CHAPTER 1

THE ELECTRONIC STRUCTURES OF ATOMS,

PERIODIC TABLE AND CHEMICAL BONDS

1.1 Arrangement of Fundamental Particles of Matter

Fundamental Particles
All matter is made up of atoms'. In turn, atoms consist of three main fundamental
particles. They are protons, neutrons and electrons. The masses and charges of these
particles are shown in Table. 1.1
Table 1.1 Fundamental particles of matter
Particle Mass Charge
Proton (p) 1 amu Positive (+1)
Neutron (n) l amu Neutral
Electron (e) amu Negative (-1)

Arrangement of the Fundamental Particles in the Atom

Figure 1.1 represents the models of the hydrogen and helium atoms.

Fig. 1.1 Models of the hydrogen and helium atoms

The atom may be pictured as follows.
The atom has a small, dense, positively charged centre called the nucleus. This
nucleus contains protons and neutrons. Outside and around the nucleus, electrons move
in circular or near circular orbits. The negative charge of the electrons balances the
positive charge of the nucleus. The atom as a whole is neutral. Most of an atom is empty
space that separates the tiny nucleus from the distant electrons. Most of the mass of the
atom is concentrated in the nucleus since the mass of the electrons is so small that it can
be considered negligible.
Atomic Number
Atoms are electrically neutral. Therefore, in an atom, the number of protons must be
equal to the number of electrons.
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The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is known as the atomic number of
an element. Since an atom contains an equivalent number of protons and electrons, the
atomic number of an element represents the number of protons as well as electrons
present in the atom of the element.

Table 1.2 Atomic structure of selected elements

Number of electrons, protons and
Atomic
Element Symbol neutrons in each atom
number
Electrons Protons Neutrons
Hydrogen H 1 1 1 -
Helium He 2 2 2 2
Lithium Li 3 3 3 4
Beryllium Be 4 4 4 5
Chlorine Cl 17 17 17 18
Zinc Zn 30 30 30 34
Lead Pb 82 82 82 124
Uranium U 92 92 92 146

Mass Number and Isotopes

The mass number of the element is the sum of the numbers of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus of an atom of that element.
The atomic number of an element never changes. This means that all atomsof the
same element contain the same number of protons. However, this is not the case with the
number of neutrons. Atoms of the same element can have different numbers of neutrons.
Atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons but different
numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. In other words, isotopes are the atoms of the
same element with different masses.
The atomic number of Cl is 17. The two isotopes of chlorine are represented as
Cl and Cl. In Cl one atom of chlorine contains 17 protons and 35-17=18 neutrons
whereas one atom of Cl contains 17 electrons, 17 protons and 20 neutrons. Note that
both isotopes of chlorine contain the same number of protons (17) and electrons (also
17).
Notation for Isotopes
The isotope of any element X is usually represented as X where A is the mass number
of the isotope and Z is the atomic number of the element X. Isotopes of the same element
have the same atomic number Z, but the mass number A may be different.
1.2 The Electronic Structures of Atoms
Electrons move round the nucleus in definite orbits or shells. The first shell is known as
K shell, the second as L shell, the third as M shell, the fourth as N shell, the fifth as O
shell and so on. The first shell is also given the number 1, the second the number 2, the
third number 3 etc. See Figure 1.2.
 3

Fig. 1.2 Diagrammatic representation of the nucleus and the electron shells
in an atom (not to scale)
Each shell or energy level can contain a limited number of electrons. The
maximum number of electrons which each shell could contain can be calculated by the
formula 2n2, where n is the shell number. For number 1 shell the maximum number of
electrons it could contain is (2 12) = 2 electrons, for number 2 shell (2 22)= 8
2 2
electrons, for number 3 shell (2 3 ) = 18 electrons, for number 4 shell (2 4 )= 32
electrons and so on.
Here we shall concern ourselves only with the elements having atomic number up to 10.
Table 1.3 The electronic structure of the atoms of the elements
Electrons in
Symbol Atomic number
1st shell 2nd shell
H 1 1 -
He 2 2 -
Li 3 2 1
Be 4 2 2
B 5 2 3
C 6 2 4
N 7 2 5
O 8 2 6
F 9 2 7
Ne 10 2 8
The distribution of electrons in an atom of an element is known as the electronic
structure of that element. The electronic structure of elements of atomic number 1 to 10
are given in Table 1.3.
The electronic structure of an element, for example; fluorine is written as F 2.7.
Then the first integer 2 indicates there are 2 electrons in the first shell. The second integer
7 indicates there are 7 electrons in the second shell.
The electronic structure of an element can also be represented diagrammatically as
in Figure 1.3. The small circle at the centre with the symbol of the element represents the
nucleus of the atom of that element. The electrons surrounding the nucleus are shown as
dots.
 4

Fig 1.3 Electronic structure of Be, Ne and O

Sub-shells
Each shell is again divided into a number of sub-shells, which are known as s,p,d and f.
The letters used for sub-shells notations are the initial letters of the names given to certain
spectral lines, s stands for sharp; p for principal; d for diffuse and f for fundamental.
s sub- shell can have the maximum number of 2 electrons, p sub-shell can at the
maximum accomodate 6 electrons, d can have 10 and f 14 electrons. Thus in a shell
which have 8 electrons, 2 would be in sub-shell s and 6 in the sub-shell p. The shell
which has 32 electrons will have 2 in s sub-shell (written as s 2), 6 in the p sub-shell
(written as p6), 10 in the d sub-shell (written as d10) and 14 in the f sub-shell (written as
f14).
Order of filling up sub-shells with electrons
The shell nearest to the nucleus has the lowest energy. In general the closer the shell is to
the nucleus, the lower is its energy.

Fig. 1.4 The actual arrangement of sub-shells in an atom

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Figure 1.4 shows that, when arranged according to the energy levels, the 3d sub-
shell is just above the 4s sub-shell, but just below the 4p sub-shell. This means that once
the 4s sub-shell is filled further electrons enter the 3d sub-shell, not the 4p sub-shell. In
other words, the order in which the sub-shells are filled is 1s, 2s,2p,. 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d,
4p,........
A convenient way of remembering the order in which the sub-shells are filled is
shown in Figure 1.5.

1s

2s 2p

3s 3p 3d

4s 4p 4d 4f

5s 5p 5d 5f

6s 6p 6d

7s 7p

Fig 1.5 Order of occupancy of sub-shells

The electronic structures of elements with atomic numbers 1 to 32 are shown
in Table 1.4.
Table 1.4 The electronic structures of some elements
Symbol of Atomic Electronic structure
element number
H 1 1s1
He 2 1s2
Li 3 1s2 2s2
Be 4 1s2 2s2
B 5 1s2 2s2 2p1
C 6 1s2 2s2 2p2
N 7 1s2 2s2 2p3
O 8 1s2 2s2 2p4
F 9 1s2 2s2 2p5
Ne 10 1s2 2s2 2p6
Na 11 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
Mg 12 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
 6

Symbol of Atomic Electronic structure

element number
Al 13 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
Si 14 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2
P 15 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3
S 16 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
Cl 17 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
Ar 18 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
K 19 1s2 2s2' 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1
Ca 20 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2
Sc 21 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d1
Ti 22 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d2
V 23 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d3
Cr 24 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d5
Mn 25 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d5
Fe 26 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d6
Co 27 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d7
Ni 28 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d8
Cu 29 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d10
Zn 30 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10
Ga 31 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p1
Ge 32 Is2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p2

Complete and Essential Electronic Structures

The arrangement of all the electrons of an atom of the element in appropriate sub-shells is
sometimes known as the complete electronic structure of that element. For example, the
complete electronic structure of potassium is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1.
The representation of the arrangement of valence electrons of an atom of the
element in appropriate sub-shells is called the essential electronic structure of that
element. For example, the essential electronic structure of potassium is 4s1.

Valence of the Elements

From the electronic structure of an element, the valence of the elements may be
determined. When the number of electrons in the outermost shell of the atom of the
element is 4 or less than 4, then the valence of that element is equal to the number of
electrons in that outermost shell. When the number of electrons in the outermost shell of
the atom of the element is greater than 4, the valence of the element becomes 8 minus the
number of electrons in that outermost shell.
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1.3 The Periodic Table

The elements may be arranged in a table in order of their atomic numbers, so that
elements with similar electronic structures or similar properties fall under one another in
a column. In this arrangement, elements with similar electronic structures or similar
properties occur at certain periodic intervals, i.e., the electronic structures of the atom of
the elements vary periodically with their atomic numbers. Hence the table is named the
"Periodic Table". The Periodic Table with elements of atomic number 1-118 is given in
Appendix 2.
The Groups and the Periods
In the modern periodic table, there are 18 vertical columns and 7 horizontal rows.
The vertical columns are called groups. Elements in the same group have the same
number of electrons in the outermost shell of their atoms, i.e., they have the same number
of valence electrons.
The horizontal rows are called periods. All elements in the same period have the
same number of electron shells, i.e., elements of period 2 have 2 electron shells, while
those of period 3 have 3 electron shells and so on.
The elements in the Group I A with the exception of hydrogen, are called the alkali
metals. Beryllium, magnesium and calcium in the Group IIA are known as the alkaline
earth metals. The elements in the Group VIIB again with the exception of hydrogen, are
called the halogens. The elements in the Group 0 are known as the noble gases or inert
gases.
The elements in the central section of the periodic table are known as the
transition elements.

IA IIA IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB 0

1 1 2
H H He
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
19 20
K Ca

s - block d- block and f - block p- block elements

metals metals

Fig. 1.6 The three blocks in the periodic table

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1.4 Periodic Properties

Metals and Non-Metals in the Periodic Table
As we go from left to right across the periodic table, the elements change in properties
from metals to non-metals. The division of metals and non-metals in the periodic table is
indicated by the dark line. The elements to the left of this dark line are metals and those
to the right are non metals. For along each side of the dark line are elements that have
properties of both metals and non-metals. These elements are called metalloids.
Electropositive and Electronegative Elements
In general, metals are the electropositive elements. This means that they tend to lose
electrons and form positive ions. However, the electropositivity of the elements decreases
on going from left to right across a period, because the greater the number of electrons
that has to be lost, the more difficult it becomes for the element to lose electrons.
Generally, it is considered that non-metals are the electronegative elements. In
other words, these elements have the tendency to gain electrons. On going across a period
from left to right, the electronegativity increases, i.e., the elements have an increasing
tendency to gain electrons.
The noble gases or inert gases, are neither electropositive nor electronegative,
because they have very stable electronic structure and have little tendency to gain or lose
electrons.
When the eletropositive elements combine with the electronegative elements, i.e.,
when metals combine with non-metals, ionic compounds are usually formed. When
electronegative elements, or non-metals, combine with one another, covalent compounds
are formed.
Atomic Sizes
The size of an individual atom is difficult to determine. However, one can estimate the
approximate radii of atoms by knowing the distances between atoms in molecules.
Atomic size is generally described by the radius of an atom.

Table 1.5 Atomic radii of elements in second period

Atomic number 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Element Li Be B C N O F
Atomic radius (nm) 0.123 0.089 0.080 0.077 0.074 0.074 0.072

Table 1.6 Atomic radii of alkali metals

Atomic number Element Atomic radius(nm)
3 Li 0.123
11 Na 0.157
19 K 0.203
37 Rb 0.216
55 Cs 0.235
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Tables 1.5 and 1.6 show the atomic radii for some elements. Note the periodic
trends for atomic radii.
1. Atomic radii decrease from left to right across a period in the periodic table.
2. Atomic radii increase from top to bottom in a group.
The trends in atomic radii can be explained as follows:
As you know the higher the atomic number, the greater the number of protons in
the nucleus. The charge on the nucleus increases with increasing atomic number. The
attraction between the nucleus and any electron around the nucleus also increases. As you
move left to right across a period in the periodic table, the nuclear charge (atomic
number) increases while the added electrons enter the same shell, the outermost shell.
The increased nuclear charge attracts the electrons in the outermost shell closer to the
nucleus. Hence the shell contracts, resulting in smaller atoms.
Down a group in the periodic table, atomic radii increase because of two reasons.
First, the number of electrons increases. These additional electrons are in the larger
electron shells farther and farther from the nucleus. Second, there is the repulsion
between individual electron. Hence, the shell expands, resulting in larger atoms.
Although the nuclear charge increases down a group, its effect will be little
compared to the effect of the change in distance between the electrons and the nucleus.

Ionic Sizes
When one or more electrons are removed from a metal atom, a positive ion is formed.
Both a positive ion and the parent neutral atom have same nuclear charges but there is a
lesser number of electrons in the positive ion. Hence, the repulsion between electrons is
reduced in the positive ion. For this reason a positive ion is always smaller than its parent
atoms.
When one or more electrons are added to a neutral atom, a negative ion is formed.
Increasing the number of electrons cause an increase in the repulsion between electrons.
Thus, a negative ion is always larger than its parent atom.

Ionization Energy
Energy is required to remove electrons from atoms because they are held strongly within
the atom by the attraction of the nucleus. The amount of energy required to remove an
electron from a gaseous atom to form a gaseous ion is called the ionization energy. The
ionization process can be expressed in an equation.

element (g) + ionization energy ion+(g)+ election

We can represent this for sodium:

Na(g) + energy Na+ (g) +ĕ

Successive removal of other electrons give the second, third and subsequent
ionization energies. The ionization energies become progressively higher.
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Ionization energies measure how tightly electrons are bound to atoms. Low
ionization energies indicate ease of removal of electrons, and hence ease of positive ion
(cation) formation
. Figure 1.7 shows a plot of first ionization energy versus atomic number for several

elements.
atomic number
Fig. 1.7 Variation in first ionization energies with atomic number
We see also that in each period of Figure 1.7, the noble gases have the highest first
ionization energies and the alkali metals have the lowest first ionization energies. This
should not be surprising, because the noble gases are known to have the closed electronic
structures (the octet) which resist the removal of electrons, whereas the alkali metals have
only one electron outside of a noble gas structure, which is very easy to remove.
The ionization energies of the elements depend on the electronic structures. Let us
examine the periodic trends in the ionization energy to learn about the stability of the
various electronic structures. Table 1.7 provides a list of the ionization energies of the
elements in the second period.

Table 1.7 Ionization energies of the elements in the second period

Atomic number. 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Element Li Be B C N O F Ne
IE (kJ mol-1) 520 900 800 1086 1403 1314 1681 2081
Essential
electronic structure 2s1 2s2 2s22p1 2s22p2 2s22p3 2s22p4 2s22p5 2s22p6

In general, as one moves from left 'to right across a period, ionization energies
increase. For example, ionization energies generally increase from Li to Ne (Table 1.7).
This is because, the nuclear charge increases across a period and the electrons are more
strongly held by the force of attraction between the nucleus and the electrons. Another
approach to this tread is to look at the relative sizes of the atoms. The size of the atoms
decreases from left to right across a period. The nuclear attractive force is greater in the
 11

smaller atoms. Therefore, more energy is required to remove an electron from the
element as you go across the period.
The trend in ionization energy within a group is shown in Table 1.8. In general,
ionization energies decrease down a group. This is consistent with the trend in atomic
sizes. As we go down the group, the atomic size increases and the outermost electron is
farther from the nucleus making it easier to remove it.

Table 1.8 Ionization energies of alkali metals

Atomic number Element IE (KJ mol-1)
3 Li 520
11 Na 495
19 K 418
37 Rb 403
55 Cs 374

Electron Affinity
The electron affinity of an element is the energy released when an electron is added to a
gaseous atom to form a gaseous ion.

e.g., element (g) + electron ion + energy

Cl(g) + Cl + energy

The halogens have the highest electron affinities. This is because, they form stable
anions with noble gas electronic structures, ns 2 np6, by gaining one electron. On the other
hand, the alkali metals have very low electron affinities since they do not bind their
outermost electron very strongly.
Electron affinity values for halogens (Group VIIB elements) are given in Table l.9.
Table 1.9 Electron affinities of halogens
Atomic Number Element Electron affinity
(KJ mol-1)
9 F 333
17 Cl 348
35 Br 340
53 I 297

The decreasing trend in electron affinity on moving down a group arises because
the size of the atom increases and the electron being added goes to higher shells. The
anomalous behaviour of fluorine may be due to the fact that the fluorine atom is so small
that the incoming electron is affected by comparatively strong repulsion from the nine
electrons already around the nucleus, so diminishing the overall amount of energy
released by the process.
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For many reasons, the variations in electron affinities are not regular across a
period. The electron affinities generally increase from left to right across a period.
It is interesting that non-metals generally have higher electron affinities than
metals. Metals, on the other hand, have lower ionization energies. Since non-metals
characteristically gain electrons to become negative ions, the word electronegative is used
to describe them. Similarly, since metals characteristically lose electrons to become
positive ions, the word electropositive is often used to describe them.

1.5 Types of Bonds

Generally speaking there are three main types of chemical bonds, such as (1) ionic bond,
(2) covalent bond and (3) metallic bond.
The coordinate bond, which is a special type of covalent bond is another common
chemical bond.
An ionic bond is formed when there is complete transfer of an electron or
electrons from one atom to another resulting in the formation of cations and anions.
These oppositely charged ions are held together by an electrostatic attraction known as
ionic bond.
In a covalent bond between two atoms, the electrons are not actually gained or
lost by the atoms concerned. The two electrons forming a covalent bond are shared
between the two atoms. The coordinate or dative bond is also a special type of covalent
bond.
Most of the metals are solids at room temperature and, therefore, there must be
some sort of bonding between these metal atoms. These metal atoms are held together in
solid crystalline form by what is known as metallic bonding.

Ionic Bond (Electrovalent Bond)

The most typical ionic compounds are formed when a metal element from Group IA or
Group IIA reacts with a non-metal from Group VIB or Group VIIB. When the reaction
occurs, electrons are transferred from the metal to the non-metal until the outer electron
shells are identical to those of the nearest noble gases. This electron transfer process
produces charged particles called ions.
An ion is an atom (or group of atoms) that is electrically charged as the result of
the loss or gain of electrons.
Atoms or groups of atoms lose valence electrons to form positive ions (cations),
or gain valence electrons (from other atoms) to form negative ions (anions). The charge
on an ion is directly correlated with the number of electrons lost or gained. The ions are
stable because they obtain thee electronic structure of a noble gas.
An ionic bond results from the electrostatic attraction between positively charged
cations and negatively charged anions.
For example, when sodium and chlorine combine to form sodium chloride, one
electron from the sodium atom is transferred to the chlorine atom, resulting in the cation
Na+ and the anion Cl1.
 13

+ Na+ +

electronic structure 2.8.1 2.8.7 2.8 2.8.8

+ -
Both Na and Cl ions now possess stable electronic structures of the noble gases.
The sodium and chloride ions are held together by the strong electrostatic force of
attraction which is known as the ionic bond.
Characteristic Properties of Ionic Compounds
Ionic compounds do not contain molecules. They consist of aggregates of oppositely
charged ions. Consequently, if they are melted or dissolved in water, the ions become
more mobile. They conduct electricity and are, therefore, electrolytes.
Ionic compounds are solids and do not vaporize easily.
Ionic compounds will not usually dissolve in organic solvents such as toluene,
ether, benzene, etc.
Covalent Bond
Covalent compounds are formed when non-metals react with one another. In covalent
bonding actual molecules are produced, not ions. Each electron of the "shared pair "
passes from an orbit controlled by the nucleus of one atom into an orbit controlled by the
nuclei of both atoms.
Examples of molecules formed by covalent bonding are shown in Figure 1.8.

C N O

methane ammonia water

x electron of H
• electron of other element

Fig 1.8 Covalent molecules of methane, ammonia and water (only

valence electrons are shown in this figure)

Each shared electron pair is made up of one electron from each of the atoms
concerned. All the atoms share the resulting octet or duplet of electrons. The formation of
four covalent bonds in methane can be represented by the electron dot-cross structure as:

+ 4 H

H H
 14

H
Characteristic Properties of Covalent Compounds
Covalent compounds consist of molecules. They contain no ions, are unable to conduct
electricity and so are non-electrolytes.
Simple covalent compounds are gases or volatile liquids (e.g., ammonia, carbon
dioxide, ethanol) because their molecules are electrically neutral and the forces of
attraction between them are very small. As the molecules come closer together, the
atomic nuclei of one molecule and the electrons of another molecule attract each other
while at the same time there is repulsion between their electrons. The forces of attraction
and repulsion are balanced in the formation of crystal. These van der Waals forces are,
however, rather weak and the crystals have low melting points. (e.g., naphthalene has
melting point of 81 C compared to that of the ionic crystal such as sodium chloride of
melting point, 801 C).Covalent compounds are usually soluble in covalent organic
solvents, such as benzene or carbon disulphide.
Coordinate Bond or Dative Bond
Coordinate bond is a special type of covalent bond. This bond is characterized by the fact
that the two shared electrons are both supplied by one of the participating atoms. This is
quite different from an ordinary covalent bond, where the two bonded atoms contribute
an electron each towards the formation of the bond. A coordinate bond is formed when
one of the participant atoms possesses a lone pair of electrons. This lone pair is donated
to an atom needing them to build up, or complete, an electron octet or duplet of great
stability.
The formation of NH4+ is an example of a dative covalent combination. The
ammonia molecule possesses a lone pair of electrons; it can be donated to a hydrogen ion
from an acid to produce the ammonium ion NH 4+, forming a coordinate bond. This
bonding supplies an electron duplet to the hydrogen nucleus while still maintaining the
stable electron octet structure of the nitrogen atom in ammonia.
As a result of the combination, the positive charge on the hydrogen ion is
carried over to give the positively charged ammonium ion, NH4+.
+ +
H H H

H H + H+ H H OR H N H
H H H

ammonia hydrogen
ammonium ion
molecule ion
(NH4+)
(NH3) (H+)

Fig. 1.9 Formation of ammonium ion

The Octet Rule
The noble gas stable electronic structures have in common that the outermost s and p sub-
shells are completely filled. In general, there are eight outer shell electrons. Atoms of
 15

many electrons that lack the very stable outers hell electronic structure of the noble gas
tend to attain it in chemical reactions that result in compound formation.
Studies of the chemical bond have led to the fact that in forming a chemical bond,
atoms gain, lose or share electrons in such a way to attain the stable electronic structures
of the noble gases, i.e., to have eight electrons in the outermost shell. This is known as
the octet rule.
Exceptions to the Octet Rule
There are some exceptions to the octet rule which the student should know. Such
exceptions, are found with the elements of the second period of the periodic table, e.g.,
BeCl2 and BCl3.

Be
B

In BeCl2, the beryllium atom is surrounded by 4 valence electrons and in BCl 3, the
boron atom is surrounded by 6 valence electrons.
Also there are exceptions in the third period of the periodic table, e.g., PF 5, ClF3
and SF6.

P x
S

 F 
 

In PF5 and ClF3, the phosphorus and the chlorine atoms are surrounded by 10
valence electrons. In SF6, the sulphur atom is surrounded by 12 valence electrons.

Metallic Bond
In metallic solids, atoms of metals are present. They form metallic bonds. In a metallic
bond, valence electrons of the atoms are very loosely held, forming a common electron
cloud. Electrons move freely within this electron cloud. These electrons are often
described as a sea of electrons. The positively charged metallic ions resulting by loss of
valence electrons, repel each other, but they are surrounded by free-moving electrons.
Hence, they are held together by the attractive force of the electron cloud. Each metal
atom is bonded to all the atoms around it by a surrounding sea of electrons.
The sea of mobile electrons in a metallic crystal accounts for many of the
properties of metals. Metals are malleable and ductile. The flexibility of metals results
from the fact that the metal ion can slide by each other and the electrons are free to flow.
 16

The ability of the electrons to flow freely also accounts for the high electric conductivity
of metals. Electricity flows easily through metals.
SUMMARY
In this chapter , the fundamental particles of atoms such as protons, electrons
and neutrons have been introduced first, followed by the electronic structure of the atoms
of elements including complete and essential electronic structures of the various types of
elements. The definitions of atomic number, mass number, isotopes of the elements in the
periodic table have been presented. The group number, period number, periodic
properties such as metals and non-metals , electropositive and electronegative elements
atomic sizes, ionic sizes, ionization energy, electron affinities of the elements have been
elaborated. The octet rule and the exception to the octet rule have been depicted with
suitable examples. The types of bonds such as ionic or electrovalent bond, covalent bond,
coordinate ( dative) bond and metallic bonds have been illustrated with appropriate
examples.
Questions and Problems
1. Write only TRUE or FALSE for each of the following statements.
(i) A metallic bonding is observed in metals.
(ii) Noble gas elements are neither electropositive nor electronegative.
(iii) The essential electronic structure of 14Si is 3p2.
(iv) The electron dot-cross structure of ammonia is

(v) 6C and 7N are both in period 2. Therefore, the size of C is larger than that of
N.
2. Fill in the blanks with the correct word(s), phrase, term etc., as necessary.
(i) Atoms of the same element that have same atomic number but different
atomic masses are..............
(ii) Elements that are found within the same................. of the periodic table have
similar properties. .
(iii) From top to bottom in a given group, the atomic number increases and the
size of the atom.............
(iv) A charged particle is a (an) ...............
(v) Compounds formed between metals and non-metals will have.......... bonds.
3. Select the correct word (s) notation, terms etc given in the brackets.
(i) The atom without neutron (s) is [(a) hydrogen (b) helium (c) caesium]
(ii) The atom with the duplet structure is [(a) hydrogen (b) helium (c)
neon].
(iii) The element at the group VII B and the period 3 in the periodic table is
[(a)X(2.7) (b) Y(2.8.3) (c) Z (2.8.7)]
(iv) The ionic (electrovalent) compounds have [(a)low (b) medium (c) high]
melting point.
(v) [(a) Cl- (b) Cl+ (c) Cl)] is stabilized by electron octet.
 17

4. Match each of the item given in List A with the appropriate correct item shown in
List B
List A List B
(a) proton (i) increases down the group
(b) alkali metals (ii) covalent bond
(c) sharing elections (iii) 2 x n2(n=shell number)
(d) number of electrons in the (iv) in the nucleus
th
main n shells
(e) atomic size (v) lowest electron affinity
5. Answer the following
(a) In a neutral atom of an element, the number of a certain particle or particles
is equal to the atomic number. Name the particle or particles.
(b) Select the isotopes from the following and give reasons for your answer.
, , ,
(c) Determine the number of neutrons, protons and electrons in the atom of .
(d) What elements are most likely to form covalent bonds?
(e) What type of bond exists in the solid metals?
6. (a) Write down
(i) the complete electronic structure (ii) the essential electronic structure
(iii) the group number (iv) the period number
(v) the chief valence of the following elements.
11Na, 9F, 12Mg, 13Al, 17Cl, 18Ar

(b) Classify the above elements as alkali metal, alkaline earth metal, halogen,
noble gas and give reasons for your classification.
7. (a) Generally, the elements of the same group have similar electronic
structures. Arrange the following elements in their appropriate group.
3Li,12Mg, 20Ca,8O,11Na,19K,16S

Group I A Group II A Group VI B

3 Li(2.1) 12Mg(2.8.2) 8O(2.6)

11Na (2.8.1) 20Ca (2.8.8.2) 16S (2.8.6)

19K (2.8.8.1)

(b) What is meant by the term

(i) electropositive element
(ii) electronegative element?
Arrange the following elements in order of their increasing
electronegativity oxygen, carbon, fluorine, nitrogen.
8. The following information regarding elements I to IV are provided.
Element Atomic number Mass number Complete electronic structure
I 4 9 1s2, 2s2
II 18 40 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6
III 17 35 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p5
VI 12 24 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2
 18

9. Answer the following questions.

(a) Which of the above elements are in the same group of the periodic table?
(b) Which element is a noble gas?
(c) Which element has the highest electron affinity?
(d) Which element has 18 neutrons in each atom?
(e) Which of the elements have a valence of 2?
10. Complete the following table
Element X Element Y Element Z
Atomic number 11 6 -
Number of protons - - 16
Number of neutrons 12 6 16
Mass number - 12 32
Electronic structure 2.8.1 - -
and answer the following questions.
(a) Which of the above elements X, Y and Z is a metal?
(b) What type of bonding exist between X and Z?
Write down the most likely formula of this compound using the symbol X
and Z.
11. Give the difference between ionic compounds and covalent compounds based on
(a) volatility
(b) solubility
(c) electrical conductivity
12. (a) From the following group of elements, select the one which has the largest
radius. Give reasons.
(i) Fe2+, Fe3+ (ii) Cl, Cl- (iii) Li, Na, K (iv) C, N, O
(b) Explain which of the following group has the largest ionization energy.
(i) 2.8.1 (ii) 2.8.5 (iii) 2.8.7
(c) Explain (i) why Be has higher ionization energy than that of B and
(ii) why N has higher ionization energy than that of O.
13. (a) From the following group of elements, select the one which has the largest
radius. Give reasons.
(i) Fe2+, Fe3+ (ii) Cl, Cl- (iii) Li, Na, K (iv) C, N, O
(b) Explain which of the following group has the largest ionization energy.
(a) 2.8.1 (b) 2.8.5 (c) 2.8.7
14 Answer the following questions.
(a) What is the charge and mass of a proton ?
(b) From the following , calculate the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons
in each of these atoms
,
(c) Which two elements would form a covalent compound ?
(d) Which two elements would form an electrovalent compound ?
(e) Which particle contains 20 neutrons, 19 protons and 19 electrons ?
 19

(f) Explain the meaning of the atomic number of the element.

(g) How are the elements arranged in the Periodic table ?
15. Answer the following questions
(a) How many electrons does a potassium atom lose in forming the K+ ion ?
(b) How many electrons does a chlorine atom gain in forming the Cl - ion ?
(c) Explain the formation of ionic compounds . Give three examples.
(d) Describe the differences between covalent compounds and ionic compounds.
(e) What do we call bonding which involves electron transfer ?
(f) What do we call bonding which involves electron sharing ?
(g) What type of bonding do we find in molecules ?
(h) Why the noble gases or inert gases are neither electropositive nor
electronegative ?

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