BIOMECHANICS I

BME 314
4. MECHANICS OF
MUSCULOSKELETAL SOFT
TISSUES
DR. O.A. ADELEYE
BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS
 MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM
• Bone
• Ligaments
• fibrous tissue that
connects bones
to other bones
• Cartilage
• Soft bonny tissue (unite body, mind and spirit)

more flexible
than bone
• Tendons
• fibrous tissue that
connects muscle
to bone
• Muscle
M.E.A.T stands for “Movement, Exercise, Analgesics (painkillers), and Treatment”. The theory is
simple. To recover as quickly as possible from an injury,
 FUNCTIONS OF THE MUSCLE

• Produce movement
• Maintain postures and positions
• Stabilize joints
• Non-movement-related functions:
• support and protect delicate organs
• control pressure within body cavities
• produce heat to maintain body temperature
• control entrances and exits to the body
 PROPERTIES OF THE MUSCLE

• Irritability: ability to respond to a stimulus

• Contractility: muscle can shorten in response to
stimuli
• Extensibility: ability to be stretched or to increase in
length (passively or actively)
• Elasticity: ability to return to normal resting length
following a stretch
 PROPERTIES OF THE MUSCLE
• Contractility: Muscles are the ONLY tissue
capable of actively generating tension when
stimulated.
TYPES OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION
BASED ON MUSCLE LENGTH
• Concentric contraction:
• Muscle shortens during
contraction
• Eccentric contraction:
• Muscle is lengthened during
contraction
• Isometric contraction:
• Length of muscle remains the
same during contraction
• Isotonic contraction
• Tension of muscle remains the
same during contraction
despite change in muscle
length
TYPES OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION
BASED ON MUSCLE LENGTH
Isometric vs. Isotonic
 COMPONENTS OF THE MUSCLE
MODEL
Components of elasticity:
• parallel elastic component - passive elasticity derived
from muscle membranes
• series elastic component - passive elasticity derived
from tendons when a tensed muscle is stretched
Components of contractility
Parallel Elastic
Component

Series Elastic
Contractile Component
Component
 COMPONENTS OF THE MUSCLE
MODEL: MECHANICAL MODEL

Springs and
dashpots

PE - Parallel Elastic Component

SE - Series Elastic component
CE – Contractile Element Component
 FACTORS INFLUENCING MUSCLE
FORCE
• Muscle Cross-Sectional Area
• Muscle Activation Level
• Whole Muscle Length
• Muscle Fiber Type
• Electromechanical Delay
• Muscle Temperature
• Muscle Architecture
• Angle of Pennation
 FACTORS INFLUENCING MUSCLE
FORCE
• Muscle Cross-Sectional Area
• Hypertrophy: increases area by increasing the size of
existing muscle fibers.
• Hyperplasia: increases area by increasing the number of
muscle fibers.
• Muscle Activation Level
• Increasing the activation level of a muscle increases the
amount of force it produces (up to a point)
 FACTORS INFLUENCING MUSCLE
FORCE CONT.
Muscle Length = Active + Passive Elements
• Contractile element length refers to the length of the
active structures of the muscle (sarcomeres).
Passive structures must be considered, for example,
tendons.
 FACTORS INFLUENCING MUSCLE
FORCE CONT.
• Whole Muscle Length
 FACTORS INFLUENCING MUSCLE FORCE
CONT.

MUSCLE Electromechanical
FIBER TYPE Delay
• Different types of muscle • Muscles do not produce
fibers (fast & slow twitch) force instantaneously
produce different levels when they are stimulated.
of force.
 FACTORS INFLUENCING MUSCLE
FORCE CONT.
Muscle Temperature
• Higher temperatures increase force output and shortening velocity (to a point)
• Decreased viscosity of blood and increased heart rate enables faster delivery
of oxygen.
• Increased muscle temperature:
• encourages the dissociation of oxygen from hemoglobin
• facilitates enzyme activity
• decreases muscle viscosity
• provides greater extensibility
• And elasticity of muscle fibres
and connective tissue
• increases force and speed
of contraction
 FACTORS INFLUENCING MUSCLE
FORCE CONT.:
Muscle Architecture

Muscle architecture is the physical arrangement of

muscle fibers at the macroscopic level that determines a
muscle's mechanical function.
There are several different muscle architecture types
including: parallel, pennate and hydrostats.
 FACTORS INFLUENCING MUSCLE
FORCE CONT.
• Angle Of Pennation
• Pennation angle (PA), defined as the angle between a fascicle’s
(muscle fibres) orientation and the tendon axis.
• It’s an important muscle characteristic that plays a significant role
in determining a fascicle’s force contribution to skeletal
movement.
• Velocity Of Shortening
• Activation History
 ANGLE OF PENNATION: PENNATE
MUSCLES
• For pennate muscles, the cross-sectional area that we
care about is physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA).
• PCSA is the cross-sectional area of the muscle
perpendicular to its muscle fibers.
• It is not the same as the anatomical cross-sectional
area of the muscle.
 ANGLE OF PENNATION
 Pennation angle (PA),
defined as the angle
between a fascicle’s
(muscle fibres)
orientation and the
tendon axis.
 It’s an important muscle
characteristic that plays
a significant role in
determining a fascicle’s
force contribution to
skeletal movement.
 ANGLE OF PENNATION
Muscle force and Physiological cross-
sectional area (PCSA)
 ADVANTAGES OF PENNATION
• Pennation
• Reduces effective force generated, BUT
• Can pack more fibers in equal space
• Smaller angle -> greater shortening velocity,
promotes muscle force production
• Parallel arrangement
• Greater shortening of the entire muscle
• Larger range of
motion
MECHANICS OF THE BODY TISSUES
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE 1: ELBOW

Figure 1. (a) The figure shows the

forearm of a person holding a
book. The biceps exert a force
FB to support the weight of the
forearm and the book. The
triceps are assumed to be
relaxed.

(b) Here, you can view an

approximately equivalent
mechanical system with the
pivot at the elbow joint as seen
in Example 1
 SOLUTION
• Calculate the force the biceps muscle must exert to hold
the forearm and its load as shown in Figure 1, and compare
this force with the weight of the forearm plus its load.

• The torques created by the weights are clockwise relative to

the pivot, while the torque created by the biceps is
counterclockwise; thus, the second condition for equilibrium
(net F = 0) becomes
𝑟2 𝑤𝑎 + 𝑟3 𝑤𝑏 = 𝑟1 𝐹𝐵

Note that sin θ = 1 for all forces, since θ = 90º for all forces. This
equation can easily be solved for FB in terms of known
quantities, yielding
1
𝐹𝐵 = 𝑟2 𝑤𝑎 + 𝑟3 𝑤𝑏
𝑟1
 SOLUTION
• Entering the known values gives
1
𝐹𝐵 = (0.160m)(2.50kg)(9.80m/𝑠 2 ) + (0.380m)(4.00kg)(9.80m/𝑠 2 )
0.0400m

• And
𝐹𝐵 = 470 𝑁.

• Now, the combined weight of the arm and its load 𝑤𝑎 + 𝑤𝑏 is

(6.50 kg)(9.80 m/s2) = 63.7 N,

• so that the ratio of the force exerted by the biceps to the total
weight is
𝐹𝐵 470
𝑤𝑎 +𝑤𝑏
= 63.7 = 7.38

• This means that the biceps muscle is exerting a force 7.38 times the
weight supported
 EXAMPLE 2: ELBOW

• A 160-lb person is holding a 10-lb weight in his palm

with the elbow fixed at 908 flexion (Fig. 4.8, top). (a)
What force must the biceps generate to hold the
forearm in static equilibrium? (b) What force(s) does
the forearm exert on the humerus?
 SOLUTION

• The Figure below shows

the free-body diagram
of this system. Due to
the increased number
of unknowns, Summing
moments about the
elbow at point O, the
equilibrium equation
𝑀 = 0 can be written
as
SOLUTION CONT.
 EXAMPLE 3: ELBOW

Consider the arm shown in Fig. 2.

The elbow is flexed to a right angle
and an object is held in the hand. The
forces acting on the forearm are
shown in Fig. 2.1a, and the freebody
diagram of the forearm is shown on a
mechanical model in Fig. 2.1b. Fig. 2 Example 1
This model assumes that the biceps
is the major flexor and that the line
of action of the tension (line of pull)
in the biceps is vertical.
 SOLUTION
• Point O designates the axis of rotation of the elbow
joint, which is assumed to be fixed for practical
purposes.
• Point A is the attachment of the biceps muscle on
the radius,
• Point B is the center of gravity of the forearm, and
• Point C is a point on the forearm that lies along a
vertical line passing through the center of gravity
of the weight in the hand.
• W is the total weight of the forearm.
• 𝐹𝑀 is the magnitude of the force exerted by the
biceps on the radius, and
• 𝐹𝐽 is the magnitude of the reaction force at the Fig. 2.1 Forces
elbow joint. acting on the lower
arm
 SOLUTION

• Solution: We have a parallel force system, and the unknowns are

the magnitudes 𝐹𝑀 and 𝐹𝐽 of the muscle and joint reaction forces.
Considering the rotational equilibrium of the forearm about the
elbow joint and assuming the (cw) direction is positive:
𝑀0 = 0
That is: 𝑐𝑊0 + 𝑏𝑊 + +𝑎𝐹𝑀 = 0 (1)
• For the translational equilibrium of the forearm in the y direction:
𝐹𝑦 = 0
That is: −𝐹𝐽 + 𝐹𝑀 − 𝑊 − 𝑊0 = 0 (2)
Then 𝐹𝐽 = 𝐹𝑀 − 𝑊 − 𝑊0 (3)
 SOLUTION

• For given values of geometric parameters a, b, and c, and weights

𝑊and 𝑊0 , Eqs. (1) and (3) can be solved for the magnitudes of the
muscle and joint reaction forces.
• For example, assume that these parameters are given as follows:
𝑎 = 4 cm, 𝑏 = 15 cm, 𝑐 = 35 cm, 𝑊 = 20 N, and 𝑊0 = 80 𝑁.
Then from Eqs. (1) and (3):
1
𝐹𝑀 = 0.15 20 + 0.35 80 = 775 N
0.04
𝐹𝐽 = 775 − 20 − 80 = 675 N (−𝑦)
EXAMPLE 4: LOAD CARRYING
POSTURE
Figure 4. This figure shows
that large forces are
exerted by the back
muscles and experienced
in the vertebrae when a
person lifts with their
back, since these
muscles have small
effective perpendicular
lever arms.
 EXAMPLE 4: LOAD CARRYING
POSTURE
• Consider the person lifting a heavy box with his
back, shown in Figure 4.
• (a) Calculate the magnitude of the force FB– in the
back muscles that is needed to support the upper
body plus the box and compare this with his weight.
The mass of the upper body is 55.0 kg and the mass
of the box is 30.0 kg.
• (b) Calculate the magnitude and direction of the
force FV– exerted by the vertebrae on the spine at
the indicated pivot point. Again, data in the figure
may be taken to be accurate to three significant
figures
 SOLUTION

(a) The mass of the upper body is 55.0 kg

at 35cm from the pivot point and the
mass of the box is 30.0 kg at 50cm from the pivot point.

Using the perpendicular lever arms given in

the figure, the second condition for equilibrium
(net τ = 0) becomes
0.35 𝑚 55.0 𝑘𝑔 9.80 𝑚/𝑚2 + 0.50 𝑚 30.0 𝑘𝑔 9.80 𝑚/𝑚2 =
= 0.080 𝑚 𝐹𝐵
Solving for FB yields
FB = 4.20 × 103 N.
 SOLUTION
(b) More important in terms of its damage potential is the force on
the vertebrae FV. The first condition for equilibrium (net F = 0) can be
used to find its magnitude and direction. Using y for vertical and x for
horizontal, the condition for the net external forces along those axes
to be zero
𝐹𝑥 = 0 and 𝐹𝑦 = 0

Starting with the vertical (y) components, this yields

𝐹𝑉𝑦 − 𝑊𝑢𝑏 − 𝑊𝑏𝑜𝑥 − 𝐹𝐵 sin 29. 00 = 0

Thus,
𝐹𝑉𝑦 = 𝑊𝑢𝑏 + 𝑊𝑏𝑜𝑥 + 𝐹𝐵 sin 29. 00
= 833 𝑁 + 4200 sin 29. 00
Yielding
𝐹𝑉𝑦 =2.87 × 103 N.
 SOLUTION
Similarly, for the horizontal (x) components,
𝐹𝑉𝑥 − 𝐹𝐵 cos 29. 00 = 0
yielding
𝐹𝑉𝑥 = 𝐹𝐵 cos 29. 00 =3.67 × 103 N.

The magnitude of FV is given by the Pythagorean theorem:

𝐹𝑉 = 𝐹𝑉𝑥 2 + 𝐹𝑉𝑦 2 = 4.66 × 103 N.

The direction of FV is
𝐹𝑉𝑥
tan 𝜃 =
𝐹𝑉𝑦
Therefore
−1 𝐹𝑉𝑥
𝜃= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 =38.0∘.
𝐹𝑉𝑦
 MUSCLE AND
FORCES
• Lifting a weight.
• (a) Schematic of forces
used.
• (b) The forces where T is an
• approximation for all of
the muscle forces and R is
the resultant force on the
fifth lumbar vertebra
• (L5). Note that the
reaction force R at the fifth
lumbar vertebra is large.
 LOADS ON THE SPINE:
LIFTING TECHNIQUE AFFECTS MOMENT
 LOADS ON THE SPINE:
CALCULATING MOMENTS
 LOADS ON THE SPINE:
CALCULATING MOMENTS

Answers
1. 151Nm 2. 212Nm
 CLASSWORK EXERCISE

1. Calculate the muscle force 2. Calculate the muscle force

if the perpendicular Moment If the perpendicular Moment
arm of the spine is 0.08m arm of the spine is 0.05m
STANDING ON THE TOE

A 75-kg man stands on his

toes by exerting an upward
force through the Achilles
tendon, as in Figure 5. (a)
What is the force in the
Achilles tendon if he stands
on one foot? (b) Calculate
the force at the pivot of the
simplified lever system
shown—that force is
representative of forces in the
ankle joint.
THE MASSETER MUSCLE IN THE JAW

Unlike most of the other

muscles in our bodies, the
masseter muscle in the jaw,
as illustrated in Figure 6, is
attached relatively far from
the joint, enabling large
forces to be exerted by the
back teeth. (a) Using the
information in the figure,
calculate the force exerted
by the lower teeth on the
bullet. (b) Calculate the
force on the joint.
 WOMAN EXERT FORCE ON THE FLOOR
(a) What force should the woman in Figure 7 exert on the floor with each
hand to do a push-up? Assume that she moves up at a constant speed.
(b) The triceps muscle at the back of her upper arm has an effective
lever arm of 1.75 cm, and she exerts force on the floor at a horizontal
distance of 20.0 cm from the elbow joint. Calculate the magnitude of the
force in each triceps muscle, and compare it to her weight.
(c) How much work
does she do if her
center of mass rises
0.240 m? (d) What is
her useful power
output if she does 25
pushups in one
minute?
 ERECTED HEAD
Even when the head is held
erect, as in Figure 8, its center of
mass is not directly over the
principal point of support (the
atlanto-occipital joint). The
muscles at the back of the neck
should therefore exert a force to
keep the head erect. That is why
your head falls forward when you
fall asleep in the class. (a)
Calculate the force exerted by
these muscles using the
Figure 8. The center of mass of the head information in the figure. (b) What
lies in front of its major point of support, is the force exerted by the pivot
requiring muscle action to hold the on the head?
head erect. A simplified lever system is
shown