese and chromium.
b. In the Brazilian plateau there are iron and manganese; the Deccan has manganese,
coal and iron.
c. The plateau of western Australian is rich in iron and gold.

THE PLAINS
A plain is an area of lowland, either level or undulating.
Every mountain or plateau that is formed on the earth’s surface is subject to weathering
and denudation which reduces highlands to plains. Plains form the best land of a country
and are intensively cultivated and population and settlements are concentrated here.

TYPES OF PLAINS
a. STRUCTURAL PLAINS: these are depressed areas of the world that
make up some of the most extensive natural lowlands of the earth’s
surface. They include Russian Platform, the Great Plains of USA, and the
Central lowlands of Australia.
b. DEPOSITIONAL PLAINS: these are formed by the deposition of
materials brought by various agents of transportation such as wind, water
and ice. E.g. delta, flood and alluvial plains which are very fertile and
intensely cultivated.
c. EROSIONAL PLAINS: these are formed as a result of the removal of
the top soil by agents of erosion such as rain, wind and ice. These are also
called peneplains.

REJUVINATION
This is the uplift of land in its old stage where it returns to the youthful stage.

STAGES OF LANDFORMS
1. YOUTHFUL STAGE: Every landform starts with a highland which is the
youthful stage. In this stage a highland is lowered through weathering, erosion
and denudation. Usually this part of a river has valleys are narrow, the upland is
broad and flat. Valley slopes are common in the late youthful stage.
2. MATURITY STAGE: In this aspect, the land consists of valley slopes and
narrow divides. Relief is lowered and valley floors are broad in the late maturity
stage.
3. OLD STAGE: In this stage relief is slight, drainage is poor as a result a
peneplain is formed. Due to tectonic activity, the peneplain may be rejuvenated or
uplifted. Sometimes a peneplain can become a plateau which is then dissected by
the rivers as they pass through a fresh cycle from the youth to old stage.
COURSES OF A RIVER

FLOOD PLAIN
During annual or sporadic floods, the load of the river is spread over the low-lying nearby
areas. A layer of sediment is therefore deposited during each flood, slowly building up a
fertile flood plain. Flood plains are good for cultivation, e.g. along the Nile, Ganges arid
Hwang-Ho rivers.

LEVEES
When the river flows normally its bed is raised through the accumulation of deposits and
material is also dropped on the sides forming raised banks called levees. Once in a while
levees break and the results can be disastrous loss of property and life.

DELTA
A fan-shaped alluvial area at the mouth of a river is called a delta. When a river reaches
the sea, the materials it has not yet dropped are deposited at is mouth. Due to obstruction
caused by the deposited alluvium, the river may empty its water through several channels
called distributaries. Deltas are important for agriculture, e.g. Ganges delta (jute), Nile
delta (cotton, rice).
TYPES OF DELTAS

1. Estuarine: the river mouth is drowned or submerged. E.g. Seine, Ob, Elbe and
Vistula.
2. Bird’s foot: also called digitate delta. It is mostly made up of silt. E.g. Omo,
Vardar and Mississippi deltas.
3. Cuspate: the delta is pointed. E.g. the mouth of Tiber river.
4. Arcuate: triangular in shape with many distributaries. E.g. Indus, Ganges, Niger,
Nile and Mekong deltas.

REFLECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. List the courses of the river and explain their importance.
2. Describe the following with diagrams if possible
a. rejuvenation process.
b. Formation of plateaus
3. What is the significance of rocks to human activities?
4. Name and explain:
a. the four types of deltas
b. types of plains found in the world
5. State the importance of plateaus.
6. Write briefly the main characteristics of the following:
a. Ox-bow lake
b. Braided river
c. Rapids and waterfalls
TOPIC 3. HYDROSPHERE
OBJECTIVES
Students should be able to:
 Recognise the hydrosphere as an important component of the earth’s surface
 Describe the main features of a hydrological cycle
 Explain factors that can disturb the hydrological cycle
 Explain the importance of hydrological cycle
 Suggest ways of maintaining the hydrological cycle
 Develop an appreciation for the need to sustain the hydrological cycle
 Explain causes of ocean currents and factors that influence their direction
 Locate major ocean currents of the world and explain their effects

HYDROSHPHERE
Hydrosphere refers to all water of the earth in rivers, lakes, seas and oceans, etc. It covers
nearly 70% of the earth’s surface.

THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

This is the circulation of water from the oceans to the atmosphere, from there to the land,
and back to the oceans. Mostly evaporation takes place from the oceans, lakes, rivers,
swamps, etc. Through transpiration, vegetation also adds water vapour to the atmosphere.
Condensation of the water vapour in the atmosphere leads to the formation of clouds and
later on precipitation as rain, snow, sleet or hail. Rivers return most of the water to the
ocean. However, not all water is returned immediately. Some is trapped in lakes or
swamps. Some water is held in rock openings. Eventually, however, most water returns
to the oceans. The cycle is a never-ending movement of water between land and
atmosphere.
IMPORTANT RESOURCES IN THE ATMOSPHERE
Water, vegetation and soil are very important in the cycle and there is need to conserve
them.

HUMAN ACTIVITES THAT CAN DISTURB THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

i. Careless cutting of the trees.
ii. Cultivating along river banks and marginal lands.
iii. Burning of fuel wood and charcoal burning.
iv. Effluents and waste dumping.
v. Use of pesticides and chlorofluorocarbons.

OCEAN CURRENTS
These are large bodies of surface water that circulate in regular patterns around the
oceans.

CIRCULATION OF OCEAN CURRENTS

The circulation of the main ocean currents between the equatorial and the temperate
regions is clockwise in the northern hemisphere and anticlockwise in the southern
hemisphere. The currents which flow from equatorial regions polewards have higher
surface temperatures and thus are warm currents. Those that flow towards the equator
from the Polar Regions have lower surface temperatures and are cold currents.

WARM CURRENTS
 Brazilian  Mozambique
 Kurosiwo  East Australian.
 North Atlantic

COLD CURRENTS
 Peruvian (Humboldt)  West Australian
 Labrador  Benguela
 Canaries  California
 Kamchatka  Irminger.

CAUSES OF OCEAN CURRENTS

1. THE PREVAILING WINDS

Between the equator and the tropics, the trade winds move the equatorial
waters polewards and westwards and warm eastern coasts of continents. In the
temperate latitudes blow the westerlies. These force water to flow in
northeasterly direction in northern hemisphere e.g. North Atlantic Drift. In the
southern hemisphere, the westerlies force water equatorwards e.g. the
Benguela and Peruvian currents. Prevailing winds are the most important
cause of ocean currents. The ocean currents caused by the prevailing winds
are called drifts.
 2. TEMPERATURE
There is difference in the temperature of ocean waters at the equator and at
the poles. As warm water is lighter it rises, and cold water being denser it
sinks. Warm equatorial waters move slowly along the surface towards the
poles. These currents are called convection.

3. SALINITY
water of high salinity (saltines) is denser than water of low salinity. For this
reason water of low density flows on the surface of the denser water.

4. THE EARTH’S ROTATION

The Coriolis force, sometimes called geostrophic, deflects freely moving
objects such as the ocean currents to the right in the northern hemisphere and
to the left in the southern hemisphere. This observation is called Ferrell’s
Law.

DIRECTION OF OCEAN CURRENTS

The direction taken by any ocean current is influenced by
i. The shape of continents. Ocean currents flow along the coasts of the
continents, e.g. the Brazilian Current which flows from the equator
southwards to Falklands Islands.
ii. Prevailing winds as ocean currents flow towards where the winds are blowing.

EFFECTS OF OCEAN CURRENTS

i. Ocean currents often have a considerable influence on climate and human

activities. E.g. North Atlantic drift is responsible for the mild winters of North
Western Europe. The meeting of the Gulf Stream and cold Labrador currents
gives dense fogs off Newfoundland.
ii. Ocean currents distribute heat from the tropics to the poles and the coldness
from the poles to the tropics. E.g. North Pacific Drift warms the west coast of
Alaska and British Columbia in the end melting the winter ice and making
Vancouver Port ice-free in winter and having mild winters. Major fishing
grounds are found where cold and warm currents meet, e.g. western Pacific
ground (Kamchatka and Kurosiwo), North Western Atlantic (Labrador and
North Atlantic Drift) North-eastern Atlantic (North Atlantic Drift and
Irminger).
 iii. Benguela Current lowers temperatures off the coast of Namibia (Kalahari)
where fogs are common (formed when onshore winds blow over the current).
Brazilian current encourages fishing along the coast of Uruguay and
Argentina. The Mozambique Current modifies the climate of eastern coast of
Africa by raising the temperatures. Generally temperatures there are higher
than on the western coast where the cold Benguela current flows. The
temperatures of eastern Africa are 4—8°C higher than those on the West
African Coast.

Ocean currents of the world

El Niño is a Latin word which means the child. Each year, from December, a weak
southward flow of warm water to about 6°S along the coast of Ecuador replaces Peruvian
cold current and its associated cold upwelling. At irregular intervals, of 2 to 10 years, this
warm water becomes much more extensive and the cold water and its nutrients leads to
massive death of fish and birdlife which feeds on them, causing economic disaster for the
fishing and guano( dung dropped by sea-birds) and is industries of Ecuador, Chile and
Peru. Guano is used as fertilizer.
El Niño forms part of a large-scale 1—4°C warming of the ocean surface in the eastern
equatorial Pacific. It is associated with a decrease in the normal atmospheric pressure
gradient between the subtropical high-pressure cell in the eastern south Pacific and low
pressure over the Indonesian region. The result is that there is a weak easterly wind which
does not generally favour rainfall in the region. This leads either to drought or very
reduced rainfall. This phenomenon is operational from December to February.
Sometimes it affects the whole earth.

REFLECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. a. Define the term “hydrosphere.”
b. Give four examples and explain of each of the following in the hydrological
cycle:
i. features
ii. Processes
2. Explain how the hydrological cycle:
a. can be disturbed
b. can be maintained
3. a. Why are some ocean currents warm while others are cold?
b. Explain beneficial effects of ocean currents on human activities.
4. What causes El Niño?
5. What causes ocean currents?
TOPIC 4. THE ATMOSPHERE
OBJECTIVES
Students should be able to:
 Explain causes of seasons
 Describe characteristics of seasons
 Describe cycle of the seasons
 Explain factors which influence air pressure
 Locate the main pressure belts in the world and account for their distribution
 Explain how air pressure influences wind
 Interpret isobars on pressure maps
 Locate and describe patterns of the prevailing winds on a world map
 Locate and describe characteristics of the local winds on a world map
 Explain the occurrence of land and sea breezes and describe their influence on
local weather
 Explain the effects of cyclones and anticyclones
 Locate world climatic regions and describe criteria used in classifying them
 Describe characteristics of each type of climate and its associated vegetation
 Outline the influence of climate and its associated vegetation on economic
activities
 Explain the causes and effects of climate change
 Suggest possible solutions to causes of climate change

THE SOLAR SYSTEM OF THE EARTH

This is a group of celestial or heavenly bodies made up of the sun, planets and the
asteroids which revolve round. There are nine planets in the system. A planet is a roughly
spherical body which revolves round the sun in elliptical path called an orbit.

PLANETS IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM

1. Mercury 4. Mars 7. Uranus
2. Venus 5. Jupiter 8. Neptune
3. Earth 6. Saturn 9. Pluto

Since the orbits are elliptical, there are times when the earth is nearest to the sun or
farthest from it.
1. Perihelion is when the earth is nearer to the sun and this occurs during summer in
the Southern Hemisphere on 3rd January when it is 146.400,000 km away.
2. Aphelion is when the earth is furthest from the sun and this occurs during winter
in the Southern Hemisphere on 4th July when it is 151,200,000 km away.
Mercury is the planet closest the sun. It is 57.6 million km away from it. Pluto,
discovered in 1930, is the outer planet and is 5850 million km from the sun. Mercury,
Venus and Earth are called inner planets.

The earth
The earth moves in space in eight ways. But the main ones are:
1. ROTATION OF THE EARTH
The earth moves from west to east once in every 24 hours, causing day and night.
It causes only one half of its surface to face the sun and that side experiences
daylight while the other half which faces away from the sun experiences darkness
or night. The part of the earth that emerges from the darkness experiences sunrise.
The part that gradually becomes obscured from sunlight experiences sunset. The
line that separates day from night is called circle of illumination.

The direction of the earth’s rotation is opposite the apparent movement of celestial
bodies which appear to move westward across the sky. Therefore, the earth must be
rotating in an eastward direction.

2. REVOLUTION OF THE EARTH

The earth in revolving round the sun it travels in an elliptical orbit at a speed of 30
km per second or 106 560 km per hour. The greatest speed of revolution takes
place during perihelion and the least speed during aphelion.
The axis of the earth is inclined to the plane of the ecliptic at an angle of 66½°,
giving rise to seasons and varying lengths of day and night (at different times of
the year).

During winter in the northern hemisphere, as we go northwards, the hours of darkness

steadily increase but those of the day decrease. In the southern hemisphere the opposite
happens. In summer the hours of darkness decrease as we move northwards but the hours
of daylight increases.

Apparently as the sun moves from 23½° N (summer), its angle of elevation becomes
smaller resulting in less heat from the sun and temperatures fall. But to the south the
sun’s angle of elevation increases and as a result insolation gets concentrated in a smaller
area that gives high temperatures. When the sun is overhead at 23½°S, it is summer to the
south of this latitude and to the north of latitude 23½° N it is winter. When the sun starts
moving towards, 23½° N, conditions are reversed slowly.
The sun is overhead the equator on two days each year. These are 21 March and 23rd
September, and are called equinoxes which means ‘equal nights’. On these two days the
world over the lengths of daylight and darkness are equal.

The sun is overhead the Tropic of Cancer once in a year on 21st June. This date is known
as the summer solstice in the northern hemisphere and winter solstice in the southern
hemisphere. On this day the north has its longest day and shortest night; and in the
southern hemisphere the day is the shortest and the night is longest.

At the Tropic of Capricorn the date when the sun is overhead is 22 December and the
northern hemisphere has winter solstice while the southern hemisphere has summer
solstice. On this day the north has its shortest day and longest night while the south has a
longer day and a shorter night.

In the tropics, as the midday sun varies very little from its vertical position at noon daily,
the four seasons cannot be differentiated. Days and nights are almost equal all the year
round. Beyond the Arctic Circle (66½° N) and the Antarctic Circle (66½°S) darkness
lasts for 6 months and daylight is continuous for the other half of the year. It is always
cold, for even during the short summer the sun is never high in the sky.
LATITUDES AND LONGITUDES

LATITUDES
These are angular distances of a point on the earth’s surface north or south of the equator
measured in degrees from the centre of the earth. They are parallel to a line, the equator,
which lies midway between the poles. These lines are called parallels of latitude.

The most important lines of latitude are:

a. the equator (0°)
b. the Tropic of Cancer (23½°N)
c. the Tropic of Capricorn (23½°S)
d. the Arctic Circle (66½°N)
e. the Antarctic Circle (66½° S)

On average 10 of latitude equals 111 km and this can be used for calculating distances
between places.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LATITUDES
a. They are always parallel to each other.
b. Many of them can be drawn on the globe.
c. They run from east to west.
d. They intersect longitudes at right angles.
e. They are small circles except the equator which is a great circle.

L0NGITUDES
These are angular distances measured in degrees along the equator east or west of Prime
Meridian (0°). These lines run from pole to pole. The earth’s circumference is 40 084 km.
Therefore, 1° of longitude is 111.3 km along the equator.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LONGITUDE
a. They are selected at equal distances apart, just for suitability, and convenience.
b. They run in a north-south direction.
c. They are halves of great circles.
d. They are spaced farther apart at the equator and converge at the poles.

IMPORTANCE OF LONGITUDES
They determine local time in relation to Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). Since the earth
makes a complete rotation of 360° in 24 hours, it passes 15° in one hour or 1° in
4 minutes. The earth rotates from west to east, so every 15° eastwards local time is
advanced (pushed forward) by 1 hour and westwards local time is retarded (reduced) by 1
hour. By travelling westwards one loses time until 180° W when he will be 12 hours
behind GMT. Therefore, there is a total of 24 hours or one day between the two sides of
180° Meridian.
THE PRIME MERIDIAN
This is the International Dateline where date changes by exactly one day when it is
crossed to either side. This dateline does not strictly follow the 180° meridian. It avoids
crossing countries as a result it zigzags. Crossing a country would mean that the country
has two dates. In crossing-the International dateline from west to east a day is gained, e.g.
Tuesday to Monday because you will experience the Tuesday again. But from east to
west a day is lost, e.g. from Monday to Tuesday because you will never experience the
Monday again.

East West

The great circle

This is a circle on the earth’s surface whose plane passes through its centre and divides it
into two hemispheres. Any two opposite meridians together form a great circle, e.g. 30° E
and 150°W, 5°W and 175°E. The equator (0°) is also a great circle.
Characteristics of great circles
a. A great circle results when a plane passes through the centre of the globe.
b. They are the largest possible circles that can be drawn on the surface of the globe.
c. One and only one great circle can pass through any two points on the surface of
the globe.
d. Intersecting great circles bisect each other.

A great circle route is the route between any two points on the earth’s surface which
follows the great circle. It is the shortest distance between the two points, and is often
followed by ships at sea, and aircraft on long distance flights. Being short, fuel, time and
money are saved by their use.

REFLECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. What are the characteristics of:
a. Latitudes?
b. Longitudes?
c. Great circles?
2. Explain the following:
a. Line of illumination?
b. Equinoxes
c. Aphelion and perihelion
3. The Africa Cup of Nations is taking place 30º E. At what time should people at
the following longitudes switch on their televisions to watch the match?
a. 74º W?
b. 140º E
4. What is meant by gaining and losing a day when you cross the international
dateline?
5. Differentiate the two major movements of the earth.
THE ATMOSPHERE
The word atmosphere comes from a Greek word atmos which means vapour.
Atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding the earth. Its upper limit is nearly at a height
of 10 000 km. Most of the atmosphere and, and therefore weather, is concentrated within
16km of the earth’s surface at the Equator and 8 km at the poles. 50 per cent of
atmospheric mass is within 5.5km of sea level and 99 percent is within 40 km.

Atmospheric pressure decreases rapidly with height but temperature changes are more
complicated. From the earth’s surface upward to a height of 80 km the chemical
composition of the atmosphere is uniform in this layer called homosphere. The upper
atmosphere is called heterosphere and is non-uniform in its chemical composition.

LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE

1. TROPOSHERE
This starts from the earth’s surface up to a height of 13 km. Temperatures
decrease by 6.4°C for every 1000m in altitude (environmental lapse rate). The
surface is heated by incoming solar radiation which in turn heats the air next to it
by conductions. Pressure falls as the effect of gravity decreases but wind speeds
usually increase with height. This layer contains most of the atmospheric water
vapour, cloud dust and pollution.
 2. STATOSPHERE
This extends from 13 km to about 50 km. This is characterised by a steady
increase in temperature (temperature inversion) caused by a concentration of the
gas ozone which absorbs incoming Ultra-violet (UV) radiation. Wind is light in
lower parts but it increase with height, pressure continues to fall and the air is dry.

3. MESOSPHERE
This extends from 50 km to a height of 80 km. Temperatures fall rapidly as there
is no water vapour, cloud, dust or ozone to absorb incoming radiation. This layer
has the lowest temperatures (-90°C) and the strongest wind speeds (3000km per
hour.)

4. THERMOSPHERE
This extends from 80 km up to the vacuum above. Temperatures rise rapidly with
height, perhaps reaching 1500°C. This is due to an increasing proportion of
atomic oxygen in the atmosphere which, like ozone, absorbs incoming ultra-violet
radiation.

NOTE At the upper limit of the homosphere radio waves are reflected back to the earth
and satellites are placed in ionosphere.

IMPORTANCE OF THE TROPOSHERE

a. All the weather and climate that affect man take place here.
b. Besides pure dry air, it contains water vapour.
c. Contains tiny dust particles which serve as nuclei around which water vapour
condenses to form clouds. These dust particles also contribute to the occurrence
of twilight and the red colours of sunrise and sunset.

COMPOSITION OF GASES IN THE ATMOSPHERE

 Nitrogen (78%)  Argon0.93%)
 Oxygen (21%)  Carbon dioxide (0.03%)
 The other rare gases are Neon, Helium, Krypton, Xenon, Hydrogen, Methane and
Nitrous Oxide (about 0.01%).

AIR PRESSURE
This is the force of air at a place due to the weight of the column of the said air above that
point. Sometimes it is called atmospheric or barometric pressure. It is usually measured
by a barometer and it is expressed in millibars (mb). On maps places having the same
pressure are joined by a line called isobar.

PRESSURE GRADIENT is the rate at which the atmospheric pressure changes

horizontally in a certain direction on the earth’s surface. When the isobars are close
together, a fast change of pressure from point to point at right angles is shown and the
gradient is steep as air is quickly drained (the movement of air or wind is great). When
the isobars are far apart the gradient is slight and wind speed is low.

INSTRUMENTS USED IN MEASURING AIR PRESSURE

1. MERCURY BAROMETER
When air pressure increases, the air pressing on the surface of the mercury will
force it up the mercury column, to register high pressure. When the pressure
decreases, the mercury column drops to register low pressure. The pressure is read
off the scale on the glass tube.

NOTE. The mercury barometer is not good for outdoor measurements. Therefore,
aneroid barometer is used although it is less accurate than the mercury barometer.

2. ANEROID BAROMETER
It consists of a metal box with very little air inside. Any increase in air-pressure
on the outside of the box makes the lid to move inwards thus registering high
pressure. When the lid moves inwards, the chain is pulled to the right and this
forces the indicator to move to the right also. When pressure reduces, the box lid
 moves outwards, the indicator moves to the left to show low pressure.

3. THE BAROGRAPH
This takes readings on a continuous basis. A pen is attached to a pointer and it
inks the paper fixed to a rotating drum.

FACTORS AFFECTING PRESSURE

1. ALTITUDE
There is a concentration of air molecules at the earth’s surface. This means
that its weight per unit area or volume is higher hence its weight per unit
volume is higher than at higher altitudes. At higher altitudes the air is thin and
therefore its weight per unit volume is much less than on the earth’s surface.
The atmospheric pressure decreases by 1/30 of its value every 275 m we go up
into the air.

2. TEMPERATURE
When air is heated, it becomes lighter and therefore rises. If it is cooled it
becomes heavier and sinks back to the earth’s surface. This means that high
temperatures reduce air pressure and low temperatures increase air pressure.
The pressure belts are influenced by the distribution of temperature. For
example, in January (summer in southern hemisphere) the temperatures are
high and the land develops low pressure and the high pressure on the oceans
because land absorbs heat faster than water. In July (summer in the northern
hemisphere) temperatures are higher on the land than the seas therefore low
pressure develops on the land and high pressure on the seas.
 3. ROTATION OF THE EARTH
The rotation of the earth deflects winds and water to the right in the northern
hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere. This is the reason
winds and ocean currents carry warm equatorial waters and winds to the
western coasts of the temperate lands thereby raising the temperatures and in
so doing reducing air pressure. The polar winds and waters have reverse
effects on the eastern coasts of the tropics or temperate lands.

Air thrown away from the poles spreads and occupies longer latitudes thereby reducing
its pressure. The air that goes back to the poles from the equator occupies shorter
latitudes and gets concentrated in small space. This increases its pressure.

WORLD PRESSURE BELTS AND WINDS

Air that rises at the equator moves out towards the poles. As it does so it contracts and its
pressure rises (30°N/S). In these latitudes air begins to sink and builds up sub-tropical
high pressure belts (horse latitudes). Some of the air moves towards the equator and some
towards the poles. Air that moves towards the equator replaces the air that rises there in
the same way air that moves towards the poles when it reaches latitude 60°N/, it also
replaces air that rises there.

WINDS
Wind is a current of air, moving with speed in any direction, but generally assumed to be
parallel to the earth’s surface. (Wind is air in motion).

Wind direction is indicated by:

(a) a wind vane or
(b) a wind sock or weathercock.

Its speed is measured by a cup anemometer.

Winds are always named from the direction they blow; a west wind is the one
from the west.

WINDROSE
It is used for recording the direction of prevailing winds of a place over a period of a
month. It consists of eight-compass directions. The date in the month when wind blew
from a given direction is written in Small Square. The number at the centre of the rose
represents the number of days in the month when it was calm.

BEAUFORT WIND SCALE

It is used where an anemometer is not available. Its main features are detailed below:
Scale Description Speed Observed effects
No (Km/h)
0 Calm Less than Smoke rises vertically
1.6
1 Light air 1.6-5 Smoke-drift, not shown by wind vane
2 Light breeze 7-11 Leaves rustle, wind is felt on the face, wind vane
moved
3 Gentle breeze 13-19 light flags blow out in the wind, leaves and twigs
are in constant motion
4 Moderate 21-29 Dust and loose paper blows about, small branches
breeze are moved
5 Fresh breeze 31-39 Small trees begin to sway, waves form on lakes
6 Strong breeze 41-50 Whistling is heard in telephone wires, large
branches are set in motion, difficult to open
umbrellas
7 Moderate 51-61 Difficult to walk against wind, whole trees set in
gale motion
8 Fresh gale 63-74 Twigs are broken off trees
9 Strong gale 75-86 Slight structural damage to buildings occur
10 Whole gale 88-101 Trees are uprooted and considerable structural
damage to buildings occur
11 Storm 103-120 Widespread damage occurs
12 Hurricane Over 120 Widespread devastation occurs in some tropical
regions

GEOSTROPHIC WINDS
They occur when pressure gradient force balances the Coriolis force and wind tends to
blow parallel to the isobars. However, the wind’s direction is influenced by the rotation
of the earth as it is deflected to the left in the southern hemisphere and to the right in the
northern hemisphere.
PREVAILING WINDS
These are winds, indicated by direction, in a certain area which have a considerably
higher frequency than any other winds. The most important prevailing winds are the
Westerlies and the trades and they are influenced by the global pressure distribution.

TRADE WINDS
These winds originate from the sub-tropical high pressure belts. The pressure belts are
found at 30º north or south of the equator. They blow towards the equatorial low pressure
belt, the doldrums. They are a result of the high pressure gradient from subtropical areas,
the horse latitudes, to the equatorial low pressure zones. In the northern hemisphere they
blow from north easterly direction and in the southern hemisphere they are from the south
easterly direction. These directions are due to the rotation of the earth, deflection of freely
moving fluids. Over the oceans they blow with extreme regularity throughout the year.

IMPORTANCE OF TRADE WIND BELTS

a. Good belts for westward travel in the days of sailing vessels.
b. Steadiness of wind and generally clear weather make this a favourite zone of
mariners.

DISADVANTAGE OF TRADE WIND BELTS

a. This zone is plagued by tropical storms called hurricanes or typhoons once in a
while.

WESTERLY WINDS
These winds blow from the sub-tropical high pressure belts towards the poles to 60°
parallel, both North and South of the equator. In both hemispheres, north and south, they
blow from the westerly direction hence the name westerlies. In the southern hemisphere
the westerlies blow with great force and regularity throughout the year over the oceans
and are variably called roaring forties or the furious fifties or the screaming sixties.

IMPORTANCE OF WESTERLY WIND BELTS

a. Good for long-distance flying. Transoceanic and transcontinental flying in the
easterly direction require less fuel and shorter time.
b. In winter, in the northern hemisphere, they move southwards affecting the
Mediterranean regions, bringing winter rain to those areas

DISADVANTAGES OF WESTERLY WINDS

a. For westward flying strong head winds reduce speed and increase fuel
consumption. This necessitates reduced payloads on the planes.
b. Unlike the trade winds, westerlies are variable in force and direction.
The weather in their area is marked by an almost constant procession of
depressions and anticyclones moving eastwards.

LOCAL WINDS
These are caused by the immediate influences of the surrounding topography or relief,
rather than large scale pressure systems that produce global winds such as trades or
westerlies.

IMPORTANCE OF LOCAL WINDS ON THE ENVIRONMENT

a. They exert a powerful stress on animals and plants, depending on whether they
are dry and extremely hot or, cold.
b. They affect the movement of pollutants such as pollution fumes far down from
the sources.

TYPES WINDS
1. LAND AND SEA BREEZE
These are caused by differences in the heating and the loss of heat of land and sea.
During the day land becomes warmer than the sea. So air moves towards the land.
This is called sea breeze. During the night the land loses heat faster than the sea
and therefore air moves from the land to the sea. This is called land breeze.
IMPORTANCE OF LAND AND SEA BREEZE
a. They have a cooling effect during summer.
b. This is an important environmental resource of coastal communities, as it adds to
the attraction of the shore zone as a recreation facility.
c. In the tropics sea breezes can blow quite strongly (30-40 km/h)as such fishermen
take advantage of the land breezes and sail out with them. They return the
following morning with the sea breezes, complete with their catch (fish).

2. MOUNTAIN AND VALLEY WINDS

i. ANABATIC.
During the day air moves from the valleys and upward over rising mountain
slopes when the slopes are greatly heated by the sun.

ii. KATABATIC.
These are winds blow from higher to lower regions. The air moves valleyward,
down the ground slopes, when the slopes have been cooled at night by radiation
of the heat from ground to air. Cold air flows under the influence of gravity to the
low areas. These winds, usually cold, occur in many mountainous regions of the
world and go by various local names, e.g., the Bora of northern Adriatic coast, the
Mistral of southern France.

3. DESCENDING WINDS
They result when strong regional winds passing over a mountain range are found to
descend on the leeward side with the result that the air is heated and dried, e.g. the
Chinook and Föhn.
LOCAL WINDS
1. CHIPERONI
It is a warm and moist wind which originates from Mozambique and mostly
affects the Shire Highlands. The winds bring persistent low clouds (stratus) and
sometimes drizzles in the southern region of Malawi, particularly Mulanje,
Thyolo and Blantyre.

2. HARMATTAN
Blowing direct from the Sahara Desert, this strong north –easterly wind which is
experienced in West Africa is hot, very dry and dusty. It is so dry and hot that it
sometimes splits trunks of trees. However, when it reaches Guinea coast, it
provides a welcome relief from the moist heat for it is a cool wind to that area
since it encourages evaporation hence cooling (that is why it is nicknamed the
doctor wind). But far inland, it damages crops.

3. FӦHN
A warm, dry wind which blows down the leeward slope of northern Alps and
raises temperatures by 8°C to 11°C. Snow is melted, trees and houses become
excessively dry and avalanches may occur. In northern Switzerland, it is very
useful in winter as it melts snow from the pastures. In autumn, it is useful in
ripening the crops, especially grapes.

4. CHINOOK (Snow-eater)
A warm, dry, Föhn type of wind experienced along the eastern side of the Rocky
Mountains in Canada and USA. It is commonest during winter and spring. The
wind raises temperature, sometimes by 19°C in 15 minutes, melts and dries up the
winter snow hence the name snow-eater. It is of economic importance, especially
in the pastoral regions, from southern Colorado (USA) to as far north as
Mackenzie river (Canada). Strong and frequent Chinooks mean that the winter is
mild, and pastures are available practically without interruption. The absence of
Chinooks means a very cold winter, and heavy losses of livestock.
CYCLONE
A cyclone is a region of intense low atmospheric pressure. Strong winds spiral towards
the centre, rushing upwards with great force in the vortex which surrounds the eye of the
cyclone. The rapidly rising air results into torrential rains and the strong winds cause
considerable damage to buildings and vegetation. Some of the tropical cyclones are
typhoons, hurricanes and tornadoes.

DEVELOPMENT OF A TROPICAL CYCLONE

They develop where two air masses meet (northerly and southerly trade winds) along the
inter-tropical front. They form over oceans because of the warm moist air found on the
lower layers and the cooler drier upper layers. When these meet, one is lifted above the
other which results in cooling and produces heavy rainfall. Heat in form of latent is let
free which is the energy that enables the cyclone to rotate. Tropical cyclones move in a
general westerly direction and upon reaching land, they gradually die out because they
lack the supply of warm moist air from the oceans.

LIFE CYCLE OF A TROPICAL CYCLONE

It is divided into 4 stages:
 1. FORMATIVE
Two air masses meet at intertropical front. Air pressure falls greatly to less than
1000 hPa. One air mass is lifted above the other. The rising air cools and its
moisture condenses to produce heavy rainfall. Condensation frees latent heat
which makes the cyclone to rotate.

2. IMMATURE GROWTH
Air pressure in the centre falls below l000hPa. Winds begin to reach hurricane
strength, (12 on the Beaufort scale). The area affected is small, 30—50 km in
diameter.

3. MATURE GROWTH
This stage is reached when air pressure stops to drop. The area affected has
increased considerably.

4. DEGENERATION
This is the dying out of a cyclone and it often happens when the cyclone reaches
the land. Air pressure in the centre rises and the area affected is reduced.
Eventually the system dies out completely.

CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR TROPICAL CYCLONE DEVELOPMENT

a. An abundant source of warm, moist air of temperature of about 27°C near to sea
surface.
b. Air must be blowing inwards towards the centre and rising rapidly and
nimbocumulus clouds must form to give heavy rains.
c. There must be an inward flow of air in the upper level of the atmosphere.

WEATHER ASSOCIATED WITH A CYCLONE

a. Air becomes very still, temperatures and humidity are high before the arrival of
the cyclone.
b. As the front of the vortex arrives, gusty winds develop and thick clouds appear.
c. When the vortex arrives, the winds become violent reaching speeds of over 240
km per hour.
d. Calm conditions return when the eye arrives.
e. The arrival of the rear of the vortex brings in violent winds.

EFFECTS OF TROPICAL CYCLONES

1. Great winds cause waves of as much as 30 m in the sea. These waves cause
destruction in coastal areas.
2. Destruction of buildings and other properties.
3. Loss of lives
DIFFERENT NAMES GIVEN TO CYCLONES IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE
WORLD
 In the Caribbean and USA they are called hurricanes.
 In Madagascar and Mauritius they call them cyclones.
 In India they are simply called cyclones.
 In Australia they are known as willy-willy.
 In China Sea and around Japan they are called typhoons.

A DEPRESSION
This is a region of low pressure. These develop in temperate latitudes where tropical air
meets cold polar air (polar fronts). They are rarely stationary and move in an easterly
direction. Depressions are associated with unsettled weather usually with overcast skies
and periods of continuous rain.

DEVELOPMENT OF A DEPRESSION
1. The friction develops as the two air masses meet.
2. A wave bulges into the colder air and gets larger as a result pressure falls at the
tip of the wave.
3. As the bulge develops, the warm air rises over the cold air at the front of the
bulge.
WEATHER ASSOCIATED WITH A DEPRESSION
1. The sky will be clear except for a little cirrus cloud and wind will be blowing
from the south east. Later on clouds develop which result in lighter showers
which turn into heavy rainfall. The warm front passes.
2. Rain stops and wind changes from south east to south west. As the warm sector
lies of the area, temperatures rise and the air becomes humid.
3. Weather changes rapidly as the cold front passes. Wind now blows from the
North West and temperatures fall.

HURRICANES
These have calm rainless centres (the eyes) Where the pressure is lowest but around
these ‘eyes’ the wind speed exceeds 120 km/h. Dense dark clouds gather and violent
stormy weather lasts for several hours.

TYPHOONS
Winds are violent with a speed of over 160 km/h. The sky is overcast and the torrential
downpour is accompanied by thunder and lightning.

TORNADOES
These are small but very violent tropical and sub-tropical cyclones spiralled by air at a
great speed of as much as 800km/h .A tornado appears as a dark funnel cloud. As it
passes through a region, it writhes and twists, causing complete devastation

ANTICYCLONES
This is an area of high atmospheric pressure. The pressure gradient is gentle and winds
are light. They normally herald fine weather. Skies are clear, the air is calm and
temperatures are high in summer but low in winter. In winter great cooling of the lower
atmosphere may result in thick fogs.

Winds in anticyclones blow outwards as opposed to inwards in cyclones. They blow

clockwise in the northern hemisphere and anticlockwise in the southern hemisphere. The
main anticyclones of the world include: South Atlantic High, and Indian Ocean High.
AIRMASSES
An airmass is a large body of air whose temperature and moisture are fairly uniform and
covers an extensive surface area. In short, a single air mass may be of sub continental
proportion and in vertical dimensions it may extend through troposphere (more than 10
km above the earth’s surface). Air masses are classified according to:
1. Position on the globe based on latitude, which primarily determines thermal
(heat) properties.
2. Underlying surface (continents or oceans) which determines the moisture content.

TYPES OF AIR MASSES

1. STABLE AIRMASS
When an airmass rises and becomes cooler than the surrounding air, it tends to
sink back to the ground. Such type of air is not likely to produce convectional
rise, because the air resists lifting. Such air is called stable.

2. UNSTABLE AIRMAS
An airmass in which rising (updraft) tends to increase in intensity as time goes
on is said to be unstable. It continues to rise as long as its temperature is higher
than that of the surrounding air. This airmass yields heavy showers and
thunderstorms, and is most likely to be found in warm, humid areas such as the
equatorial and tropical oceans and their bordering lands throughout the year, and
the middle-latitude regions during the summer season.

FRONT
The line of separation at the earth’s surface between cold and warm air masses.
COLD FRONT CONDITIONS
1. The wind changes direction as the front passes a point on the ground the wind
always backs( changing direction to the left, or anticlockwise) in the southern
hemisphere and veers(changing direction to the right, that is, clockwise) in the
northern hemisphere.

WIND SHIFTS: This is the process of veering and backing. Wind shifts are associated
with sudden, gusty wind conditions. When such conditions occur simultaneously along
the entire line of the front, the front is called line squall.
2. The decrease in temperature marking a sudden end of a period of warm weather
when a cold airmass arrives.
3. There is always a decrease in humidity since cold air does not contain as much
moisture as warm air.
4. A fast-moving cold front preceded by warm, unstable, moist air produces
cumulonimbus clouds with associated thunder, lightning, hail and turbulence.
5. An advancing cold front usually heralds a decrease in atmospheric pressure.

WARM FRONT CONDITIONS

1. A change in wind direction accompanies a warm front. In the southern
hemisphere the wind always backs, but it is more gradual.
2. There is an increase in temperature, but the change occurs more slowly than in
case of a cold front.
3. The atmospheric pressure usually drops rapidly before the onset of the warm
front and then it becomes gradual.
4. A marked rise in the dew point is associated with the passage of a warm front.
The cloud cover is much more extensive.
INTER-TROPICAL CONVERGENCE ZONE
The sun produces intense heat and raises the temperatures which produce low pressure
from November to April, while high pressure develops over the Indian and Atlantic
Oceans and because of this winds blow from the oceans into the low pressure zone.

ITCZ AND RAINFALL

Rainfall is associated with the passage of ITCZ. From November to April southern
Africa receives rain while the north under the influence of hot and dry airmass
experiences no rainfall. Gradually rains shift to the north following the apparent
movement of the sun. Between May and October the north experiences rainfall while the
south is dry.

Position of inter-tropical convergence zone

Occlusions
The cold front moves in more quickly than the warm front and it overtakes the warm
sector thereby uplifting the air. This is called occlusion and the boundary between the
uplifted air and the cold air is called an occluded front.

Cold front occlusion

The air on the leading edge of an advancing cold front is warmer than the air behind. The
result is that both the warm air mass behind the warm front and the cooler air mass in
front of the cold front are uplifted above the advancing cold front.

Warm front occlusion

The air ahead of the warm front is cooler than air behind the advancing cold front. As the
cold air overtakes the warm air, the advancing cold air rises above the colder air ahead of
the warm front.

REFLECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Briefly explain the meaning of the following terms:
i. diurnal temperature range
ii. relative humidity
iii. air mass
iv. Ferrell’s law of deflection
2. a. How is pressure gradient determined on a synoptic map?
b. Explain why steep pressure gradient is associated with strong winds.
3. What instruments are used for recording the following:
a. Air pressure?
b. Wind direction?
c. Wind speed?
d. Rainfall?
4. Why is the Harmattan wind called a doctor wind?
5. What three districts are affected by Chiperoni winds in Malawi?
6. Explain the following terms:
a. Environmental lapse rate.
b. Temperature inversion.
7. How important are:
a. westerly winds?
b. Land and sea breeze?
8. What are the necessary conditions for a tropical development?
9. Explain the stages of a life cycle of a tropical cyclone
10. a. How does the ITCZ move over Africa?
b. Define an occlusion.

CLOUDS
A cloud is a mass of small water drops or ice crystals, formed by the condensation of the
water vapour in the atmosphere.
Clouds are classified on the basis of general form or shape and altitude. On the basis of
shape, there are two groups.
a. Stratiform or layered –types.
b. Cumuliform or heaped (massive globular) types.

Cloud height, appearance and associated weather

Height Cloud : Appearance Weather
Cirrus delicate, wispy, feathery fair sometimes it forms streaks
across the sky
Very high
Cirrocumulus white heaped or globular fair masses, forming
(6 000—1 2000)
ripples in ‘mackerel sky’
metres
Cirrostratus thin white sheet or veil; milky, fair sun forms a
‘halo’
Intermediate Altocumulus woolly, bumpy; layered and fine looks like waves
(2 000—6 000) in the blue sky
metres Altostratus denser, greyish with ‘watery’ look fine
Stratus grey and thick, appears like low ceiling or highland fog
dull and light drizzle
Nimbostratus dark, dull, clearly layered continuous rain or
Low clouds (below 2000 m ‘rain cloud’ sleet
Stratocumulus rough, bumpy, wavy, (but more fair than
altocumulus)
Cumulus rounded top, horizontal base fair
Nimbocumulus black, anvil-shaped, torrential, thunder-cloud
Great vertical extent
convectional, thunderous rain
PRECIPITATION
This is the deposit of water either in liquid or solid form which reaches the earth from the
atmosphere. This includes rain, sleet, hail and snow.

STATES OF WATER
Water occurs in three states: solid (ice), liquid as water, and gaseous as water vapour. It
can change from one state to another depending on temperature.
From gaseous state, molecules may pass into the liquid state by condensation if
temperatures are below freezing point, or can pass into a solid by sublimation to form ice
crystals. By evaporation, due to high temperatures, water can change from a liquid to a
gaseous state or from liquid to solid by freezing; or from solid to liquid by melting.

CONDITIONS FOR PRECIPITATION

1. Air must be saturated.
2. Air must contain small particles of dust or nuclei around which the droplets form.
3. Air must be cooled below its dew point. Dew point is the temperature at which a
volume of air gets saturated. Air cools down by rising in form of convection
currents or by coming across mountains, e.g., winds, warm air rising over cold air
and also by passing over cold surfaces such as cold ocean currents or land.

When water as a liquid is heated evaporation takes place and it turns into water vapour.
When rising it gets cooled and may be saturated if dew point is reached. If it reaches
below dew point, the water vapour condenses or liquefies to form clouds that result in
precipitation.
Fog or mist is formed when condensation occurs at ground level without necessarily
resulting into rain.

TYPES OF RAINFALL
1. CONVECTIONAL RAINFALL
This occurs in areas where the ground surface is locally overheated. When the
surf ace layers of the atmosphere are heated, the moisture-laden air rises in a
 convection current, and becomes unstable forming towering cumulonimbus
clouds.

2. OROGRAPHIC OR RELIEF RAINFALL

This type of rainfall results as near-saturated, warm maritime air is forced to rise
as it comes into contact with a coastal mountain barrier. This air is forced to rise
and then cooled. If sufficient water vapour is present, rain falls on the high ground
on the windward side. The other side of the mountain, leeward or rainshadow, is
always dry. This is so because on descending the leeward side, a decrease in
altitude increases both pressure and temperature, the air is compressed and
warmed and condensation stops. There is evaporation and little or no rain.

3. CONVERGENT OR CYCLONIC OR FRONTAL RAINFALL

This type of rainfall results from the meeting of two air streams in places of low
pressure. At the ITCZ in the tropics, air is forced to rise and in conjunction with
convection currents they form heavy afternoon thunderstorms. Depressions form
in the temperate latitudes at the boundary of two air masses. At the front, warm,
moist, less dense air is forced to rise above colder, denser air to form periods of
intense rainfall.
LAPSE RATES
When air is heated, it expands and rises and it cools resulting in a drop in its temperature.
The drop rate in temperature is called adiabatic lapse rate (ALR). Adiabatic means
expansion and lapse means drop. There are three lapse rates:
1. Environmental lapse rate (ELR)
This is the decrease in temperature with an increase in height (6.5°C/100 m) but
varies according to local air conditions.

2. Dry adiabatic rate (DAR)

This is where the upward movement of air does not lead to condensation and it
results in air to fall at 1°C /100 m ascent or rise.

3. Wet adiabatic rate (WAR): this is where the air that has moved upwards results
in condensation and the air cools at a slower rate than unsaturated air at 0.5°C/
100 m ascent.

Combinations of these rates do influence atmospheric conditions of a given day.

AIR STABILITY AND INSTABILITY

STABILITY
This occurs when a parcel of rising air cools more rapidly than the surrounding air and it
sinks down. This represents stable atmospheric conditions.

INSTABILITY
It is a result of rising air cooling less rapidly than the surrounding (environmental) air. As
long as this temperature remains higher, the air will continue to rise and condenses
resulting in clouds. Thunderstorms are likely to occur. These conditions describe unstable
atmospheric conditions.

WEATHER
This term refers to the state of the atmosphere at a certain time or over a short period. It
deals with aspects of the atmosphere that affect human activities such as atmospheric
pressure, temperature, humidity, rainfall, cloudiness, wind speed and direction.

MEASUREMENT OF WEATHER ELEMENTS

1. ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Measured by a barometer of which there are two types namely mercury and
aneroid. Pressure is measured in millibars (mb). Isobar is a line joining places of
the same pressure readings on a map. In aeroplanes a barometer called altimeter
is used. Barogram is an instrument that measures pressure changes continuously.

2. RAINFALL
Measured by a rain gauge in millimetres (mm). An isohyet is a line drawn on a
map joining places of equal rainfall.
 3. TEMPERATURE
Measured by a thermometer which is placed in a Stevenson Screen. The screen is
louvred for easy air circulation and sunshine. It is normally 1.2m above ground
level. Maximum and minimum temperatures are measured by the Six’s
thermometer. The average of maximum and minimum temperatures is the mean
diurnal temperature. The difference between these two recorded in a day is called
diurnal temperature. Isotherm is a line drawn on a map joining places of equal
temperature readings.

4. WINDS
Direction is indicated by a wind vane or weather cock. Speed is measured by a
cup anemometer or estimating its speed by using the Beaufort scale.

5. SUNSHINE
Measured by a sunshine recorder.

6. HUMIDITY
It refers to the moisture in the atmosphere. The actual amount of moisture present
in the air expressed in grams per cubic metre is absolute humidity. The ratio of
actual moisture of air and the moisture that air can hold at a given temperature,
expressed as a percentage, is known as relative humidity. When relative humidity
reaches 100% then air is said to be saturated. The air temperature is at dew point
and any further cooling leads to cloud formation. This humidity is measured by a
hygrometer which comprises wet-and dry-bulb thermometers. A large reading
difference between these thermometers indicates low relative humidity. High
humidity is shown by a very small difference. If the two thermometers read the
same then the air is saturated.

IMPORTANCE OF WEATHER
a. The direction of winds once controlled the pattern of trading routes.
b. Farmers and their crops are influenced by weather.
c. Temperature, humidity and rainfall may promote or discourage diseases which
may destroy both animals and crops.
d. Death rates are high in the tropical countries and low in deserts. Germs are not
transmitted readily in regions of high temperature and low humidity.
e. The safety of modern air travel is tied to accurate weather conditions and records
from ground stations.

CLIMATE
Climate is the average weather conditions of a place or region throughout the seasons and
over long periods of time. It is governed by latitude, position relative to continents and
oceans, and local geographical conditions.

Of the various climatic elements, temperature, precipitation, pressure and winds are the
most important.
These elements are affected by the following climatic factors:
 Latitude  Continentality  Slope and aspect
 Altitude  Insolation
 Ocean currents  Prevailing winds

THE IMPORTANCE OF TEMPERATURE

a. It influences water vapour present in the air and therefore decides the moisture
carrying- capacity of the air.
b. It influences the rate of evaporation and condensation, hence dictates the degree
of atmospheric stability.
c. Since relative humidity depends on temperature of the air, it affects the nature and
types of cloud formation and precipitation.

FACTORS INFLUENCING TEMPERATURE

1. Latitude
Temperature diminishes from the equatorial regions where the sun is almost
overhead to the poles where the rays are received at an acute angle or obliquely.
Thus temperature is higher in the tropics than in the Polar areas.

2. Altitude
The atmosphere is heated by conduction from the earth. Therefore, places nearer
the earth’s surface are warmer than those higher up. Thus temperature decreases
with increasing altitude above sea level. This rate of decrease with altitude, the
lapse rate, is never constant.

3. Continentality
Land surfaces are heated more quickly than water surfaces because of high
specific heat of water. This accounts for the warmer summers, colder winters and
greater range of temperature of continental interiors as compared with coastal
areas.

4. Slope, shelter and aspect

A steep slope experiences more rapid temperature changes than a gentle one. The
south facing ‘sunny slope’ has higher temperature than the north-facing ‘sheltered
slope’.

5. Ocean currents and winds

Both these affect temperature by transporting their heat or coldness into nearby
regions. For example, the ocean currents lower the summer temperatures.

CLIMATIC REGIONS
The main areas into which the earth is divided according to climate are called climatic
regions.
The table below shows the main climatic regions of the world:

Temperature belt Climatic regions

Hot Zone Hot wet equatorial, tropical monsoon, tropical continental
(0°-30° N/S) (Sudan type), hot desert
Warm temperate zone Western margin (Mediterranean type), central continental
(30°-40° N/S) (steppe type), eastern margin (China type)
Cool temperate zone Western margin (British type), central continental (Siberian
(45°-65° N/S) type), eastern margin (Laurentian type)
Cold zone Arctic polar (tundra), alpine zone (mountain ranges), alpine
(65°-90° N/S) (mountain)

SOME CLIMATES AND THEIR VEGETATION

1. EQUATORIAL CLIMATE
Equatorial climate for Kananga (altitude 670m,5°55’S)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Temp °C 25 25 25 25 25 24 23 25 25 25 25 25
Rainfall 138 144 194 190 83 24 13 58 117 173 225 223
(mm)

Total rainfall: 1582 mm

Annual temperature range: 2°C. The high temperatures are uniform.
Location: equatorial zone, that is 0° — 10° north or south of the equator.
Type of rainfall: convectional, this is all year round with double maxima in April and
October. It receives heavy, well-distributed rainfall throughout the year (there are no
distinct seasons).
Prevailing winds: north-east trades; north-east or south-west monsoon.

TYPE OF VEGETATION:
1. It is evergreen with broad leaves and luxuriant (thick) growth.
2. It has thick canopy with layered arrangement.
3. The trees are very tall, and lianas and epiphytes are common.
4. Typical vegetation trees include mahogany, ebony, greenheart, chengal.

MAIN AREAS WHERE THIS CLIMATE PREVAILS

 Amazon Basin  Guinea Coast  Indonesia
 Zaire Basin  Malay Peninsula  Philippines

NOTE: The regions are usually sparsely populated and shifting cultivation is practised
and in some plantation agriculture is practised, e.g., in Java, Sumatra, West Africa
(cocoa).

REASONS FOR HAVING RETARDED DEVELOPMENT IN THESE AREAS

a. Excessive heat and high humidity.
b. Prevalence of bacteria and insect pests.
 c. Thickness of vegetation makes clearing and maintenance of land difficult.
d. Rapid deterioration of tropical soil.
e. Difficulties in lumbering and livestock farming (due to tsetse flies, e.g., in Africa)

2. TROPICAL CONTINENTAL (SUDAN TYPE)

Tropical continental climate for Lilongwe (altitude 915m, 13 °49’S)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Temp °C 22 21 21 19 16 14 15 16 20 22 23 22
Rainfall 205 220 154 36 8 0 0 4 5 9 85 131
(mm)

Total rainfall: 857mm

Annual temperature range: An annual temperature range of 8- 11°C is typical, but
increases as one moves away from the equator.

TYPE OF CLIMATE
Transitional climate between the equatorial forests and the hot deserts. This climate is
characterized by alternating hot, rainy season and cool, dry season. In the northern
hemisphere, the hot, rainy season usually is from May to October. The rest of the year is
cool and dry. In the southern hemisphere, the hot, wet season is from November to April
and the rest of the year is cool and dry.

TYPE OF VEGETATION
Tall grass, with short scattered trees which form a parkland or bush veld. Sometime it is
called savanna. The main trees are baobab and acacias. Many of these trees are umbrella
shaped and are deciduous.

NOTE. The Savanna is the home of wild animals. It is called the big game country.

CROPS GROWN
cotton; sugarcane, coffee, oil palm, groundnuts and even tropical fruits.

MAIN AREAS WHERE CLIMATE PREVAILS

This climate is confined to the tropics.
 In Africa the belt includes West African Sudan, and then curves southwards into
East Africa and southern Africa north of the Tropic of Capricorn.
 Lianos of Orinoco Basin and the Campos of Brazilian Highlands
 Northern Australia just to the north of Tropic of Capricorn.

REASONS FOR RETARDED DEVELOPMENT IN THESE AREAS

a. Droughts which can be serious.
b. Leaching is also a problem for it leads to poor lateritic soils.
c. Tsetse flies found here are not good for animal rearing.
3. TROPICAL DESERT CLIMATE
Tropical desert climate for Timbuktu (altitude 301m, 16°50’N)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Temp °C 20 22 25 30 32 33 31 30 30 30 30 30
Rainfall (mm) 0 0 0 2 3 25 77 83 37 0 0 0

Total rainfall: 227 mm. Precipitation is both scarce and most unreliable.

Annual temperature range: 13°C and temperatures are high throughout the year. There
is no cold season in the deserts. The reasons: a clear, cloudless sky, intense insolation,
dry air and a rapid rate of evaporation.

Location: The major hot deserts of the world are located on the western coasts of
continents between 15° and 30° N/S. They include Sahara, Great Australian, Arabian,
Kalahari, Namib and Atacama. The aridity of deserts is the most outstanding feature of
the desert climate. These lie astride the sub-tropical high pressure belts where the air is
descending, a condition not favourable for precipitation. The rain bearing trade winds
blow off-shore and the westerlies that are on shore blow outside the desert limits.

TYPE OF VEGETATION
The deserts have xerophytic or drought resistant scrub. This includes cacti, thorny
bushes, long-rooted wiry grasses and dwarfed scattered acacias.

CROPS GROWN
The climatic conditions in the deserts do not encourage sedentary agriculture. There are
nomadic hunters and food gatherers; the nomadic herdsmen roam the deserts with their
livestock, e.g. the Bedouins; the mining settlers, e.g. gold in the great Australian Desert,
diamonds and copper in the Kalahari; oil in Sahara desert.

4. THE WARM TEMPERATE WESTERN MARGIN (MEDITERRANEAN)

CLIMATE
warm temperate western climate for Algiers (altitude 59 m, 36° 42’N)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Temp °C 11 11 14 16 20 22 24 24 22 20 15 11
Rainfall 115 84 74 40 48 13 8 8 38 75 126 133
(mm)

Total rainfall: 762 mm

Annual temperature range: 13°C

Location: It is confined to the western areas of continents, between 30° and 45° north or
south of the equator. This climate is caused by shifting of the wind belts. Sometimes it is
referred to as ‘winter rain climate’. This type of climate is well-developed around the
Mediterranean Sea, Central Chile, Cape Town, California and southern Australia (coastal
areas).

MAIN CLIMATIC FEATURES

a. A dry, warm summer with off-shore trades. Since the prevailing winds are off-
shore there is no rain and the air is dry, heat is great, which results in low relative
humidity.
b. A concentration of rainfall in winter with on - shore westerlies.
c. A bright, sunny weather with hot, dry summers and wet, mild winters. Summers
are warm and bright and winters are so mild and cool that many tourists come at
all times of the year.

TYPES OF VEGETATION
a. Mediterranean evergreen forests (the open woodlands with evergreen oaks).
b. Evergreen coniferous trees (pines, firs, cedars, cypresses with needle shaped
leaves and tall, straight trunks).
c. short, evergreen shrubs and bushes.

CROPS GROWN
The region is important for fruit farming. The region is known for the world’s orchard
lands. Citrus fruits include Oranges, lemons, limes, citrons and grapefruit. Cereals are
also grown, e.g. wheat. The hard winter wheat (for bread making, macaroni, spaghetti,
and vermicelli). Barley is another cereal crop. Vegetables are grown (beans), flowers, a
little cotton and tobacco.

ANIMALS REARED
The mountain pastures support a few sheep, goats and cattle.

NOTE. Transhumance is widely practised. Wine production is a speciality of this

climatic region.

5. THE COOL TEMPERATE CONTINENTAL (SIBERIAN) CLIMATE

The cool temperate continental climate for Winnipeg (altitude 240 m, 49° 50’N)

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Temp °C -19 -18 -10 0 13 17 20 17 12 0 -8 -17
Rainfall (mm) 25 25 32 36 57 76 75 62 61 37 27 25

Total rainfall: 538 mm. Precipitation varies between 380 and 635 mm. It is quite well
distributed throughout the year, with a summer maximum.

Annual temperature range: 34°C. It is characterized by a bitterly cold winter of long

duration and a cool brief summer. Spring and autumn are merely brief transitional
periods. In winter the temperatures are so low that heavy snowfall is common. During
winter rivers are frozen.
Location: It is experienced only in the northern hemisphere from Alaska to Hudson Bay;
and from Sweden to Kamchatka Peninsula. In both cases, the outer limit is 60°N.

TYPE OF VEGETATION
The trees adapted to this climate are conifers which are sources of softwood. The main
species are pine, fir, spruce, larch. Almost all conifers are evergreen; conically shaped to
survive the sub—Arctic climate; the leaves are small, thick, leathery and needle-shaped
to check excessive transpiration; and there is very little undergrowth.

Uses of trees: Lumbering is the most important activity in this climatic region.
a. Sawmilling: sawing timber, plywood, planks, and hardboards.
b. Paper and pulp industry: very important in Canada and USA.
c. As a fuel: softwood may be burnt as fuel.
d. As an industrial raw material: matches, furniture, wood-carvings, toys, crates,
packing cases. Also by-products of timber such as rayon, dyes, cosmetics,
turpentine, varnishes, liquid resins.

Other activities: This climatic region is also important for trapping. Many fur-bearing
animals are found here, e.g. the mink, beaver, muskrat, ermine, and silver fox are the
most important animals. They are hunted for their fur.

6. TUNDRA CLIMATE
Tundra climate for Upernavic (Altitude 20m, 72°N 56°)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Temp °C -22 -22 -21 -4 -2 5 5 1 1 -4 -10 -17
Rainfall 10 13 18 18 13 13 28 28 28 28 28 13
(mm)
Daylight 0 6 12 16 24 24 24 20 13 8 0 0
hours

Total rainfall: 231 mm. Rainfall is less than 250mm with increased amount during and
after the warm months. In winter there is snow.
Annual temperature range: 27°C. The warmest month is June with temperatures not
more than 10°C. In January (mid-winter) temperatures are as low as -37°C. Normally not
more than four months have temperatures above freezing point. Winters are long and
severe while summers are cool and brief.

Vegetation: Few plants do survive in this climate as such there are no trees and there are
only mosses, lichens and sedges.

Animals: mammals like the wolves, foxes, musk-ox, Arctic hare and lemmings.

Agriculture: The subsoil is permanently frozen and people who live here lead nomadic
life. The Eskimos build igloos and in winter they pitch up tents. They keep the reindeer.
7. TROPICAL MONSOON CLIMATE
Tropical monsoon climate for Bombay, India (18° 55’N,73° E)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Temp °C 24 24 27 28 30 29 27 27 28 28 27 25
Rainfall (mm) 2 2 0 0 18 505 610 368 269 48 10 0

Total rainfall: 1 829 mm. Rains come from mid-June to September when South-west
Monsoon bring torrential downpours.

Annual temperature range: 6°C. In the cool dry season (October to February)
temperatures are low, 24°C. The hot dry season (March to Mid June) temperature rises
sharply and can be as high as 43°C.

Vegetation
a. Most of the trees are deciduous due to long dry seasons.
b. Tree growth is more open unlike the equatorial region but there is dense
undergrowth in the forests.
c. Tree trunks are massive with thick and rough barks.
d. Lianas and epiphytes are in abundance.
e. Bamboos are part of the vegetation.

Crops grown:
sugarcane, cotton, jute, tea, rubber, rice (padi) maize, wheat, sorghum and millet.

REFLECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. What type of climate experiences double maxima?
2. In which areas does the tropical monsoon type of climate occur?
3. Why is savanna grassland referred to as the big game country?
4. How do plants adapt to the harsh conditions of desert climate for their survivor?
5. Differentiate deciduous and evergreen trees.
6. Give the main feature of the Mediterranean climate
7. Which type of climate is associated with very small annual rainfall, very low
winter temperatures and an annual temperature of over 16ºc?
8. Name the type of rainfall that is common in equatorial type of climate.
9. Why are trees umbrella shaped in the tropical continental type of climate?
10. Explain the importance of lumbering in the cool temperature continental type of
climate.
TOPIC 5. THE ENVIRONMENT
OBJECTIVES
Students should be able to:
 Outline human activities that endanger the environment
 Describe the process of desertification and explain its effects
 Suggest measures for controlling desertification
 Develop a positive attitude towards forest resources
 Identify types of pollution and describe their causes
 Examine the effects of pollution and suggest ways of controlling pollution
 Identify endangered wild and aquatic life species
 Explain how wild and aquatic species are endangered
 Suggest measures for conserving wild and aquatic life species
 Explain the importance of wild and aquatic life species
 Develop an appreciation of value of wild and aquatic life
 Identify wetlands in Malawi and explain their importance
 Describe human activities that threaten wetlands
 Suggest strategies for managing wetlands

ENVIRONMENT
These are the surroundings in which living (biotic) and non- living (non-living) things are
found.

TYPES OF ENVIRONMENT
1. Rural
2. Urban

HUMAN ACTIVITIES THAT DISRUPT THE ENVIRONMENT

i. polluting and contaminating the environment.
ii. food chain disruption by over-using the natural resources e.g. over fishing, game
poaching and destroying vegetation.
iii. cutting down trees carelessly (deforestation) which encourages run-off and erosion.
iv. careless and poor methods of waste disposal.
v. misusing pesticides and the use of chlorofluorocarbons.
vi. Poor agricultural practices such as cultivation of wetlands, shifting cultivation,
pastoral nomadism and making ridges along slopes.
HUMAN EFFECTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT
1. DESERTIFICATION
This is the process of creating desert conditions by downgrading the land surface.
If the world’s population puts great pressure on agricultural land it leads to over-
cropping and overgrazing which affect cycle of nutrients by withdrawing
excessive amounts of nutrients from it. Overgrazing causes natural replacement of
nutrients to be inadequate. This leads to a change in the soil texture, a decrease in
productivity, a reduction of the plant cover, an increase in run-off and large-scale
erosion. This can lead to desertification.

LEVELS OF DESERTIFICATION
a. Slight: There is significant reduction in plant cover due to human activities.
b. Moderate: The top soil is eroded and the productive grassland is replaced by
some scrubs which are not productive.
c. Severe: There is total destruction of land where there are deep gullies and
desertification process is irreversible.
d. Very severe: This is where deserts already exist and human activities cannot affect
land cover. E.g. Kalahari.

OUTSTANDING EFFECTS OF DESERTIFICATION

a. Drying up of water resources
b. Flooding due to high runoff
c. Soil erosion which will result in soil degradation
d. Unproductive land due to the removal of the top soil that will result in poor crop
yields.
e. Climate change

WAYS OF AVOIDING DESERTIFICATION

a. Using alternative sources of energy.
b. Afforestation and re-afforestation.
c. Proper farming methods.
d. Controlling rapid population growth.
e. Civic educating the masses on the dangers of desertification.

2. POLLUTION
This is when the environment is destroyed through the poor waste disposal, oil
spills, removal of vegetation cover, nuclear radiation from testing and accidents,
poisonous gases, effluent and chemicals.

TYPES OF POLLUTION
a. Air pollution
b. Water pollution
c. Land pollution
EFFECTS OF POLLUTION ON THE ENVIRONMENT
a. Poor visibility e.g. smog which is a constant threat to health through respiratory
problems.
b. Bad smell.
c. More acidic water which is a threat to aquatic life.
d. Soil becomes unproductive.
e. Acid rainfall.
f. Shortage of clean water.
g. Climate change which can lead to global warming.
h. Extinction of some plant and animal species.

WAYS OF AVOIDING POLLUTION

a. Proper waste disposal.
b. Use of clean sources of energy e.g. hydro-electricity and solar energy.
c. Conserving the environment.
d. Civic educating the masses on the dangers of pollution.
e. Legislation and enforcement of laws that protect the environment.

3. ACID RAIN
Nitrogen oxide and nitrogen dioxide from car exhaust fumes when combined form the
toxic fumes which enter the atmosphere and when they dissolve in rainwater they form
solutions of acids. These acids are one of the components of acid rain and they damage
the fertility of the soil, causes death to aquatic life as they lower the pH levels, destroys
forests, bring about skin and eye diseases and causes damage to buildings and statues.

WAYS OF PREVENTING ACID RAIN

a. Reducing emissions from industries and vehicles.
b. Banning the use of substances that contribute to acid rainfall.

4. GLOBAL WARMING
When sun’s heat is trapped by the atmosphere the earth’s surface gets warmed. Without
this warming the earth’s temperature would be at least —19°C which is 33°C lower than
it is. The earth’s atmosphere allows most of the sunlight to pass through and heat the
earth’s surface. The earth sends back heat energy into the atmosphere as infrared
radiation. Much of this radiation is trapped by gases in the atmosphere thereby increasing
the amount of heat and this referred to as the greenhouse effect. The gasses are water
vapour, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane, fluorine and chlorine. The burning of the
fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas, destruction of forests which absorb carbon
dioxide is also increasing carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING
a. A shift in rainfall patterns.
b. Sea levels are raised as icebergs melt leading to loss of low lying regions.
c. Alteration of the ecological balance as ecosystems change.

WAYS OF REDUCING GLOBAL WARMING

a. Reducing the use of carbon producing fuels.
b. Preventing wildfires which add great amounts of carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere.
c. Reducing changes made to wetlands, surface properties of land and oceans.

5. DROUGHTS
These occur when farming activities and natural vegetation suffer as a result of the
absence of rainfall.

TYPES OF DROUGHT
a. Seasonal: when rainfall of any season is lower than normal resulting in the
shortage of moisture for plant growth.
b. Periodic: These occur regularly once in three or four years.
c. Invisible: This is when rainfall seems sufficient for crop production but yields
are reduced compared to normal yields.
d. Disastrous: This is when periodic droughts persist and rivers dry up but also
pastures become exhausted.

6. FLOODS
Floods are a body of water which covers land which is usually not under water. A flood
can destroy property, wipe out homes and carry off the top soil, leaving the land barren.
A picture showing a flooded area

Causes of Floods
a. Too much rain.
b. Siltation which makes river channels shallow and enables rivers to over-flow their
banks.
c. Removal of grass and other vegetation which hold water and prevent soil erosion.

Ways of controlling Floods

a. planting trees on highlands where floods start. The trees hold some of the rain
water and make it seep down into the ground where it is held by roots and humus.
b. reclaim dry, barren highlands by planting grass and trees.
c. building reservoirs along river banks, some distance from the river. When rivers
over flow the reservoirs trap and hold great quantities of water.
d. building levees to prevent river over-flow.
e. shortening river channels to allow water to flow directly through channels as this
increases the speed of water.

7. EUTROPHICATION
Where chemical fertilisers accumulate in lakes and rivers the water becomes enriched
with nutrients and the ecosystem is upset. The abundance of nutrients in the water speeds
up growth of algae or water hyacinth and the water turns green. Algae and water hyacinth
may die due to lack of oxygen and in the process of decomposition that follows all
oxygen is used up and no plant and fish life remains.
8. THE WETLANDS
Wetland is an ecological term which refers to swamps, marshes and bogs.

WETLANDS IN MALAWI
a. Elephant Marsh
b. Ndindi Marsh
c. Vwaza Marsh
d. Lake Chirwa

IMPORTANCE OF WETLANDS
a. Provide feeding, spawning and nursery for fish (breeding grounds).
b. Prevent carbon dioxide from entering the atmosphere.
c. Habitats for birds and endangered and threatened fish and plant species.
d. Absorb and filter pollutants thereby providing clean water.
e. Buffer the impact of tides at the coast and absorb run-off inland thereby reducing
floods.
f. Stabilise shorelines and riverbanks
g. Beautify the environment
h. Provide grounds for biological studies and recreation (tourism which brings
employment and forex)

CONSEQUENCES OF DESTROYING WETLANDS

a. Quality of water in lakes and rivers is not good as it is full of toxic material.
b. Lakes and rivers become shallow due to siltation
c. Increased runoff
d. Extinction of plant and animal species
e. An increase in global warming which will lead to climate change.
THREATS TO WETLANDS
a. Encroachment for settlement by human beings due to scarcity of land.
b. Cultivation by draining the wetlands.
CONSERVATION OF WETLANDS
a. Civic educating the communities around the wetlands on their importance.
b. Eco-tourism (green tourism).
c. Legislation and enforcement of laws protecting wetlands.

9. FOREST RESOURCES
Natural vegetation provides resources that humans have enjoyed since time immemorial.

NATURAL VEGETATION SUBDIVISIONS

The main subdivisions of natural vegetation are called the biochores and these are:
a. Desert biochore: Formed in climates of extreme dryness.
b. Grassland biochore: Consists of upland vegetation (grasses and grasslike plants)
c. Savanna biochore: Consists of grass and trees.
d. Forest biochore: largely consists of trees that grow close together and forms a
canopy.

FORESTRY
Forestry is an extractive industry that does not replace the resources that is uses and that
is why it is known as a robber industry.

MAJOR CLASSES OF FORESTS

a. Natural or indigenous. Forests that have grown naturally over time without being
looked after by human beings.
b. Planted or exotic. Forests that are a result of human beings planting and taking
care of the trees.

VARIOUS USES OF FORESTS

a. Domestic use
 firewood, fruits, medicinal plants
b. Industrial use
 timber for ship building,
 tannin for converting raw hides into leathermatches,
 rubber, gums, paper and pulp
c. Ecological conservation
 Protection of water resources. Trees intercept and keep moisture, increase
infiltration rates and reduce soil erosion and flooding.
 Improvement of climate. Forests protect wind erosion, prevent rapid and
excessive evaporation and they add moisture into the atmosphere to
modify humidity conditions.
d. Wildlife conservation
 Forests encourage recreation, they are home to wild animals and birds.

PROBLEMS FACING FORESTS

 a. Rapid reduction in forests as a result of rapid population growth. Forests are the
main source of fuel (firewood)
b. Removal of valuable species which prevents regeneration of the concerned
species.
c. Overcutting of trees encourages soil erosion, landslides, silting and flooding.

FOREST CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT

a. Afforestation. Replacing every tree that has been cut encourages continued supply
of timber supplies and protection of the soil.
b. Using alternative sources of energy like hydro-electricity, solar or wind energy.
c. Cutting trees that are mature or weak ensures that there are enough trees to
prevent soil erosion.
d. Forest protection by spraying pest control and constructing a firebreak.

Deterioration of the Environment: It is associated with

a. The decline and reduction of the resources necessary for the maintenance of
existing standards of living.
b. The decline and destruction of ecological processes necessary for the survival of
life on earth.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION
This covers conservation of the ecosystem. The motives for conserving the environment
are:
a. Ethical reasons: animals and plants have as much right to inhabit the earth as
human beings.
b. Scientific research: There is much to be learnt about the environment and its
various organisms. It would be a pity if they should disappear
before humans have a chance to study them.
c. Aesthetic appeal: the environment’s natural beauty should be preserved for
human enjoyment.
d. The need to preserve genetic diversity: if each species is protected, genetic
diversity is preserved. Once the genes of a species are lost,
they cannot be recreated. The species becomes extinct.
e. Environmental stability and Recreation: The need to preserve the quality of
life.
f. Economic incentives: source of food and medicine.

Environmental management
Human needs often conflict with conservation for the future. Housing and the
construction of roads are often given priority and environment is sacrificed. The
following conservation methods can be used:
a. establishment of conservation areas such as forest reserves, national parks,
game reserves.
b. catching and relocating game.
c. Protection of rare and endangered species.
d. Civic education on conservation
 REFLECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. a. (i) Define the term “desertification”.
(ii) Explain two reasons why Lake Malawi plain and the Shire Valley are prone
to desertification.
2. Explain three ways in which wildlife in Malawi is endangered.
3. Mention one area in Malawi where humans are allowed to co-exist with
wildlife.
4. Describe any two benefits that Malawi gets from its aquatic life species.
5. Why does the government of Malawi spend money on refuse disposal?
Give any three reasons.
6. Mention areas that are prone to flooding in Malawi and give reasons why it is so.
7. What are the motives behind conserving the environment?
8. List the problems faced by forests in Malawi and give solutions to the problems
you have listed.
9. How important are forests to human beings?
10. Explain how greenhouse gases contribute to global warming.
REFERENCES
Bunnet, R.B. (1997) General Geography in Diagrams. Essex: Longman.

Bunnet, R.B. (2004). General Geography in Diagrams for Africa. Essex. Longman.

Erbynn, G.K. (1983). Comprehensive map work for Southern African Schools.
Oxford: Heinman.

Kiguru, J. (1983). Map Reading and Photographic Interpretation for ‘O’ level.
London: Macmillan Education Ltd.

Leong, G.C. (1993). Certificate physical and human geography. Oxford:

Oxford University Press.

Phiri, F.R. (2001). Physical Geography: A School Certificate Course. Blantyre:

Dzuka Publishing Company.

Waugh, D. (2009) Geography. An integrated Approach. Edinburg: Nelson.