Unit07 Edexcel International Gcse 9 1 Physics P220to257

1
ATOMS AND RADIOACTIVITY 221 RADIATION AND HALF-LIFE 233 I ' • II • RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES
FISSION AND FUSION 250
22 ATOMS AND RADIOACTIVITY

Atoms are made up of sub-atomic particles called neutrons, protons and electrons. It 1s lhe numbers of these particles
that give each element its unique properties In this chapter you will find out how atoms can break up and become
transformed into different elements, and about the different types of rad1at1on they give out
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Describe the structure of an atom in terms of protons, • Investigate the penetration powers of different types
neutrons and electrons and use symbols such as 1ic to of radiation using either radioactive sources or
describe particular nuclei simulations
• Know the terms atomic (proton) number, mass • Describe the effects on the atomic and mass numbers
(nucleon) number and isotope of a nucleus of the emission of each of the four main
types of radiation (alpha, beta, gamma and neutron
• Know that alpha (a) particles, beta (P-J particles, and
radiation)
gamma (y) rays are ionising radiations emitted from
unstable nuclei in a random process • Understand how to balance nuclear equations in
terms of mass and charge
• Describe the nature of alpha (a) particles, beta (P-)
particles, and gamma (y) rays, and recall that they may
be distinguished in terms of penetrating power and
ability to ionise
UNITS ELECTRONS, PROTONS AND NEUTRONS

In this section you will need to use
becquerel (Bq) as the unit of activity of Atoms are made up of electrons, protons and neutrons. Figure 22.1 shows a
a radioactive source, centimetre (cm) simple model of how these particles are arranged.
as the unit of length, and minute (min)
and second (s) as the units of time.
neutron
electron
not to scale
The nucleus, made up of neutrons
and protons, is about 10000
times smaller than the atom itself.
proton
.t. Figure 22.1 A simple model with protons and neutrons in the nucleus of the atom and electrons in
orbits around the outside
The electron is a very small particle with very little mass. It has a negative
electric charge. Electrons orbit the nucleus of the atom. The nucleus is very
small compared to the size of the atom itself. The diameter of the nucleus is
about 10 000 times smaller than the diameter of the atom. If the nucleus of an
atom were enlarged to the size of a full stop on this page, the atom would have
a diameter of around 2.5 metres.
The nucleus is made up of protons and neutrons. Protons and neutrons have
almost exactly the same mass. Protons and neutrons are nearly 2000 times
heavier than electrons. Protons carry positive electric charge but neutrons,
as the name suggests, are electrically neutral or uncharged. The amount of
charge on a proton is equal to that on an electron but opposite in sign.
1
ATOMS AND RADIOACTIVITY 221 RADIATION AND HALF-LIFE 233 I ' • II • RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES
FISSION AND FUSION 250
22 ATOMS AND RADIOACTIVITY

Atoms are made up of sub-atomic particles called neutrons, protons and electrons. It 1s lhe numbers of these particles
that give each element its unique properties In this chapter you will find out how atoms can break up and become
transformed into different elements, and about the different types of rad1at1on they give out
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Describe the structure of an atom in terms of protons, • Investigate the penetration powers of different types
neutrons and electrons and use symbols such as 1ic to of radiation using either radioactive sources or
describe particular nuclei simulations
• Know the terms atomic (proton) number, mass • Describe the effects on the atomic and mass numbers
(nucleon) number and isotope of a nucleus of the emission of each of the four main
types of radiation (alpha, beta, gamma and neutron
• Know that alpha (a) particles, beta (P-J particles, and
radiation)
gamma (y) rays are ionising radiations emitted from
unstable nuclei in a random process • Understand how to balance nuclear equations in
terms of mass and charge
• Describe the nature of alpha (a) particles, beta (P-)
particles, and gamma (y) rays, and recall that they may
be distinguished in terms of penetrating power and
ability to ionise
UNITS ELECTRONS, PROTONS AND NEUTRONS

In this section you will need to use
becquerel (Bq) as the unit of activity of Atoms are made up of electrons, protons and neutrons. Figure 22.1 shows a
a radioactive source, centimetre (cm) simple model of how these particles are arranged.
as the unit of length, and minute (min)
and second (s) as the units of time.
neutron
electron
not to scale
The nucleus, made up of neutrons
and protons, is about 10000
times smaller than the atom itself.
proton
.t. Figure 22.1 A simple model with protons and neutrons in the nucleus of the atom and electrons in
orbits around the outside
The electron is a very small particle with very little mass. It has a negative
electric charge. Electrons orbit the nucleus of the atom. The nucleus is very
small compared to the size of the atom itself. The diameter of the nucleus is
about 10 000 times smaller than the diameter of the atom. If the nucleus of an
atom were enlarged to the size of a full stop on this page, the atom would have
a diameter of around 2.5 metres.
The nucleus is made up of protons and neutrons. Protons and neutrons have
almost exactly the same mass. Protons and neutrons are nearly 2000 times
heavier than electrons. Protons carry positive electric charge but neutrons,
as the name suggests, are electrically neutral or uncharged. The amount of
charge on a proton is equal to that on an electron but opposite in sign.
1
222 RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES
EXTENSION WORK
The actual mass of an electron is
9.1 x 10-Jt kg and its actual charge is
The properties of these three atomic particles are summarised in the table
below. Protons and neutrons are also called nucleons because they are found
in the nucleus of the atom.
KEY POINT
mass
numoor--A
electron
0 -~, ~
~
neutron
---z X
- 1.6 x 10- 1• C. The table shows the _ chemical
approximate relative masses of the Atomic particle Relative mass of particle Relative charge of particle symbol
particles and the relative amount of
electron -1 atomic hydrogen carbon
charge they carry. The mass in atomic
mass units is discussed below.
number :H
proton 2000 +1 .6. Figure 22.2 Atomic notation
.6. Figure 22.3 The hydrogen atom has one proton in its nucleus and no neutrons, so the mass number
mass number, A ; number of neutrons A; 1 + O; 1. As it has one proton, its atomic number, Z; 1. For helium, A; 4 (2 protons+ 2
neutron 2000 + number of protons, Z neutrons) and Z; 2 (2 protons). For carbon, A; 12 (6 protons + 6 neutroos) while Z; 6 (6 protons).
= number of nucleons
so Figure 22.3 shows some examples of the use of this notation for hydrogen,
THE ATOM number of neutrons ; number of helium and carbon, together with a simple indication of the structure of an atom
nucleons - number of protons of each of these elements. In each case the number of orbiting electrons is equal
The nucleus of an atom is surrounded by electrons. We sometimes think of
;A - Z to the number of protons in the nucleus, so the atoms are electrically neutral.
electrons as orbiting the nucleus in a way similar to the planets orbiting the
Sun. It is more accurate to think of the electrons as moving rapidly around the
nucleus in a cloud or shell.
ISOTOPES
An atom is electrically neutral. This is because the number of positive charges
carried by the protons in its nucleus is balanced by the number of negative The number of protons in an atom identifies the element. The chemical
charges on the electrons in the electron 'cloud' around the nucleus. behaviour of an element depends on the number of electrons it has and, as
we have seen, this always balances the number of protons in the nucleus.
However, the number of neutrons in the nucleus can vary slightly. Atoms of an
ATOMIC NUMBER, Z The chemical behaviour and properties of a particular element depend upon element with different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes of the element.
how the atoms combine with other atoms. This is determined by the number of The number of neutrons in a nucleus affects the mass of the atom. Different
electrons in the atom. Although atoms may gain or lose electrons, sometimes isotopes of an element will all have the same atomic number, Z, but different
quite easily, the number of protons in atoms of a particular element is always mass numbers, A. Figures 22.4 and 22.5 show some examples of isotopes.
the same. The atomic number of an element tells us how many protons each
0
of its atoms contains. For example, carbon has six protons in its nucleus -
the atomic number of carbon is, therefore, 6. The symbol we use for atomic
number is Z. Each element has its own unique atomic number. The atomic
number is sometimes called the proton number.
hydrogen-1 hydrogen-2 hydrogen-3
ATOMIC MASS, A
:H
The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom determines EXTENSION WORK .6. Figure 22.4 Isotopes of hydrogen - they all have the same atomic number, 1, and the same
its atomic mass. The mass of the electrons that make up an atom is tiny and
: -M':o.( i)
Hydrogen-2 is also called heavy chemical symbol, H.
can usually be ignored. The mass of a proton is approximately 1.7 x 10-21 kg. hydrogen or deuterium. Hydrogen-3 is
To save writing this down we usually refer to the mass of an atom by its mass called lritium.
number or nucleon number. This number is the total number of protons and
neutrons in the atom. The mass number of an element is given the symbol A.
ATOMIC NOTATION - THE RECIPE Each particular type of atom will have its own atomic number, which identifies
FORAN ATOM the element, and a mass number that depends on the total number of
nucleons, or particles, in the nucleus. Figure 22.2 shows the way we represent carbon-14
an atom of an element whose chemical symbol is X, showing the atomic ,:c
number and the mass number. .6. Figure 22.5 Two isotopes of carbon - they are referred to as carbon-12 and carbon-14 to
distinguish between them.
So, using this notation, an atom of oxygen is represented by:
'go THE STABILITY OF ISOTOPES Isotopes of an element have different physical properties from other isotopes
The chemical symbol for oxygen is 0 . The atomic number is 8 - this tells us
of the same element. One obvious difference is the mass. Another difference is
that the nucleus contains eight protons. The mass number is 16, so there are
the stability of the nucleus.
16 nucleons (protons and neutrons) in the nucleus. Since eight of these are
protons, the remaining eight must be neutrons. The atom is electrically neutral The protons are held in the nucleus by the nuclear force. This force is very
overall, so the +8 charge of the nucleus is balanced by the eight orbiting strong and acts over a very small distance. It is strong enough to hold the
electrons, each with charge - 1. nucleus together against the electric force repelling the protons away from
1
EXTENSION WORK
The actual mass of an electron is
9.1 x 10-Jt kg and its actual charge is
The properties of these three atomic particles are summarised in the table
below. Protons and neutrons are also called nucleons because they are found
in the nucleus of the atom.
KEY POINT
mass
numoor--A
electron
0 -~, ~
~
neutron
---z X
- 1.6 x 10- 1• C. The table shows the _ chemical
approximate relative masses of the Atomic particle Relative mass of particle Relative charge of particle symbol
particles and the relative amount of
electron -1 atomic hydrogen carbon
charge they carry. The mass in atomic
mass units is discussed below.
number :H
proton 2000 +1 .6. Figure 22.2 Atomic notation
.6. Figure 22.3 The hydrogen atom has one proton in its nucleus and no neutrons, so the mass number
mass number, A ; number of neutrons A; 1 + O; 1. As it has one proton, its atomic number, Z; 1. For helium, A; 4 (2 protons+ 2
neutron 2000 + number of protons, Z neutrons) and Z; 2 (2 protons). For carbon, A; 12 (6 protons + 6 neutroos) while Z; 6 (6 protons).
= number of nucleons
so Figure 22.3 shows some examples of the use of this notation for hydrogen,
THE ATOM number of neutrons ; number of helium and carbon, together with a simple indication of the structure of an atom
nucleons - number of protons of each of these elements. In each case the number of orbiting electrons is equal
The nucleus of an atom is surrounded by electrons. We sometimes think of
;A - Z to the number of protons in the nucleus, so the atoms are electrically neutral.
electrons as orbiting the nucleus in a way similar to the planets orbiting the
Sun. It is more accurate to think of the electrons as moving rapidly around the
nucleus in a cloud or shell.
ISOTOPES
An atom is electrically neutral. This is because the number of positive charges
carried by the protons in its nucleus is balanced by the number of negative The number of protons in an atom identifies the element. The chemical
charges on the electrons in the electron 'cloud' around the nucleus. behaviour of an element depends on the number of electrons it has and, as
we have seen, this always balances the number of protons in the nucleus.
However, the number of neutrons in the nucleus can vary slightly. Atoms of an
ATOMIC NUMBER, Z The chemical behaviour and properties of a particular element depend upon element with different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes of the element.
how the atoms combine with other atoms. This is determined by the number of The number of neutrons in a nucleus affects the mass of the atom. Different
electrons in the atom. Although atoms may gain or lose electrons, sometimes isotopes of an element will all have the same atomic number, Z, but different
quite easily, the number of protons in atoms of a particular element is always mass numbers, A. Figures 22.4 and 22.5 show some examples of isotopes.
the same. The atomic number of an element tells us how many protons each
0
of its atoms contains. For example, carbon has six protons in its nucleus -
the atomic number of carbon is, therefore, 6. The symbol we use for atomic
number is Z. Each element has its own unique atomic number. The atomic
number is sometimes called the proton number.
hydrogen-1 hydrogen-2 hydrogen-3
ATOMIC MASS, A
:H
The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom determines EXTENSION WORK .6. Figure 22.4 Isotopes of hydrogen - they all have the same atomic number, 1, and the same
its atomic mass. The mass of the electrons that make up an atom is tiny and
: -M':o.( i)
Hydrogen-2 is also called heavy chemical symbol, H.
can usually be ignored. The mass of a proton is approximately 1.7 x 10-21 kg. hydrogen or deuterium. Hydrogen-3 is
To save writing this down we usually refer to the mass of an atom by its mass called lritium.
number or nucleon number. This number is the total number of protons and
neutrons in the atom. The mass number of an element is given the symbol A.
ATOMIC NOTATION - THE RECIPE Each particular type of atom will have its own atomic number, which identifies
FORAN ATOM the element, and a mass number that depends on the total number of
nucleons, or particles, in the nucleus. Figure 22.2 shows the way we represent carbon-14
an atom of an element whose chemical symbol is X, showing the atomic ,:c
number and the mass number. .6. Figure 22.5 Two isotopes of carbon - they are referred to as carbon-12 and carbon-14 to
distinguish between them.
So, using this notation, an atom of oxygen is represented by:
'go THE STABILITY OF ISOTOPES Isotopes of an element have different physical properties from other isotopes
The chemical symbol for oxygen is 0 . The atomic number is 8 - this tells us
of the same element. One obvious difference is the mass. Another difference is
that the nucleus contains eight protons. The mass number is 16, so there are
the stability of the nucleus.
16 nucleons (protons and neutrons) in the nucleus. Since eight of these are
protons, the remaining eight must be neutrons. The atom is electrically neutral The protons are held in the nucleus by the nuclear force. This force is very
overall, so the +8 charge of the nucleus is balanced by the eight orbiting strong and acts over a very small distance. It is strong enough to hold the
electrons, each with charge - 1. nucleus together against the electric force repelling the protons away from
1
each other. (Remember that protons carry positive charge and like charges EXTENSION WORK more stable. Beta minus decay involves a neutron in the nucleus splitting into a
repel.) The presence of neutrons in the nucleus affects the balance bet ween proton and an electron (an antineutrino is also emitted). The proton remains in
Antimatter will not be examined, but
these forces. Too many or too few neutrons will make the nucleus unstable. An the nucleus and the electron is ejected at high speed as a beta minus particle.
for all the particles that exist in ordinary
unstable nucleus w ill eventually decay. When the nucleus of an atom decays it matter there exists an antimatter EXTENSION WORK
gives out energy and may also give out alpha or beta particles. particle. The positron is the antimatter
Sometimes a proton will decay into a neutron by emitting a beta plus particle (~•). A
equivalent of an electron. You will
beta plus particle is an antielectron, a particle with the same mass as an electron but
not be asked about neutrinos or
IONISING RADIATION antineutrinos either.
with positive charge. The antielectron is called a positron.
When unstable nuclei decay they give out ionising radiation. Ionising radiation Beta particles are very light - they have only 0.000 125 times the mass of an alpha
causes atoms to gain or lose electric charge, forming ions. Unstable nuclei particle. The relative charge of a 13- is - 1 and the relative charge of a J3+ is+ 1.
decay at random. This means that it is not possible to predict w hich unstable
Beta particles interact w ith matter in their paths less frequently than alpha
nucleus in a piece of rad ioactive material will decay, or when decay will
particles. This is because they are smaller and carry less charge. This means
happen. We shall see that we can make measurements that w ill enable us to
that beta particles have a greater range than alpha particles. Beta particles
predict the probability t hat a certain proportion of a radioactive material will
can travel long distances through air, pass through paper easily and are only
decay in a given time.
absorbed by denser materials like aluminium. A millimetre or two of aluminium
foil will stop all but the most energetic beta particles.
GAMMA RAYS (y) Gamma rays are electromagnetic waves (see page 106) with very short
wavelengths. As they are waves, they have no mass and no charge. They are
---
ionising
radiation
neutral
atom
positive
ion
EXTENSION WORK
Gamma radiation is emitted in 'packets'
of energy called photons.
NEUTRON RADIATION
weakly ionising and interact only occasionally with atoms in their paths. They
are extremely penetrating and pass through all but the very densest materials
with ease. It takes several centimetres thickness of lead, or a metre or so of
concrete, to stop gamma radiation.
Neutrons are emitted by radioactive material. T hey have roughly the same
mass as a proton but have no electric charge. The symbol used for a neutron
.6. Figure 22.6 When a neutral atom (or molecule) is hit by ionising radiation it loses an electron and
becomes a positively charged ion. in radioactive decay equations is:
There are three basic types of ionising radiation. They are: alpha (a), beta (J3) 6n
and gamma (y) radiation. If a neutron is emitted by a nucleus its mass number (A) goes down by 1 but
the atomic number (Z) is unchanged. If a neutron is absorbed by a nucleus its
ALPHA (n) RADIATION mass number (A) goes up by 1 but the atomic number (Z) is unchanged.
Alpha radiation consists of fast-moving particles that are thrown out of
unstable nuclei when they decay. These are called alpha particles. Alpha EXTENSION WORK KEV POINT
particles are helium nuclei - helium atoms without t heir orbiting electrons.
As neutrons cause other atoms to emit As neutrons are not electrically charged they do not directly cause ionisation. They
Figure 22.7 shows an alpha particle and the notation that is used to denote it radiation they must be screened. This are absorbed by nuclei of other atoms and can cause them to become radioactive.
in equations. is done using materials that have a lot The radioactive nuclei formed in this way will then decay emitting ionising radiation.
Alpha particles have a relatively large mass. They are made up of four of light atoms like hydrogen. Concrete Neutrons are the only type of radiation to cause other atoms to become radioactive.
and water are used to prevent neutrons We shall see later (Chapter 25) that neutron radiation plays an important part in the
.6. Figure 22.7 An alpha particle (a particle) nucleons and so have a mass number of 4. They are also charged because of
escaping from nuclear reactors. process of fission used in nuclear reactors.
the two protons that they carry. The relative charge of an alpha particle is +2.
EXTENSION WORK
Alpha particles have a short range. The range of ionising radiation is the
Nucleons have roughly 2000 times SUMMARY OF THE PROPERTIES OF We have said that ionising radiation causes uncharged atoms to lose electrons.
d istance it can travel through matter. Alpha particles can only travel a few
the mass of an electron, and alpha centimetres in air and cannot penetrate more than a few millimetres of paper. IONISING RADIATION An atom that has lost (or gained) electrons has an overall charge. It is called an
particles are made up of four nucleons, They have a limited range because they interact with atoms along their paths, ion. The three types of radioactive emission can all form ions.
so an alpha particle has 8000 times the causing ions to form. This means that they rapidly give up t he energy that they
mass of a beta particle. As ionising radiation passes through matter, its energy is absorbed. This
had when they were ejected from the unstable nucleus.
means that radiation can only penetrate matter up to a certain thickness.
This depends on the type of radiation and the density of the material that it is
BETA RADIATION (p- ANO p•) Beta minus particles (J3-) are very fast-moving electrons that are ejected by a passing through.
decaying nucleus. The nucleus of an atom contains protons and neutrons, so The ionising and penetrating powers of alpha, beta and gamma radiation are
where does the electron come from? The stability of a nucleus depends on the compared in the table on page 226. Note that the ranges given in the table are
proportion of protons and neutrons it contains. The result of radioactive decay typical but they do depend on the energy of the radiation. For example, more
is to change the balance of protons and neutrons in the nucleus to make it energetic alpha particles will have a greater range than those with lower energy.
1
each other. (Remember that protons carry positive charge and like charges EXTENSION WORK more stable. Beta minus decay involves a neutron in the nucleus splitting into a
repel.) The presence of neutrons in the nucleus affects the balance bet ween proton and an electron (an antineutrino is also emitted). The proton remains in
Antimatter will not be examined, but
these forces. Too many or too few neutrons will make the nucleus unstable. An the nucleus and the electron is ejected at high speed as a beta minus particle.
for all the particles that exist in ordinary
unstable nucleus w ill eventually decay. When the nucleus of an atom decays it matter there exists an antimatter EXTENSION WORK
gives out energy and may also give out alpha or beta particles. particle. The positron is the antimatter
Sometimes a proton will decay into a neutron by emitting a beta plus particle (~•). A
equivalent of an electron. You will
beta plus particle is an antielectron, a particle with the same mass as an electron but
not be asked about neutrinos or
IONISING RADIATION antineutrinos either.
with positive charge. The antielectron is called a positron.
When unstable nuclei decay they give out ionising radiation. Ionising radiation Beta particles are very light - they have only 0.000 125 times the mass of an alpha
causes atoms to gain or lose electric charge, forming ions. Unstable nuclei particle. The relative charge of a 13- is - 1 and the relative charge of a J3+ is+ 1.
decay at random. This means that it is not possible to predict w hich unstable
Beta particles interact w ith matter in their paths less frequently than alpha
nucleus in a piece of rad ioactive material will decay, or when decay will
particles. This is because they are smaller and carry less charge. This means
happen. We shall see that we can make measurements that w ill enable us to
that beta particles have a greater range than alpha particles. Beta particles
predict the probability t hat a certain proportion of a radioactive material will
can travel long distances through air, pass through paper easily and are only
decay in a given time.
absorbed by denser materials like aluminium. A millimetre or two of aluminium
foil will stop all but the most energetic beta particles.
GAMMA RAYS (y) Gamma rays are electromagnetic waves (see page 106) with very short
wavelengths. As they are waves, they have no mass and no charge. They are
---
ionising
radiation
neutral
atom
positive
ion
EXTENSION WORK
Gamma radiation is emitted in 'packets'
of energy called photons.
NEUTRON RADIATION
weakly ionising and interact only occasionally with atoms in their paths. They
are extremely penetrating and pass through all but the very densest materials
with ease. It takes several centimetres thickness of lead, or a metre or so of
concrete, to stop gamma radiation.
Neutrons are emitted by radioactive material. T hey have roughly the same
mass as a proton but have no electric charge. The symbol used for a neutron
.6. Figure 22.6 When a neutral atom (or molecule) is hit by ionising radiation it loses an electron and
becomes a positively charged ion. in radioactive decay equations is:
There are three basic types of ionising radiation. They are: alpha (a), beta (J3) 6n
and gamma (y) radiation. If a neutron is emitted by a nucleus its mass number (A) goes down by 1 but
the atomic number (Z) is unchanged. If a neutron is absorbed by a nucleus its
ALPHA (n) RADIATION mass number (A) goes up by 1 but the atomic number (Z) is unchanged.
Alpha radiation consists of fast-moving particles that are thrown out of
unstable nuclei when they decay. These are called alpha particles. Alpha EXTENSION WORK KEV POINT
particles are helium nuclei - helium atoms without t heir orbiting electrons.
As neutrons cause other atoms to emit As neutrons are not electrically charged they do not directly cause ionisation. They
Figure 22.7 shows an alpha particle and the notation that is used to denote it radiation they must be screened. This are absorbed by nuclei of other atoms and can cause them to become radioactive.
in equations. is done using materials that have a lot The radioactive nuclei formed in this way will then decay emitting ionising radiation.
Alpha particles have a relatively large mass. They are made up of four of light atoms like hydrogen. Concrete Neutrons are the only type of radiation to cause other atoms to become radioactive.
and water are used to prevent neutrons We shall see later (Chapter 25) that neutron radiation plays an important part in the
.6. Figure 22.7 An alpha particle (a particle) nucleons and so have a mass number of 4. They are also charged because of
escaping from nuclear reactors. process of fission used in nuclear reactors.
the two protons that they carry. The relative charge of an alpha particle is +2.
EXTENSION WORK
Alpha particles have a short range. The range of ionising radiation is the
Nucleons have roughly 2000 times SUMMARY OF THE PROPERTIES OF We have said that ionising radiation causes uncharged atoms to lose electrons.
d istance it can travel through matter. Alpha particles can only travel a few
the mass of an electron, and alpha centimetres in air and cannot penetrate more than a few millimetres of paper. IONISING RADIATION An atom that has lost (or gained) electrons has an overall charge. It is called an
particles are made up of four nucleons, They have a limited range because they interact with atoms along their paths, ion. The three types of radioactive emission can all form ions.
so an alpha particle has 8000 times the causing ions to form. This means that they rapidly give up t he energy that they
mass of a beta particle. As ionising radiation passes through matter, its energy is absorbed. This
had when they were ejected from the unstable nucleus.
means that radiation can only penetrate matter up to a certain thickness.
This depends on the type of radiation and the density of the material that it is
BETA RADIATION (p- ANO p•) Beta minus particles (J3-) are very fast-moving electrons that are ejected by a passing through.
decaying nucleus. The nucleus of an atom contains protons and neutrons, so The ionising and penetrating powers of alpha, beta and gamma radiation are
where does the electron come from? The stability of a nucleus depends on the compared in the table on page 226. Note that the ranges given in the table are
proportion of protons and neutrons it contains. The result of radioactive decay typical but they do depend on the energy of the radiation. For example, more
is to change the balance of protons and neutrons in the nucleus to make it energetic alpha particles will have a greater range than those with lower energy.
1
Eil@H:EIHH:ilHIIHIMt::·rrt:::t'llttl:l't•N iliWIMhEt-. Here is an example of alpha decay:

2 2
alpha, a strong weak ~cm paper ~ Ra ~ Ra + ~He + energy
radium atom radonatom + a particle + energy
beta,~ medium medium 500-1000cm thin aluminium
The radioactive isotope radium-222 decays to the element radon by the
gamma, v weak strong virtually infinite thick lead sheet emission of an alpha particle. The alpha particle is sometimes represented by
the Greek letter a. Radon is a radioactive gas that also decays by emitting an
alpha particle. Note that the atomic number for radon, 86, is two less than the
atomic number for radium.
This is a balanced equation:
• The total of the A numbers on each side of the equation is the same.
(Remember that A is the total number of protons and neutrons.)
• The total of the Z numbers on each side of the equation is the same.
radioactive counter stopwatch (Remember that the Z number tells us the number of protons in the nucleus
source paper, aluminium REMINDER - the number of positively charged partic les.)
or lead sheets
GM tube [GOO !Olfl A is the mass number of the element
and Z is the atomic number. The
The general form of the alpha decay equation is:
•• letters W and Y are not the symbols of

any particular elements as this is the
~Y --+ ~j w + ~ He + energy
.A Figure 22.8 Measuring the penetrating power of different types of radiation general equation. i
alpha particle, a
Radioactive sources m ust be stored in lead-lined boxes and kept in
a metal cupboard with a radiation warning label. The source must be In alpha decay, element Y is transformed into element W by the emission of
KEY POINl
All work with radioactive sources must handled with tongs away from the body. (See Chapter 24 page 247 for an alpha particle. Element W is two places before element Y in the periodic
be closely supervised by qualified It is worth pointing out that the mass table. The alpha particle, a helium nucleus, carries away four nucleons, which
more details of safe practice with radioactive materials.) number refers to the number of nuclear
science staff and no sources must reduces the mass number (A) by four. Two of these nucleons are protons so
particles, or nucleons, involved in the
be touched or pointed towards any Before the source is removed from its storage container, measure the the atomic number of the new element is two less than the original element,
transformation - not the exact mass.
part of the body. Source usage must background radiation count by connecting a Geiger-MOiier (GM) tube to Z - 2. Notice that the mass number and the atomic number are conserved
Mass is not conserved in nuclear
be logged and they must be returned a counter. Write down the number of counts after 5 minutes. Repeat this through this equation - that is, the total numbers of nucleons and protons on
to their secure storage immediately transformations, as some of it is
three times and find the average background radiation count. transformed into energy. each side of the equation are the same.
after use. In the UK, students under
16 years are not permitted to handle
sources; over 16, they are allowed to
do this with close supervision.
Take a source of alpha radiation and set it up at a measured distance
(between 2 and 4 cm) from the GM tube. Piiiii3t
Complete the following nuclear equation which shows the decay of
Measure the counts detected in a 5 minute period. Repeat the count uranium-238 to the element thorium by alpha decay (emitting an alpha
with a sheet of thick paper in front of the source. You should find that the particle).
counts have dropped to the background radiation count. This shows that
alpha radiation does not pass through paper.
2
: u _, ~Th _, ; He
Now replace the alpha source w ith a beta source. After measuring the The atomic mass numbers (A) on bot h sides of the equation must add up
new count for 5 minutes place thin sheets of aluminium between the to the same, so the atomic mass for thorium must be 234 (238 = 234 + 4).
source and detector. When the thickness of the aluminium sheet is The atomic numbers (Z) on both sides of the equation must add up to the
1-2 mm thick you will find that the count has dropped to the background same, so the atomic mass for thorium must be 90 (92 = 90 + 2). So the
radiation level. This shows that beta radiation is blocked by just a few KEY POINT answer is:
millimetres of aluminium.
KEY POINI A complete periodic table is shown in 2
~u _, 2
t Th _, ~He
Finally carry out the same steps using a gamma radiation source. Now Appendix A on page 277. The numbers
The Geiger- Muller (GM) tube is a
you will find that gamma radiation is only blocked when a few centimetres shown in the top left corner are the
detector of radiation. It is described in Figure 22.9 shows the effect of alpha particle decay. Losing an alpha particle
atomic numbers of the elements - the
the next chapter. of lead are placed between the source and the detector.
Z numbers in the nuclear equations. from the nucleus of a uranium atom turns it into thorium, two places back in
Remember that the Z numbers tell us the periodic table.
As we said earlier, an unstable atom, or strictly speaking its nucleus, w ill decay the number of protons in the nucleus of
I
an element. Some periodic tables show
by emitting radiation. If the decay process involves the nucleus ejecting either
the atomic mass too but as elements
Ac Th Pa u Np
an alpha or a beta particle, the atomic number will c hange. This means that Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranun Neptunium J
have a number of different isotopes the 89 90 91 92 93 (
alpha or beta decay causes the original element to transform into a different mass numbers will be an average for
element. the different isotopes. .A Figure 22.9 A part of the periodic table of elements
1
Eil@H:EIHH:ilHIIHIMt::·rrt:::t'llttl:l't•N iliWIMhEt-. Here is an example of alpha decay:

2 2
alpha, a strong weak ~cm paper ~ Ra ~ Ra + ~He + energy
radium atom radonatom + a particle + energy
beta,~ medium medium 500-1000cm thin aluminium
The radioactive isotope radium-222 decays to the element radon by the
gamma, v weak strong virtually infinite thick lead sheet emission of an alpha particle. The alpha particle is sometimes represented by
the Greek letter a. Radon is a radioactive gas that also decays by emitting an
alpha particle. Note that the atomic number for radon, 86, is two less than the
atomic number for radium.
This is a balanced equation:
• The total of the A numbers on each side of the equation is the same.
(Remember that A is the total number of protons and neutrons.)
• The total of the Z numbers on each side of the equation is the same.
radioactive counter stopwatch (Remember that the Z number tells us the number of protons in the nucleus
source paper, aluminium REMINDER - the number of positively charged partic les.)
or lead sheets
GM tube [GOO !Olfl A is the mass number of the element
and Z is the atomic number. The
The general form of the alpha decay equation is:
•• letters W and Y are not the symbols of

any particular elements as this is the
~Y --+ ~j w + ~ He + energy
.A Figure 22.8 Measuring the penetrating power of different types of radiation general equation. i
alpha particle, a
Radioactive sources m ust be stored in lead-lined boxes and kept in
a metal cupboard with a radiation warning label. The source must be In alpha decay, element Y is transformed into element W by the emission of
KEY POINl
All work with radioactive sources must handled with tongs away from the body. (See Chapter 24 page 247 for an alpha particle. Element W is two places before element Y in the periodic
be closely supervised by qualified It is worth pointing out that the mass table. The alpha particle, a helium nucleus, carries away four nucleons, which
more details of safe practice with radioactive materials.) number refers to the number of nuclear
science staff and no sources must reduces the mass number (A) by four. Two of these nucleons are protons so
particles, or nucleons, involved in the
be touched or pointed towards any Before the source is removed from its storage container, measure the the atomic number of the new element is two less than the original element,
transformation - not the exact mass.
part of the body. Source usage must background radiation count by connecting a Geiger-MOiier (GM) tube to Z - 2. Notice that the mass number and the atomic number are conserved
Mass is not conserved in nuclear
be logged and they must be returned a counter. Write down the number of counts after 5 minutes. Repeat this through this equation - that is, the total numbers of nucleons and protons on
to their secure storage immediately transformations, as some of it is
three times and find the average background radiation count. transformed into energy. each side of the equation are the same.
after use. In the UK, students under
16 years are not permitted to handle
sources; over 16, they are allowed to
do this with close supervision.
Take a source of alpha radiation and set it up at a measured distance
(between 2 and 4 cm) from the GM tube. Piiiii3t
Complete the following nuclear equation which shows the decay of
Measure the counts detected in a 5 minute period. Repeat the count uranium-238 to the element thorium by alpha decay (emitting an alpha
with a sheet of thick paper in front of the source. You should find that the particle).
counts have dropped to the background radiation count. This shows that
alpha radiation does not pass through paper.
2
: u _, ~Th _, ; He
Now replace the alpha source w ith a beta source. After measuring the The atomic mass numbers (A) on bot h sides of the equation must add up
new count for 5 minutes place thin sheets of aluminium between the to the same, so the atomic mass for thorium must be 234 (238 = 234 + 4).
source and detector. When the thickness of the aluminium sheet is The atomic numbers (Z) on both sides of the equation must add up to the
1-2 mm thick you will find that the count has dropped to the background same, so the atomic mass for thorium must be 90 (92 = 90 + 2). So the
radiation level. This shows that beta radiation is blocked by just a few KEY POINT answer is:
millimetres of aluminium.
KEY POINI A complete periodic table is shown in 2
~u _, 2
t Th _, ~He
Finally carry out the same steps using a gamma radiation source. Now Appendix A on page 277. The numbers
The Geiger- Muller (GM) tube is a
you will find that gamma radiation is only blocked when a few centimetres shown in the top left corner are the
detector of radiation. It is described in Figure 22.9 shows the effect of alpha particle decay. Losing an alpha particle
atomic numbers of the elements - the
the next chapter. of lead are placed between the source and the detector.
Z numbers in the nuclear equations. from the nucleus of a uranium atom turns it into thorium, two places back in
Remember that the Z numbers tell us the periodic table.
As we said earlier, an unstable atom, or strictly speaking its nucleus, w ill decay the number of protons in the nucleus of
I
an element. Some periodic tables show
by emitting radiation. If the decay process involves the nucleus ejecting either
the atomic mass too but as elements
Ac Th Pa u Np
an alpha or a beta particle, the atomic number will c hange. This means that Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranun Neptunium J
have a number of different isotopes the 89 90 91 92 93 (
alpha or beta decay causes the original element to transform into a different mass numbers will be an average for
element. the different isotopes. .A Figure 22.9 A part of the periodic table of elements
SETA (P ·) DECAY Here is an example of beta minus decay:

The general form of the beta plus decay equation is:
1
:c -+ 1j N + J e + energy ~X -+ z-~Y + .~e + energy
carbon-14 atom -+ nitrogen-14 atom + beta particle,
antineutrino)
p- + energy (also an f
beta plus particle, f3'
In p• decay, element Xis transformed into element Y by the emission of a beta plus
The radioactive isotope of carbon, carbon-14, decays to form the stable isotope
particle. Element Y is the element in the periodic table that comes before element X.
of the gas nitrogen, by emitting a beta particle. Remember that the beta minus
The beta plus particle, a positron, has practically no mass so the mass number, A, is
particle is formed when a neutron splits to form a proton and an electron. the same in X and Y. As this beta particle has a charge of + 1, the atomic number of
Figure 22.10 shows the standard atomic notation for a beta particle (p-). the new element is decreased to Z - 1.
The electron has very little mass,
so the mass number, A, is zero. ~
oe /
The symbol for
an electron is an e. Piiiiii+
An isotope of caesium '~~Cs decays by emitting an electron (13-) and forms
-1 an atom of barium (Ba). Write a balanced nuclear equation for this decay.
/ ' ~ Cs -+ i Ba + -?e + energy
The electron does not have an atomic
number but does carry an equal and An electron has practically no mass so the mass number does not change.
opposite electric charge to a proton so The emission of an electron happens when a neutron becomes a proton
its Z number is - 1.
and an electron, so the atomic num ber increases by one. The barium
& Figure 22.10 A beta minus particle isotope formed is therefore 'UBa and the completed equation is:
The general form of the beta minus decay equation is: ' ~ Cs -+ '~Ba + Je + energy
~X -+ z.~Y + -~e + energy When an element decays by emitting an electron it changes to the element
with the next higher atomic number. You can check this by looking at the
t
beta minus particle, p- periodic table on page 277.
in p- decay, element X is transformed into element Y by the emission of a

beta minus particle. Element Y is the next element in the periodic table after
element X. The beta particle, an electron, has practically no mass so the mass
REMINDER
You will not be asked questions
fhiiiiii-
An isotope of magnesium ~~Mg decays by emitting a positron (13') and
number, A, is the same in X and Y. As the p- particle has a charge of - 1 , the involving positrons in the exam.
atomic number of the new element is increased to Z + 1. Again the mass forms an atom of sodium (Na). Write a balanced nuclear equation for this
decay.
number and the atomic number are conserved through this equation.
~~Mg -+ ~Na+ .Ve
l:\iHiifijfaf~ EXTENSION WORK
A positron has practically no mass so the mass number does not change.
The emission of a positron happens when a proton in the nucleus becomes
You will not be asked about p• decay but the example here is included to show that a neutron and a positron, so the atomic number decreases by one. The
the atomic mass numbers (A) and the atomic numbers (Z) on each side of the decay
sodium isotope formed is therefore n Na and the completed equation is:
equation must balance. Here is an example of beta plus decay:
~~Na ijNe + ..?e + energy ~~Cs-+ nNa + .~e
sodium-22 atom -, neon-22 atom + beta particle, p• + energy (also a neutrino) When an element decays by emitting a positron it changes to the element
The radioactive isotope of sodium (Na), sodium-22, decays to form the stable with the next lower atomic number. You can check this by looking at the
isotope of the gas neon (Ne), by emitting a beta plus particle. Remember that the periodic table on page 277.
beta plus particle is formed when a proton splits to form a neutron and a positron.
Figure 22.11 shows the standard atomic notation for a beta particle (P').
The positron has very little mass,
oe
iiiMMifijfaf~ Here is an example of neutron decay:
+1 ~He -+ ~He + Jn
helium-5 atom -+ helium-4 atom + neutron
/ As a neutron has no electric charge, the total positive charge is unchanged by
number but has the same electric charge the emission of a neutron - the Z number is 2 before and after the decay. The
as a proton so its Z number is + 1. total number of particles (protons and neutrons) in the nucleus of the helium
Figure 22.11 A beta plus particle atom has decreased by 1 because of emission of the neutron.
SETA (P ·) DECAY Here is an example of beta minus decay:

The general form of the beta plus decay equation is:
1
:c -+ 1j N + J e + energy ~X -+ z-~Y + .~e + energy
carbon-14 atom -+ nitrogen-14 atom + beta particle,
antineutrino)
p- + energy (also an f
beta plus particle, f3'
In p• decay, element Xis transformed into element Y by the emission of a beta plus
The radioactive isotope of carbon, carbon-14, decays to form the stable isotope
particle. Element Y is the element in the periodic table that comes before element X.
of the gas nitrogen, by emitting a beta particle. Remember that the beta minus
The beta plus particle, a positron, has practically no mass so the mass number, A, is
particle is formed when a neutron splits to form a proton and an electron. the same in X and Y. As this beta particle has a charge of + 1, the atomic number of
Figure 22.10 shows the standard atomic notation for a beta particle (p-). the new element is decreased to Z - 1.
The electron has very little mass,
oe /
The symbol for
an electron is an e. Piiiiii+
An isotope of caesium '~~Cs decays by emitting an electron (13-) and forms
-1 an atom of barium (Ba). Write a balanced nuclear equation for this decay.
/ ' ~ Cs -+ i Ba + -?e + energy
number but does carry an equal and An electron has practically no mass so the mass number does not change.
opposite electric charge to a proton so The emission of an electron happens when a neutron becomes a proton
its Z number is - 1.
and an electron, so the atomic num ber increases by one. The barium
& Figure 22.10 A beta minus particle isotope formed is therefore 'UBa and the completed equation is:
The general form of the beta minus decay equation is: ' ~ Cs -+ '~Ba + Je + energy
~X -+ z.~Y + -~e + energy When an element decays by emitting an electron it changes to the element
with the next higher atomic number. You can check this by looking at the
t
beta minus particle, p- periodic table on page 277.
in p- decay, element X is transformed into element Y by the emission of a

beta minus particle. Element Y is the next element in the periodic table after
element X. The beta particle, an electron, has practically no mass so the mass
REMINDER
You will not be asked questions
fhiiiiii-
An isotope of magnesium ~~Mg decays by emitting a positron (13') and
number, A, is the same in X and Y. As the p- particle has a charge of - 1 , the involving positrons in the exam.
atomic number of the new element is increased to Z + 1. Again the mass forms an atom of sodium (Na). Write a balanced nuclear equation for this
decay.
number and the atomic number are conserved through this equation.
~~Mg -+ ~Na+ .Ve
l:\iHiifijfaf~ EXTENSION WORK
A positron has practically no mass so the mass number does not change.
The emission of a positron happens when a proton in the nucleus becomes
You will not be asked about p• decay but the example here is included to show that a neutron and a positron, so the atomic number decreases by one. The
the atomic mass numbers (A) and the atomic numbers (Z) on each side of the decay
sodium isotope formed is therefore n Na and the completed equation is:
equation must balance. Here is an example of beta plus decay:
~~Na ijNe + ..?e + energy ~~Cs-+ nNa + .~e
sodium-22 atom -, neon-22 atom + beta particle, p• + energy (also a neutrino) When an element decays by emitting a positron it changes to the element
The radioactive isotope of sodium (Na), sodium-22, decays to form the stable with the next lower atomic number. You can check this by looking at the
isotope of the gas neon (Ne), by emitting a beta plus particle. Remember that the periodic table on page 277.
beta plus particle is formed when a proton splits to form a neutron and a positron.
Figure 22.11 shows the standard atomic notation for a beta particle (P').
The positron has very little mass,
oe
iiiMMifijfaf~ Here is an example of neutron decay:
+1 ~He -+ ~He + Jn
helium-5 atom -+ helium-4 atom + neutron
/ As a neutron has no electric charge, the total positive charge is unchanged by
number but has the same electric charge the emission of a neutron - the Z number is 2 before and after the decay. The
as a proton so its Z number is + 1. total number of particles (protons and neutrons) in the nucleus of the helium
Figure 22.11 A beta plus particle atom has decreased by 1 because of emission of the neutron.
1
PMl!t 8'1M;11;tu11+11Mm~ More questions on the structure of the atom can be found at the end of Unit 7
An isotope of beryllium.'~Be, decays by emitting a neutron. Write a
on page 255.
balanced nuclear equation for this transformation.
Write down what you know:
mD CRITICAL THINKING Copy and complete the table below. Identify the particles and complete the
missing data.
1
l Be ~ ~? + 6n Atomic particle Relative mass of particle Relative charge of particle
The emission of a neutron has no effect on the charge so the atomic
-1
number (Z) is unchanged at 4. Each element has its own atomic number so
the element in this decay is unchanged - it is still an isotope of beryllium. +1
The loss of a neutron from the beryllium nucleus means that the atomic
2000
mass decreases by one. The completed equation is:
1
~Be ~ 1
~ Be + 6n 2 Identify the following atomic particles from their descriptions:
a an uncharged nucleon
GAMMA (V) DECAY b the particle with the least mass
Gamma radiation is high-energy electromagnetic radiation (see page 106).
c; the particle with the same mass as a neutron
After an unstable nucleus has emitted an alpha or beta particle it sometimes
has surplus energy. It emits this energy as gamma radiation. Gamma rays are d the particle with the same amount of charge as an electron
pure energy, so they do not have any mass or charge. When a nucleus emits e a particle that is negatively charged.
a gamma ray there is no change to either the atomic number or the mass
number of the nucleus. 3 Explain the following terms used to describe the structure of an atom:
a atomic number
LOOKING AHEAD b mass number.
----
4 Copy and complete the table below, describing the structures of the
different atoms in terms of numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons.
protons
neutrons
electrons
5 Copy and complete the following sentences:

e An alpha particle consists of four ___. Two of these are ___ and
two are ___ . An alpha particle carries a charge of ___ .
b A beta minus particle is a fast-moving ___ that is emitted from the
nucleus. It is created when a ___ in the nucleus decays to form a
... Figure 22.12 Inside the Large Hadron Collider _ _ and the beta particle.
Understanding the particles that make up all matter in the Universe, how c; A third type of ionising radiation has no mass. It is called ___ radiation.
they interact and the forces involved holding matter together remains This type of radiation is a type of wave with a very ___ wavelength.
a major area of research for physicists. This is an introduction to what d Gamma radiation is part of the ___ spectrum.
has been called the 'particle zoo'. Large particle accelerators, like the
Large Hadron Collider (LHC) on the Swiss/French border, have identified mD PROBLEM SOLVING 6 The following nuclear equation showing beta plus decay:
many new particles. Energy turned into matter! Research has recognised
patterns in these particles and we now have a model that explains
;p --+ ~D + Be
many complex nuclear processes - some of which have increased our a From the following list of particles:
understanding of how the Universe was formed. A electron B neutron C proton D alpha particle
We also understand how matter can be transformed into energy and the i State which is the particle on the left of this balanced equation.
amazing amount of energy that results, revealed by Albert Einstein in his ii State which is the first of the terms on the right of this equation.
famous equation: b The second term on the right of this equation is a positron - the
E=mc2 antiparticle of an electron. Copy and complete the above equation filling
in the empty boxes shown.
1
PMl!t 8'1M;11;tu11+11Mm~ More questions on the structure of the atom can be found at the end of Unit 7
An isotope of beryllium.'~Be, decays by emitting a neutron. Write a
on page 255.
balanced nuclear equation for this transformation.
Write down what you know:
mD CRITICAL THINKING Copy and complete the table below. Identify the particles and complete the
missing data.
1
l Be ~ ~? + 6n Atomic particle Relative mass of particle Relative charge of particle
The emission of a neutron has no effect on the charge so the atomic
-1
number (Z) is unchanged at 4. Each element has its own atomic number so
the element in this decay is unchanged - it is still an isotope of beryllium. +1
The loss of a neutron from the beryllium nucleus means that the atomic
2000
mass decreases by one. The completed equation is:
1
~Be ~ 1
~ Be + 6n 2 Identify the following atomic particles from their descriptions:
a an uncharged nucleon
GAMMA (V) DECAY b the particle with the least mass
Gamma radiation is high-energy electromagnetic radiation (see page 106).
c; the particle with the same mass as a neutron
After an unstable nucleus has emitted an alpha or beta particle it sometimes
has surplus energy. It emits this energy as gamma radiation. Gamma rays are d the particle with the same amount of charge as an electron
pure energy, so they do not have any mass or charge. When a nucleus emits e a particle that is negatively charged.
a gamma ray there is no change to either the atomic number or the mass
number of the nucleus. 3 Explain the following terms used to describe the structure of an atom:
a atomic number
LOOKING AHEAD b mass number.
----
4 Copy and complete the table below, describing the structures of the
different atoms in terms of numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons.
protons
neutrons
electrons
5 Copy and complete the following sentences:

e An alpha particle consists of four ___. Two of these are ___ and
two are ___ . An alpha particle carries a charge of ___ .
b A beta minus particle is a fast-moving ___ that is emitted from the
nucleus. It is created when a ___ in the nucleus decays to form a
... Figure 22.12 Inside the Large Hadron Collider _ _ and the beta particle.
Understanding the particles that make up all matter in the Universe, how c; A third type of ionising radiation has no mass. It is called ___ radiation.
they interact and the forces involved holding matter together remains This type of radiation is a type of wave with a very ___ wavelength.
a major area of research for physicists. This is an introduction to what d Gamma radiation is part of the ___ spectrum.
has been called the 'particle zoo'. Large particle accelerators, like the
Large Hadron Collider (LHC) on the Swiss/French border, have identified mD PROBLEM SOLVING 6 The following nuclear equation showing beta plus decay:
many new particles. Energy turned into matter! Research has recognised
patterns in these particles and we now have a model that explains
;p --+ ~D + Be
many complex nuclear processes - some of which have increased our a From the following list of particles:
understanding of how the Universe was formed. A electron B neutron C proton D alpha particle
We also understand how matter can be transformed into energy and the i State which is the particle on the left of this balanced equation.
amazing amount of energy that results, revealed by Albert Einstein in his ii State which is the first of the terms on the right of this equation.
famous equation: b The second term on the right of this equation is a positron - the
E=mc2 antiparticle of an electron. Copy and complete the above equation filling
in the empty boxes shown.
1
ll!lll!ll!lii,. ANALYSIS, 7 A certain radioactive source emits different types of radiation. The sample
lioilllaiill" REASONING
is tested using a Geiger counter. When a piece of card is placed between
the source and the counter, there is a noticeable drop in the radiation. When
23 RADIATION AND HALF-LIFE
a thin sheet of aluminium is added to the card between the source and the
counter, the count rate is unchanged. A thick block of lead, however, causes
the count to fall to the background level. In this chapter you will learn about ways of detecting rad1at,on, and where some of the rad1at1on around us comes from.
HINT You will also learn why we use a value called hall-hie to describe the act1v1ty of rad1oact1ve isotopes.
What type (or types) of ionising radiation is the source emitting? Explain
Look at the table on page 226.
your answer carefully.
I.ID PROBLEM SOLVING 8 a The nuclear equation below shows the decay of thorium. Copy and LEARNING OBJECTIVES
complete the equation by providing the missing numbers.
• Know that photographic film or a Geiger-Muller • Know the definition of the term half-life and
~ Th -, § Pa+ -~e detector can detect ionising radiation understand that it is different for different radioactive
I.ID CRITICAL THINKING b What type of decay is taking place in this transformation? • Explain the sources of background (ionising} radiation
isotopes
I.ID PROBLEM SOLVING c The nuclear equation below shows the decay of polonium. Copy and
from Earth and space • Use the concept of the half-life to carry out simple
calculations on activity, including graphical methods
complete the equation by providing the missing numbers and letters. • Know that the activity of a radioactive source
2
/j Po _, ~ Pb + :o decreases over time and is measured in becquerels
DD CRITICAL THINKING d What type of decay is taking place in this transformation?

DETECTING IONISING RADIATION
USING PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM Wilhelm Rontgen (Figure 23.1 a} discovered x-rays in 1895. Henri Becquerel
(Figure 23.1 b} believed that uranium emitted x-rays after being exposed to
sunlight. To test this idea he placed some wrapped, unused photographic
plates in a drawer with some samples of uranium ore on top of them. He
found a strong image of the ore on the plates when he developed them. He
later realised that this was due to a new type of ionising radiation. He had
discovered radioactivity.
The unit of radioactivity is named after Becquerel. The becquerel (Bq} is a
measure of how many unstable nuclei are disintegrating (breaking up) per
second - one becquerel means a rate of one disintegration per second. The
becquerel is a very small unit. More practical units are the kBq (an average
of 1000 disintegrations per second} and the MBq (an average of 1 000 000
disintegrations per second}.
Photographic film can still be used to detect radioactivity. Some scientists who
work with radioactive materials wear a piece of photographic film in a badge.
If the film becomes fogged (unclear} it shows that the scientist has been
exposed to a certain amount of radiation. These badges are checked regularly
to ensure that scientists are not exposed to too much ionising radiation.
a b
.& Figure 23.1 a Wilhelm Rontgen (1845-1923), b Henri Becquerel (1852-1908). Nobel prize winners in
1901 and 1903
1
ll!lll!ll!lii,. ANALYSIS, 7 A certain radioactive source emits different types of radiation. The sample
lioilllaiill" REASONING
is tested using a Geiger counter. When a piece of card is placed between
the source and the counter, there is a noticeable drop in the radiation. When
23 RADIATION AND HALF-LIFE
a thin sheet of aluminium is added to the card between the source and the
counter, the count rate is unchanged. A thick block of lead, however, causes
the count to fall to the background level. In this chapter you will learn about ways of detecting rad1at,on, and where some of the rad1at1on around us comes from.
HINT You will also learn why we use a value called hall-hie to describe the act1v1ty of rad1oact1ve isotopes.
What type (or types) of ionising radiation is the source emitting? Explain
Look at the table on page 226.
your answer carefully.
I.ID PROBLEM SOLVING 8 a The nuclear equation below shows the decay of thorium. Copy and LEARNING OBJECTIVES
complete the equation by providing the missing numbers.
• Know that photographic film or a Geiger-Muller • Know the definition of the term half-life and
~ Th -, § Pa+ -~e detector can detect ionising radiation understand that it is different for different radioactive
I.ID CRITICAL THINKING b What type of decay is taking place in this transformation? • Explain the sources of background (ionising} radiation
isotopes
I.ID PROBLEM SOLVING c The nuclear equation below shows the decay of polonium. Copy and
from Earth and space • Use the concept of the half-life to carry out simple
calculations on activity, including graphical methods
complete the equation by providing the missing numbers and letters. • Know that the activity of a radioactive source
2
/j Po _, ~ Pb + :o decreases over time and is measured in becquerels
DD CRITICAL THINKING d What type of decay is taking place in this transformation?

DETECTING IONISING RADIATION
USING PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM Wilhelm Rontgen (Figure 23.1 a} discovered x-rays in 1895. Henri Becquerel
(Figure 23.1 b} believed that uranium emitted x-rays after being exposed to
sunlight. To test this idea he placed some wrapped, unused photographic
plates in a drawer with some samples of uranium ore on top of them. He
found a strong image of the ore on the plates when he developed them. He
later realised that this was due to a new type of ionising radiation. He had
discovered radioactivity.
The unit of radioactivity is named after Becquerel. The becquerel (Bq} is a
measure of how many unstable nuclei are disintegrating (breaking up) per
second - one becquerel means a rate of one disintegration per second. The
becquerel is a very small unit. More practical units are the kBq (an average
of 1000 disintegrations per second} and the MBq (an average of 1 000 000
disintegrations per second}.
Photographic film can still be used to detect radioactivity. Some scientists who
work with radioactive materials wear a piece of photographic film in a badge.
If the film becomes fogged (unclear} it shows that the scientist has been
exposed to a certain amount of radiation. These badges are checked regularly
to ensure that scientists are not exposed to too much ionising radiation.
a b
.& Figure 23.1 a Wilhelm Rontgen (1845-1923), b Henri Becquerel (1852-1908). Nobel prize winners in
1901 and 1903
THE GEIGER-MULLER (GM) TUBE NATURAL BACKGROUND RADIATION

Figure 23.2 shows the basic construction of a Geiger-Muller (GM) tube. It is a Some of the radiation we receive comes from rocks in the Earth's crust (hard
glass tube with an electrically conducting surface on the inside. The tube has FROM THE EARTH outer layer). When the Earth was formed, around 4.5 billion years ago, it
a thin window made of mica (a naturally occurring mineral that can be split into contained many radioactive isotopes. Some decayed very quickly but others
KEY POINT
thin sheets). The tube contains a special mixture of gases at very low pressure. are still producing radiation. Some of the decay products of these long-lived
In the middle of the tube, electrically insulated from the conducting surface, When an atom of a radioactive radioactive materials are also radioactive, so there are radioactive isotopes
there is an electrode. This electrode is connected, via a high-value resistor, to element decays it gives out radiation with much shorter half-lives (see page 237) still present in the Earth's crust.
a high-voltage supply, typically 300-500 V. and changes to an atom of another
element. This may also be radioactive, One form of uranium is a radioactive element that decays very slowly. Two
When ionising radiation enters the tube it causes the low pressure gas inside and decay to form an atom of yet of its decay products are gases. These are the radioactive gases radon and
to form ions. The ions allow a small amount of current to flow from t he another element. The elements formed thoron. Radon-222 is a highly radioactive gas produced by the decay of
electrode to the conducting layer. This is detected by an electronic circuit. as a result of a radioactive element radium-226. Thoren, or radium-220, is an isotope of radium formed by the
experiencing a series of decays are decay of a radioactive isotope of thorium (thorium-232).
glass tube called decay products.
As these decay products are gases, they come out of radioactive rocks. They
300-SOOV are dense gases so they build up in the basements of buildings. Some parts
of the Earth's crust have higher amounts of radioactive material so the amount
of background radiation produced in this way varies from place to place. In
~ - -~ to the detecting circuit
Cornwall in the UK, for example, where the granite rock contains traces of
uranium, the risk of exposure to radiation from radon gas is greater than in
some other parts of the UK.
NAfURAL BACKGROUND RADIATION

Violent nuclear reactions in stars and exploding stars called supernovae
central electrode,
FROM SPACE
conducting coating produce cosmic rays (very energetic particles) that continuously hit the Earth.
called the anode Lower energy cosmic rays are given out by the Sun. Our atmosphere gives
.& Figure 23.2 A Geiger-Muller tube is used to measure the level of radiation. us fairly good protection from cosmic rays but some still reach the Earth's
The GM tube is usually linked up to a counting circuit. This keeps a count of surface.
how many ionising particles (or how much y radiation) have entered the GM
tube. Sometimes GM tubes are connected to rate meters. These measure RADIATION IN LIVING THINGS The atoms that make up our bodies were formed in the violent reactions that
the number of ionising events per second, and so give a measure of the take place in stars that exploded (supernovas) billions of years ago. Some of
radioactivity in becquerels. Rate meters usually have a loudspeaker output so these atoms are radioactive so we carry our own personal source of radiation
the level of radioactivity is indicated by the rate of clicks produced. around with us. Also, as we breathe we take in tiny amounts of the radioactive
isotope of carbon, carbon-14. Because carbon-14 behaves chemically just
BACKGROUND RADIATION like the stable isotope, carbon-12, we continuously renew the amount of the
radioactive carbon in our bodies (see page 245).
Background radiation is low-level ionising radiation that is produced all the
time. This background radiation has a number of sources. Some of these are Carbon-1 4 and other radioactive isotopes are eaten by humans (and animals
natural and some are artificial. which are in turn eaten by humans) because they are present in all living things.
~ - ,- -ground and buildings
14.0% ARTIFICIAL RADIATION We use radioactive materials for many purposes. Generating electricity in
nuclear power stations has been responsible for the leaking of radioactive
material into the environment. The levels are usually small, but there have
been a number of major incidents around the world, especially at Three Mile
Island in the USA in 1979 and at Chernobyl in the Ukraine in 1986. The tsunami
and earthquake that caused major damage and loss of life in Japan in 2011
radon gas also damaged the Fukoshima nuclear power station resulting in the release of
50.0% nuclear power
radioactive materials into the air and the ocean as well as making a large area
0 .3%
of land around the damaged power station unsafe for humans to live there.
Testing nuclear weapons in the atmosphere has also increased the amounts of
radioactive isotopes on the Earth.
food and drink Radioactive tracers are used in industry and medicine. Radioactive materials
11.5% are also used to treat certain forms of cancer. However, the majority of
.& Figure 23.3 Sources of background radiation in the UK. These are the average values - the true background radiation is natural - the amount produced from medical use in
amounts and proportions vary from place to place. industry is very small indeed.
THE GEIGER-MULLER (GM) TUBE NATURAL BACKGROUND RADIATION

Figure 23.2 shows the basic construction of a Geiger-Muller (GM) tube. It is a Some of the radiation we receive comes from rocks in the Earth's crust (hard
glass tube with an electrically conducting surface on the inside. The tube has FROM THE EARTH outer layer). When the Earth was formed, around 4.5 billion years ago, it
a thin window made of mica (a naturally occurring mineral that can be split into contained many radioactive isotopes. Some decayed very quickly but others
KEY POINT
thin sheets). The tube contains a special mixture of gases at very low pressure. are still producing radiation. Some of the decay products of these long-lived
In the middle of the tube, electrically insulated from the conducting surface, When an atom of a radioactive radioactive materials are also radioactive, so there are radioactive isotopes
there is an electrode. This electrode is connected, via a high-value resistor, to element decays it gives out radiation with much shorter half-lives (see page 237) still present in the Earth's crust.
a high-voltage supply, typically 300-500 V. and changes to an atom of another
element. This may also be radioactive, One form of uranium is a radioactive element that decays very slowly. Two
When ionising radiation enters the tube it causes the low pressure gas inside and decay to form an atom of yet of its decay products are gases. These are the radioactive gases radon and
to form ions. The ions allow a small amount of current to flow from t he another element. The elements formed thoron. Radon-222 is a highly radioactive gas produced by the decay of
electrode to the conducting layer. This is detected by an electronic circuit. as a result of a radioactive element radium-226. Thoren, or radium-220, is an isotope of radium formed by the
experiencing a series of decays are decay of a radioactive isotope of thorium (thorium-232).
glass tube called decay products.
As these decay products are gases, they come out of radioactive rocks. They
300-SOOV are dense gases so they build up in the basements of buildings. Some parts
of the Earth's crust have higher amounts of radioactive material so the amount
of background radiation produced in this way varies from place to place. In
~ - -~ to the detecting circuit
Cornwall in the UK, for example, where the granite rock contains traces of
uranium, the risk of exposure to radiation from radon gas is greater than in
some other parts of the UK.
NAfURAL BACKGROUND RADIATION

Violent nuclear reactions in stars and exploding stars called supernovae
central electrode,
FROM SPACE
conducting coating produce cosmic rays (very energetic particles) that continuously hit the Earth.
called the anode Lower energy cosmic rays are given out by the Sun. Our atmosphere gives
.& Figure 23.2 A Geiger-Muller tube is used to measure the level of radiation. us fairly good protection from cosmic rays but some still reach the Earth's
The GM tube is usually linked up to a counting circuit. This keeps a count of surface.
how many ionising particles (or how much y radiation) have entered the GM
tube. Sometimes GM tubes are connected to rate meters. These measure RADIATION IN LIVING THINGS The atoms that make up our bodies were formed in the violent reactions that
the number of ionising events per second, and so give a measure of the take place in stars that exploded (supernovas) billions of years ago. Some of
radioactivity in becquerels. Rate meters usually have a loudspeaker output so these atoms are radioactive so we carry our own personal source of radiation
the level of radioactivity is indicated by the rate of clicks produced. around with us. Also, as we breathe we take in tiny amounts of the radioactive
isotope of carbon, carbon-14. Because carbon-14 behaves chemically just
BACKGROUND RADIATION like the stable isotope, carbon-12, we continuously renew the amount of the
radioactive carbon in our bodies (see page 245).
Background radiation is low-level ionising radiation that is produced all the
time. This background radiation has a number of sources. Some of these are Carbon-1 4 and other radioactive isotopes are eaten by humans (and animals
natural and some are artificial. which are in turn eaten by humans) because they are present in all living things.
~ - ,- -ground and buildings
14.0% ARTIFICIAL RADIATION We use radioactive materials for many purposes. Generating electricity in
nuclear power stations has been responsible for the leaking of radioactive
material into the environment. The levels are usually small, but there have
been a number of major incidents around the world, especially at Three Mile
Island in the USA in 1979 and at Chernobyl in the Ukraine in 1986. The tsunami
and earthquake that caused major damage and loss of life in Japan in 2011
radon gas also damaged the Fukoshima nuclear power station resulting in the release of
50.0% nuclear power
radioactive materials into the air and the ocean as well as making a large area
0 .3%
of land around the damaged power station unsafe for humans to live there.
Testing nuclear weapons in the atmosphere has also increased the amounts of
radioactive isotopes on the Earth.
food and drink Radioactive tracers are used in industry and medicine. Radioactive materials
11.5% are also used to treat certain forms of cancer. However, the majority of
.& Figure 23.3 Sources of background radiation in the UK. These are the average values - the true background radiation is natural - the amount produced from medical use in
amounts and proportions vary from place to place. industry is very small indeed.
1
RADIOACTIVE DECAY
Radioactive decay is a random (unpredictable) process, just like throwing
a coin. If we throw a coin we cannot say with certainty whether it will come
down heads or tails. If we throw a thousand coins we cannot predict which will
land heads and which will land tails. The same is true for radioactive nuclei. It
is impossible to tell which nuclei will disintegrate (break down) at any particular
- 3
Number of cams remaining
1000
519
264
140
time. However, if we threw a thousand coins we would be surprised if the
number that landed as heads was not around 500. We know that a normal coin 4 72
has an equal chance of landing as a head or a tail, so if we got 600 heads we 5 33
would think it was unusual. If the proportion of heads were much greater than
this we would be right to think that the coin was not fair. 6 19
EXTENSION WORK
The coin-throwing experiment is a model of radioactive decay. A good model
• will show the features of the real process. We must remember that models have
limitations, however, and do not perfectly represent the actual process. One
limitation of the experiment is that of scale. In just 1 g of uranium-235 there are
millions of nuclei, and our model uses just 1000 coins. The model would be better
'
if we used, say, 1000000 coins, but would take too long to perform. If we use a
computer model to throw the coins we could deal with more realistic numbers.
head tail
Notice that the graph in Figure 23.5 falls steeply at first and more slowly after
each throw. How quickly the graph falls depends on how many heads occur
on each throw. But as the number of coins decreases, the number of coins
that come up heads also gets smaller. This graph follows a rule: the smaller
the quantity, the more slowly the quantity decreases. The quantity here is the
number of coins still in the experiment. The name for this kind of decrease
A Figure 23.4 Throwing a coin proportional to size is called exponential decay.
If we have a sample of a radioactive material, it will contain millions of atoms.
The process of decay is random, so we don't know when an atom will decay
EXPERIMENTAL DEMONSTRATIOtl but there will be a probability that a certain fraction of them will disintegrate
We could, if we had the time, take 1000 coins and throw them. We could
OF NUCLEAR DECAY in a particular time. This is the same as in the coin toss - there was a 50%
then remove all the coins that came down heads, note the number of coins
probability that the coins would land heads each time we conducted a trial.
remaining and then repeat the process. If we did this for, say, six trials we
Once an unstable nucleus has disintegrated, it is out of the game - it won't
would begin to see the trend. A set of typical results is shown in the following
be around to disintegrate during the next period of time. If we plot a graph of
table and in Figure 23.5.
number of disintegrations per second against time for a radioactive isotope we
1200 would, therefore, expect the rate of decay to fall as time passes because there
are fewer nuclei to decay.
HALF-LIFE
Our coin-tossing model of radioactive decay shows a graph that approaches
1:1 600
·o the horizontal axis more and more slowly as time passes. The model will
u
0 produce a number of throws after which all the coins have been taken out of
400 the game. The number is likely to vary from trial to trial because the model
.1l
E
:,
becomes less and less reliable as the number of coins becomes smaller. With
C:
200
real radioactive decay we use a measure of activity called the half- life. This is
defined as follows.
0 The half-life of a radioactive sample is the average time taken for half the
0 2 3 4 5 6 original mass of the sample to decay. If the amount of radioactive matter has
trial
halved then the activity of the decay halves - this activity is what is measured
A Figure 23.5 Coin-throwing experiment. Each time the coins are thrown about 50% of them land as in finding the half-life of an isotope. The half-life is different for different
'heads' and are removed from the pile. The graph decreases steeply at first but then does so more radioactive isotopes.
and more slowly.
1
RADIOACTIVE DECAY
Radioactive decay is a random (unpredictable) process, just like throwing
a coin. If we throw a coin we cannot say with certainty whether it will come
down heads or tails. If we throw a thousand coins we cannot predict which will
land heads and which will land tails. The same is true for radioactive nuclei. It
is impossible to tell which nuclei will disintegrate (break down) at any particular
- 3
Number of cams remaining
1000
519
264
140
time. However, if we threw a thousand coins we would be surprised if the
number that landed as heads was not around 500. We know that a normal coin 4 72
has an equal chance of landing as a head or a tail, so if we got 600 heads we 5 33
would think it was unusual. If the proportion of heads were much greater than
this we would be right to think that the coin was not fair. 6 19
EXTENSION WORK
The coin-throwing experiment is a model of radioactive decay. A good model
• will show the features of the real process. We must remember that models have
limitations, however, and do not perfectly represent the actual process. One
limitation of the experiment is that of scale. In just 1 g of uranium-235 there are
millions of nuclei, and our model uses just 1000 coins. The model would be better
'
if we used, say, 1000000 coins, but would take too long to perform. If we use a
computer model to throw the coins we could deal with more realistic numbers.
head tail
Notice that the graph in Figure 23.5 falls steeply at first and more slowly after
each throw. How quickly the graph falls depends on how many heads occur
on each throw. But as the number of coins decreases, the number of coins
that come up heads also gets smaller. This graph follows a rule: the smaller
the quantity, the more slowly the quantity decreases. The quantity here is the
number of coins still in the experiment. The name for this kind of decrease
A Figure 23.4 Throwing a coin proportional to size is called exponential decay.
If we have a sample of a radioactive material, it will contain millions of atoms.
The process of decay is random, so we don't know when an atom will decay
EXPERIMENTAL DEMONSTRATIOtl but there will be a probability that a certain fraction of them will disintegrate
We could, if we had the time, take 1000 coins and throw them. We could
OF NUCLEAR DECAY in a particular time. This is the same as in the coin toss - there was a 50%
then remove all the coins that came down heads, note the number of coins
probability that the coins would land heads each time we conducted a trial.
remaining and then repeat the process. If we did this for, say, six trials we
Once an unstable nucleus has disintegrated, it is out of the game - it won't
would begin to see the trend. A set of typical results is shown in the following
be around to disintegrate during the next period of time. If we plot a graph of
table and in Figure 23.5.
number of disintegrations per second against time for a radioactive isotope we
1200 would, therefore, expect the rate of decay to fall as time passes because there
are fewer nuclei to decay.
HALF-LIFE
Our coin-tossing model of radioactive decay shows a graph that approaches
1:1 600
·o the horizontal axis more and more slowly as time passes. The model will
u
0 produce a number of throws after which all the coins have been taken out of
400 the game. The number is likely to vary from trial to trial because the model
.1l
E
:,
becomes less and less reliable as the number of coins becomes smaller. With
C:
200
real radioactive decay we use a measure of activity called the half- life. This is
defined as follows.
0 The half-life of a radioactive sample is the average time taken for half the
0 2 3 4 5 6 original mass of the sample to decay. If the amount of radioactive matter has
trial
halved then the activity of the decay halves - this activity is what is measured
A Figure 23.5 Coin-throwing experiment. Each time the coins are thrown about 50% of them land as in finding the half-life of an isotope. The half-life is different for different
'heads' and are removed from the pile. The graph decreases steeply at first but then does so more radioactive isotopes.
and more slowly.
1
Figure 23.6 shows what this means. After one half-life period, t ,, the amount of As we have already mentioned, different isotopes can have very different half-
-
the original unstable element has halved. After a second period of time, t ,, the lives. Some examples of different half-lives are shown in the table below.
amount has halved again, and so on. '
m Half-life Decay process
uranium-238 4.5 billion years a particle emission
"
~
radium-226 1590 years a particle emission, y ray emission
.~
m radon-222 3.825 days a particle emission
0 2
l:
6 Isotopes with short half-lives are suited to medical use (see page 241). This is
E
"' m
4 because the activity of a source w ill rapidly become very small as the isotope
decays quickly.
Isotopes used for dating samples of organic material need to have very
0
0 ti 2t; 31} long half-lives. This is because the activity will become difficult to measure
time accurately if it drops below a certain level. In Chapter 24, we shall see that
£ Figure 23.6 Graph showing the half-life period for a radioactive isotope
there are suitable isotopes for these different applications.
MEASURING THE HALF-LIFE OF A To measure the half-life of a radioactive material (radioisotope) we must HALF-LIFE CALCULATIONS
RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPE measure the activity of the sample at regular times. This is done using a
Graphs of activity, in becquerels, against time can be used to find the half-life
Geiger- Muller (GM) tube linked to a rate meter. Before taking measurements
of an isotope, and this half-life information can be used to make predictions of
from the sample, we must measure the local background radiation. We must
the activity of the radioisotope at a later time.
subtract the background radiation measurement from measurements taken
from the sample so we know the radiation produced by the sample itself. We
then measure the rate of decay of the sample at regular time intervals. The rate
Piiiiiit
of decay is shown by the count rate on the rate meter. The results should be The activity of a sample of a certain isotope is found to be 200 Bq.
recorded in a table like the one shown below. If the isotope has a half-life of 20 minutes, what will the activity of the
sample be after one hour?
Average background rad1at1on measured over 5 min = x Bq
After 20 minutes the activity will have halved to 100 Bq.
MM/i::ii:EMWM@,M Corrected count rate, C/Bq
After 40 minutes (two half-lives) it will have halved again to 50 Bq. After 60
0 Yo Yo- X minutes it will have halved again, so the activity will be 25 Bq.
Ys Y,- x What is the level of activity of this sample after three hours?
Three hours = 9 x 20 minutes - that is, nine half-life periods. This means
The rate of decay, C, corrected for background radiation, is proportional to the the activity will have halved nine times. The level of activity (and the
amount of radioactive isotope present. If we plot a graph of C against time, t, amount of the radioisotope remaining) will be:
we can measure the half-life from the graph, as shown in Figure 23.7.
-1 x -1 x -1 x -1 x -1 x -1 x -1 x -1 x -1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
or ~ of the original value, and so ~ of the original activity or amount.

2 5 2
CHAPTER QUESTIONS More questions on radioactive decay can be found at the end of Unit 7 on
page 255.
mD CRITICALTHINKING 1 a Explain what is meant by background radiation.
b Explain the difference between natural background radiation and artificial
0 ~ --~-------- background radiation.
0 half-life
c Give three different sources of background radiation. Say whether your
£ Figure 23.7 You can find the half-life by reading from the graph the time taken for the count rate to
halve.
examples are natural or artificial sources.
1
Figure 23.6 shows what this means. After one half-life period, t ,, the amount of As we have already mentioned, different isotopes can have very different half-
-
the original unstable element has halved. After a second period of time, t ,, the lives. Some examples of different half-lives are shown in the table below.
amount has halved again, and so on. '
m Half-life Decay process
uranium-238 4.5 billion years a particle emission
"
~
radium-226 1590 years a particle emission, y ray emission
.~
m radon-222 3.825 days a particle emission
0 2
l:
6 Isotopes with short half-lives are suited to medical use (see page 241). This is
E
"' m
4 because the activity of a source w ill rapidly become very small as the isotope
decays quickly.
Isotopes used for dating samples of organic material need to have very
0
0 ti 2t; 31} long half-lives. This is because the activity will become difficult to measure
time accurately if it drops below a certain level. In Chapter 24, we shall see that
£ Figure 23.6 Graph showing the half-life period for a radioactive isotope
there are suitable isotopes for these different applications.
MEASURING THE HALF-LIFE OF A To measure the half-life of a radioactive material (radioisotope) we must HALF-LIFE CALCULATIONS
RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPE measure the activity of the sample at regular times. This is done using a
Graphs of activity, in becquerels, against time can be used to find the half-life
Geiger- Muller (GM) tube linked to a rate meter. Before taking measurements
of an isotope, and this half-life information can be used to make predictions of
from the sample, we must measure the local background radiation. We must
the activity of the radioisotope at a later time.
subtract the background radiation measurement from measurements taken
from the sample so we know the radiation produced by the sample itself. We
then measure the rate of decay of the sample at regular time intervals. The rate
Piiiiiit
of decay is shown by the count rate on the rate meter. The results should be The activity of a sample of a certain isotope is found to be 200 Bq.
recorded in a table like the one shown below. If the isotope has a half-life of 20 minutes, what will the activity of the
sample be after one hour?
Average background rad1at1on measured over 5 min = x Bq
After 20 minutes the activity will have halved to 100 Bq.
MM/i::ii:EMWM@,M Corrected count rate, C/Bq
After 40 minutes (two half-lives) it will have halved again to 50 Bq. After 60
0 Yo Yo- X minutes it will have halved again, so the activity will be 25 Bq.
Ys Y,- x What is the level of activity of this sample after three hours?
Three hours = 9 x 20 minutes - that is, nine half-life periods. This means
The rate of decay, C, corrected for background radiation, is proportional to the the activity will have halved nine times. The level of activity (and the
amount of radioactive isotope present. If we plot a graph of C against time, t, amount of the radioisotope remaining) will be:
we can measure the half-life from the graph, as shown in Figure 23.7.
-1 x -1 x -1 x -1 x -1 x -1 x -1 x -1 x -1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
or ~ of the original value, and so ~ of the original activity or amount.

2 5 2
CHAPTER QUESTIONS More questions on radioactive decay can be found at the end of Unit 7 on
page 255.
mD CRITICALTHINKING 1 a Explain what is meant by background radiation.
b Explain the difference between natural background radiation and artificial
0 ~ --~-------- background radiation.
0 half-life
c Give three different sources of background radiation. Say whether your
£ Figure 23.7 You can find the half-life by reading from the graph the time taken for the count rate to
halve.
examples are natural or artificial sources.
1
mD CRITICAL THINKING 2 a Explain simply the principle of the Geiger-MOiier tube.

b The Geiger- MOiier tube is often connected to a rate meter. Explain what 24 APPLICATIONS OF RADIOACTIVITY
this instrument measures.
•"·•
~:.; c The rate meter is calibrated in kBq. How is this unit defined?
Rad1oacllv1ty has a wide variety of uses, including medicine, industry and power generation. In this chapter, you will read
3 a Define what is meant by the half-life of a radioactive material. about these uses and also learn about the dangers associated with the use of rad1oact1v1ty.
b Radioactive decay is a random process. Explain what this means.
mD PROBLEM SOLVING 4 The activity of a radioactive sample is measured. The activity, corrected LEARNING OBJECTIVES
for background radiation, is found to be 240 Bq. The activity is measured
again after 1 hour 30 minutes and is now 30 Bq. What is the half-life of the • Describe uses of radioactivity in industry and medicine • that radiation can cause mutations in living
sample? organisms
• Describe the difference between contamination and
irradiation • that radiation can damage cells and tissue
5 In another model of radioactive decay, a student fills a burette with water,
as shown in the diagram, and starts a timer at the instant the tap at the • Be able to describe the dangers of ionising radiations • the problems arising from the disposal of
bottom is opened. She notes the height of the column of water at regular including: radioactive waste and how the associated risks can
intervals. It takes 35 seconds to empty from 50 ml to 25 ml. Assuming that be reduced
the arrangement provides a good model of radioactive decay:
a How long will it take for three quarters of the water in the burette to drain
away?
THE USE OF RADIOACTIVITY IN MEDICINE
b How much water should remain in the burette after H4 minutes?
t-
...---water
+--burette
height of water
stop clock
mD EXECUTIVE FUNCTION 6 A student wants to measure the half-life of a radioactive isotope. He is told
the isotope has a half-life of between 10 and 20 minutes. Illustrating your .& Figure 24.1 This scan shows the kidneys in a patient's body.
answers as appropriate, describe:
a the measurements that he should take USING TRACERS IN DIAGNOSIS Radioactive isotopes are used as tracers to help doctors identify diseased
b how he should use the measurements to arrive at an estimate of the half- organs (like the kidneys or the liver). A radioactive tracer is a chemical
life for the isotope. compound that emits gamma radiation. The tracer is taken orally (swallowed)
by the patient or injected. Its journey around the body can then be traced
(followed) using a gamma ray camera.
Different compounds are chosen for different diagnostic tasks. For example,
the isotope iodine-123 is absorbed by the thyroid gland (a part of the body
found in the neck that controls growth) in the same way as the stable form of
iodine. The isotope decays and emits gamma radiation. A gamma ray camera
can then be used to form a clear image of the thyroid gland.
The half-life of iodine-123 is about 13 hours. A short half-life is important as this
means that the activity of the tracer decreases to a very low level in a few days.
1
mD CRITICAL THINKING 2 a Explain simply the principle of the Geiger-MOiier tube.

b The Geiger- MOiier tube is often connected to a rate meter. Explain what 24 APPLICATIONS OF RADIOACTIVITY
this instrument measures.
•"·•
~:.; c The rate meter is calibrated in kBq. How is this unit defined?
Rad1oacllv1ty has a wide variety of uses, including medicine, industry and power generation. In this chapter, you will read
3 a Define what is meant by the half-life of a radioactive material. about these uses and also learn about the dangers associated with the use of rad1oact1v1ty.
b Radioactive decay is a random process. Explain what this means.
mD PROBLEM SOLVING 4 The activity of a radioactive sample is measured. The activity, corrected LEARNING OBJECTIVES
for background radiation, is found to be 240 Bq. The activity is measured
again after 1 hour 30 minutes and is now 30 Bq. What is the half-life of the • Describe uses of radioactivity in industry and medicine • that radiation can cause mutations in living
sample? organisms
• Describe the difference between contamination and
irradiation • that radiation can damage cells and tissue
5 In another model of radioactive decay, a student fills a burette with water,
as shown in the diagram, and starts a timer at the instant the tap at the • Be able to describe the dangers of ionising radiations • the problems arising from the disposal of
bottom is opened. She notes the height of the column of water at regular including: radioactive waste and how the associated risks can
intervals. It takes 35 seconds to empty from 50 ml to 25 ml. Assuming that be reduced
the arrangement provides a good model of radioactive decay:
a How long will it take for three quarters of the water in the burette to drain
away?
THE USE OF RADIOACTIVITY IN MEDICINE
b How much water should remain in the burette after H4 minutes?
t-
...---water
+--burette
height of water
stop clock
mD EXECUTIVE FUNCTION 6 A student wants to measure the half-life of a radioactive isotope. He is told
the isotope has a half-life of between 10 and 20 minutes. Illustrating your .& Figure 24.1 This scan shows the kidneys in a patient's body.
answers as appropriate, describe:
a the measurements that he should take USING TRACERS IN DIAGNOSIS Radioactive isotopes are used as tracers to help doctors identify diseased
b how he should use the measurements to arrive at an estimate of the half- organs (like the kidneys or the liver). A radioactive tracer is a chemical
life for the isotope. compound that emits gamma radiation. The tracer is taken orally (swallowed)
by the patient or injected. Its journey around the body can then be traced
(followed) using a gamma ray camera.
Different compounds are chosen for different diagnostic tasks. For example,
the isotope iodine-123 is absorbed by the thyroid gland (a part of the body
found in the neck that controls growth) in the same way as the stable form of
iodine. The isotope decays and emits gamma radiation. A gamma ray camera
can then be used to form a clear image of the thyroid gland.
The half-life of iodine-123 is about 13 hours. A short half-life is important as this
means that the activity of the tracer decreases to a very low level in a few days.
1
Other isotopes are used to image specific parts of the body. Technetium-99 KEY POINT Some food products are treated in a similar way to make sure that they are free
is the most widely used isotope in medical imaging. It is used to help identify from any bacteria that will cause the food to rot or will cause food poisoning.
EXTENSION WORK Irradiation will not destroy any poisons
medical problems that affect many parts of the body. Figure 24.1 shows a The irradiation of food is an issue that causes concern amongst the public and
that bacteria may have already
The isotope used in medicine is scan of a patient's kidneys. It shows clearly that one of the kidneys is not is not a widely used procedure at the present time.
produced in the food before it is
what is called a metastable form of working properly. treated. Irradiation such as the deliberate exposure of food products and surgical
technetium-99 called technetium-99m.
Irradiation does not destroy vitamins instruments to controlled amounts of radiation should not be confused with
in the food like other means of killing radioactive contamination. If radioactive waste is accidentally released either
bacteria, such as high-temperature
into the air or the sea it could result in fish, animals or agricultural crops being
treatment.
contaminated with radioactive material.
.t. Figure 24.2 Scanner used to provide 30 images of a patient's body

Imaging techniques enable doctors to produce three-dimensional (30)
computer images of parts of a patient's body. These are of great value in .t. Figure 24.3 Gamma radiation is used to sterilise medical equipment.
d iagnosis. Figure 24.2 shows the kind of equipment used for three-dimensional
imaging.
THE USE OF RADIOACTIVITY IN INDUSTRY
TREATMENT Radiation from isotopes can have various effects on the cells that make up our
GAMMA RADIOGRAPHY A gamma ray camera is like the x-ray cameras used to examine the contents
bodies. Low doses of radiation may have no lasting effect. Higher doses may
cause the cells to stop working properly as the radiation damages the DNA in of your luggage at airports. A source of gamma radiation is placed on one
the cells. This can lead to abnormal growth and cancer. Very high doses will side of the object to be scanned and a gamma camera is placed on the
kill living cells. other. Gamma rays pass through more objects than x-rays. They can be used
to check for faults in casting (making things out of metal) or welding (joining
Cancer can be treated by surgery that involves cutting out cancerous cells. metal objects together). Without the technique of gamma radiography, neither
Another way of treating cancer is to kill the cancer cells inside the body. This problem could be detected unless the welding or casting were cut through.
can be done with chemicals containing radioactive isotopes. Unfortunately, the An additional advantage of gamma radiography over the use of x-rays for
radiation kills healthy cells as well as diseased ones. To reduce the damage this purpose is that gamma sources can be small and do not require a power
to healthy tissue, chemicals are used to target the location of the cancer in source or large equipment.
the body. They may emit either alpha or beta radiation. Both these types of .t. Figure 24.4 A gamma camera image
radiation have a short range in the body, so they will affect only a small volume used to view inside a valve
of tissue close to the target.
The radioisotope iodine-131 is used in the treatment of various diseases of the GAUGING In industrial processes, raw materials and fuel are stored in large tanks called
thyroid gland. It has a half-life of about eight days and decays by beta particle hoppers. Figure 24.5 shows how radioactive isotopes are used to gauge, or
emission. measure, how much material there is in a storage container.
The coal absorbs a large amount of the radiation so the reading on the lower
STERILISATION USING RADIATION Gamma radiation can kill bacteria and viruses. It is therefore used to kill detector will be small. As the upper part of the hopper is empty the upper
these microorganisms on surgical instruments and other medical equipment. detector will have a high reading.
The technique is called irradiation. The items to be sterilised are placed in This method of gauging has several advantages over other methods. There is
secure bags to ensure that they cannot be re-contaminated before use. The no contact with the material being gauged. Also, coal dust might cause false
gamma radiation will pass through the packaging and destroy bacteria without readings with an optical gauging system (one using light beams). Coal dust is
damaging the item. much less dense than coal so the gamma ray system still works properly.
1
Other isotopes are used to image specific parts of the body. Technetium-99 KEY POINT Some food products are treated in a similar way to make sure that they are free
is the most widely used isotope in medical imaging. It is used to help identify from any bacteria that will cause the food to rot or will cause food poisoning.
EXTENSION WORK Irradiation will not destroy any poisons
medical problems that affect many parts of the body. Figure 24.1 shows a The irradiation of food is an issue that causes concern amongst the public and
that bacteria may have already
The isotope used in medicine is scan of a patient's kidneys. It shows clearly that one of the kidneys is not is not a widely used procedure at the present time.
produced in the food before it is
what is called a metastable form of working properly. treated. Irradiation such as the deliberate exposure of food products and surgical
technetium-99 called technetium-99m.
Irradiation does not destroy vitamins instruments to controlled amounts of radiation should not be confused with
in the food like other means of killing radioactive contamination. If radioactive waste is accidentally released either
bacteria, such as high-temperature
into the air or the sea it could result in fish, animals or agricultural crops being
treatment.
contaminated with radioactive material.
.t. Figure 24.2 Scanner used to provide 30 images of a patient's body

Imaging techniques enable doctors to produce three-dimensional (30)
computer images of parts of a patient's body. These are of great value in .t. Figure 24.3 Gamma radiation is used to sterilise medical equipment.
d iagnosis. Figure 24.2 shows the kind of equipment used for three-dimensional
imaging.
THE USE OF RADIOACTIVITY IN INDUSTRY
TREATMENT Radiation from isotopes can have various effects on the cells that make up our
GAMMA RADIOGRAPHY A gamma ray camera is like the x-ray cameras used to examine the contents
bodies. Low doses of radiation may have no lasting effect. Higher doses may
cause the cells to stop working properly as the radiation damages the DNA in of your luggage at airports. A source of gamma radiation is placed on one
the cells. This can lead to abnormal growth and cancer. Very high doses will side of the object to be scanned and a gamma camera is placed on the
kill living cells. other. Gamma rays pass through more objects than x-rays. They can be used
to check for faults in casting (making things out of metal) or welding (joining
Cancer can be treated by surgery that involves cutting out cancerous cells. metal objects together). Without the technique of gamma radiography, neither
Another way of treating cancer is to kill the cancer cells inside the body. This problem could be detected unless the welding or casting were cut through.
can be done with chemicals containing radioactive isotopes. Unfortunately, the An additional advantage of gamma radiography over the use of x-rays for
radiation kills healthy cells as well as diseased ones. To reduce the damage this purpose is that gamma sources can be small and do not require a power
to healthy tissue, chemicals are used to target the location of the cancer in source or large equipment.
the body. They may emit either alpha or beta radiation. Both these types of .t. Figure 24.4 A gamma camera image
radiation have a short range in the body, so they will affect only a small volume used to view inside a valve
of tissue close to the target.
The radioisotope iodine-131 is used in the treatment of various diseases of the GAUGING In industrial processes, raw materials and fuel are stored in large tanks called
thyroid gland. It has a half-life of about eight days and decays by beta particle hoppers. Figure 24.5 shows how radioactive isotopes are used to gauge, or
emission. measure, how much material there is in a storage container.
The coal absorbs a large amount of the radiation so the reading on the lower
STERILISATION USING RADIATION Gamma radiation can kill bacteria and viruses. It is therefore used to kill detector will be small. As the upper part of the hopper is empty the upper
these microorganisms on surgical instruments and other medical equipment. detector will have a high reading.
The technique is called irradiation. The items to be sterilised are placed in This method of gauging has several advantages over other methods. There is
secure bags to ensure that they cannot be re-contaminated before use. The no contact with the material being gauged. Also, coal dust might cause false
gamma radiation will pass through the packaging and destroy bacteria without readings with an optical gauging system (one using light beams). Coal dust is
damaging the item. much less dense than coal so the gamma ray system still works properly.
1
RADIOACTIVE DATING
A variety of different methods involving radioisotopes are used to date minerals

and organic matter. The most widely known method is radiocarbon dating.
This is used to find the age of organic matter - for example, from trees and
animals - that was once living. We shall also look at techniques that are used
to find the age of inorganic material like rocks and minerals.
radiation RADIOCARBON DATING Radiocarbon dating measures the level of an isotope called carbon-14
sources (C-14). This is made in the atmosphere. Cosmic rays from space are
Ii!:...···
11111"'"·-·
continually raining down upon the Earth. These have a lot of energy. When they
hit atoms of gas in the upper layers of the atmosphere, the nuclei of the atoms
break apart. The parts fly off at high speed. If they hit other atoms they can
cause nuclear transformations (changes) to take place. These transformations
turn the elements in the air into different isotopes. One such collision involves
a fast-moving neutron striking an atom of nitrogen. (Nitrogen forms nearly 80%
of our atmosphere.) The nuclear equation for this process is:
1
1N+ in-+ 1
:c+ ~ p
Notice that, as in the other nuclear equations we have seen, the top numbers
- which show the number of nucleons - add up to the same total on each side
of the equation. This is because the mass number is conserved. The bottom
numbers - which show the amount of charge on the particles - are also
conserved.
"' Figure 24.5 The amount of coal in Ule hopper can be measured using gamma radiation.
You have seen the notation for neutrons and protons in Chapter 22.
Another example of gauging uses a similar process to monitor the thickness A reminder of neutron notation is shown in Figure 24.7, and of proton notation
of plastic sheeting and film. The thicker the sheet, the greater the amount in Figure 24.8.
the neutron has a mass the symbol for the
--·~ ./ '"
of radiation it absorbs and the amount passing through gets smaller. By The result of the collision of a neutron with a nitrogen atom is a nuclear
measuring the amount of radiation that passes through the sheeting, its transformation. The nitrogen atom is transformed into an atom of the
thickness can be closely controlled during manufacture. radioactive isotope of carbon, carbon-14.
As we have already mentioned, isotopes of an element have the same
on chemical behaviour. This means that the carbon-14 atoms react with oxygen
TRACING ANO MEASURING THE in our atmosphere to form carbon dioxide, just like the much more common
FLOW OF LIQUIDS ANO GASES Radioisotopes are used to check the flow of liquids in industrial processes.
Very tiny amounts of radiation can easily be detected. Complex piping I
the neutron has no
and stable isotope, carbon-12. The carbon dioxide is then absorbed by plants
in the process of photosynthesis. As a result, a proportion of the carbon
systems, like those used in in power stations, can be monitored for leaks. charge so the notation that makes up any plant will be the radioactive form, carbon- 14. Included in
Radioactive tracers are even used to measure the rate of spread of sewage shows this number as 0 plant material, the radioactive isotope carbon-14 enters the food chain, which
(human waste) (Figure 24.6)! means that animals and humans will also have a proportion of carbon-14
... Figure 24.7 The neutron
in their bodies. These carbon-14 atoms will decay but, in living plants and
"~~··~.1"'
the proton has a mass the symbol for the animals, they are continuously replaced by new ones.
When an organism (living thing) dies, the replacement process stops. As
time passes, the radioactive carbon decays and the proportion of radioactive
carbon in the remains of the plant or animal, compared with the stable carbon
1P isotope, decreases.
The half-life for the decay of carbon-14 is approximately 5600 years. This
I
the proton has + 1 unit
means that every 5600 years the proportion of carbon-14 in dead plant and
animal material will halve. The amount of carbon-14 present in a sample of
of charge so the dead plant or animal material is found by measuring the activity of the sample.
notation shows this This is compared with the amount of carbon-14 that would have been present
number as 1 when the sample was part of a living organism. From this, it is possible to
... Figure 24.6 Radioactive tracers released with the sewage allow its spread to be monitored to
make sure Ule concentration does not reach harmful levels in any area. "' Figure 24.8 The proton estimate when the source of the sample died.
1
RADIOACTIVE DATING
A variety of different methods involving radioisotopes are used to date minerals

and organic matter. The most widely known method is radiocarbon dating.
This is used to find the age of organic matter - for example, from trees and
animals - that was once living. We shall also look at techniques that are used
to find the age of inorganic material like rocks and minerals.
radiation RADIOCARBON DATING Radiocarbon dating measures the level of an isotope called carbon-14
sources (C-14). This is made in the atmosphere. Cosmic rays from space are
Ii!:...···
11111"'"·-·
continually raining down upon the Earth. These have a lot of energy. When they
hit atoms of gas in the upper layers of the atmosphere, the nuclei of the atoms
break apart. The parts fly off at high speed. If they hit other atoms they can
cause nuclear transformations (changes) to take place. These transformations
turn the elements in the air into different isotopes. One such collision involves
a fast-moving neutron striking an atom of nitrogen. (Nitrogen forms nearly 80%
of our atmosphere.) The nuclear equation for this process is:
1
1N+ in-+ 1
:c+ ~ p
Notice that, as in the other nuclear equations we have seen, the top numbers
- which show the number of nucleons - add up to the same total on each side
of the equation. This is because the mass number is conserved. The bottom
numbers - which show the amount of charge on the particles - are also
conserved.
"' Figure 24.5 The amount of coal in Ule hopper can be measured using gamma radiation.
You have seen the notation for neutrons and protons in Chapter 22.
Another example of gauging uses a similar process to monitor the thickness A reminder of neutron notation is shown in Figure 24.7, and of proton notation
of plastic sheeting and film. The thicker the sheet, the greater the amount in Figure 24.8.
the neutron has a mass the symbol for the
--·~ ./ '"
of radiation it absorbs and the amount passing through gets smaller. By The result of the collision of a neutron with a nitrogen atom is a nuclear
measuring the amount of radiation that passes through the sheeting, its transformation. The nitrogen atom is transformed into an atom of the
thickness can be closely controlled during manufacture. radioactive isotope of carbon, carbon-14.
As we have already mentioned, isotopes of an element have the same
on chemical behaviour. This means that the carbon-14 atoms react with oxygen
TRACING ANO MEASURING THE in our atmosphere to form carbon dioxide, just like the much more common
FLOW OF LIQUIDS ANO GASES Radioisotopes are used to check the flow of liquids in industrial processes.
Very tiny amounts of radiation can easily be detected. Complex piping I
the neutron has no
and stable isotope, carbon-12. The carbon dioxide is then absorbed by plants
in the process of photosynthesis. As a result, a proportion of the carbon
systems, like those used in in power stations, can be monitored for leaks. charge so the notation that makes up any plant will be the radioactive form, carbon- 14. Included in
Radioactive tracers are even used to measure the rate of spread of sewage shows this number as 0 plant material, the radioactive isotope carbon-14 enters the food chain, which
(human waste) (Figure 24.6)! means that animals and humans will also have a proportion of carbon-14
... Figure 24.7 The neutron
in their bodies. These carbon-14 atoms will decay but, in living plants and
"~~··~.1"'
the proton has a mass the symbol for the animals, they are continuously replaced by new ones.
When an organism (living thing) dies, the replacement process stops. As
time passes, the radioactive carbon decays and the proportion of radioactive
carbon in the remains of the plant or animal, compared with the stable carbon
1P isotope, decreases.
The half-life for the decay of carbon-14 is approximately 5600 years. This
I
the proton has + 1 unit
means that every 5600 years the proportion of carbon-14 in dead plant and
animal material will halve. The amount of carbon-14 present in a sample of
of charge so the dead plant or animal material is found by measuring the activity of the sample.
notation shows this This is compared with the amount of carbon-14 that would have been present
number as 1 when the sample was part of a living organism. From this, it is possible to
... Figure 24.6 Radioactive tracers released with the sewage allow its spread to be monitored to
make sure Ule concentration does not reach harmful levels in any area. "' Figure 24.8 The proton estimate when the source of the sample died.
PMII+ THE DANGERS TO HEALTH OF IONISING RADIATION

120 g of living wood has a radioactive activity (corrected for background Ionising radiation can damage the molecules that make up the cells of living
radiation) of 24 Bq. A 120 g sample of wood from an historical site is found tissue. Cells suffer this kind of damage all the time for many different reasons.
to have an activity of 6 Bq. If the half-life of carbon-14 is 5600 years, Fortunately, cells can repair or replace themselves given time so, usually, no
estimate the age of the wood from the site. permanent damage results. However, if cells suffer repeated damage because
6 Bq = 24 Bq x txt of ionising radiation, the cell may be killed. Alternatively the cell may start to
behave in an unexpected way because it has been damaged. We call this
Since the activity of the sample has halved twice from that expected in effect cell mutation. Some types of cancer happen because damaged cells
living wood, two half-lives must have passed. start to divide uncontrollably and no longer perform their correct function.
The age of the sample is therefore around 2 x 5600 years = 11 200 years. Different types of ionising radiation present different risks. Alpha particles have
the greatest ionising effect, but they cannot pass through many materials.
There are limitations to the method of radiocarbon dating. It assumes the level This means that an alpha source presents little risk, as alpha particles do not
of cosmic radiation reaching the Earth is constant, which is not necessarily penetrate (pass through) the skin. The problem of alpha radiation is much
accurate. Fortunately, the technique has been adjusted to take the variations greater if the source of alpha particles is taken into the body. Here the radiation
of cosmic ray activity into account. This is done by testing samples of a known will be very close to many different types of cells and they may be damaged
age, like material from the mummies (preserved corpses) of Egyptian Pharaohs if the exposure is prolonged. Alpha emitters can be breathed in or taken in
and from very ancient living trees. through eating food. Radon gas is a decay product of radium and is an alpha
The radiocarbon method is not used to date samples older than 50 000-60 000 emitter. It therefore presents a real risk to health. Smokers greatly increase
years because, after 10 half-lives, the amount of carbon-14 remaining in their exposure to this kind of damage as they draw the radiation source right
samples is too small to measure accurately. into their lungs (cigarette smoke contains radon).
EXTENSION WORK Beta and gamma radiation do provide a serious health risk when outside the
body. Both can penetrate skin and flesh (body) and can cause cell damage
Radiocarbon dating may be used as a context in questions about the half-life of
by ionisation. Gamma radiation, as we have mentioned earlier, is the most
radioactive isotopes. What follows on dating the age of rocks is included for interest only.
penetrating. The damage caused by gamma rays will depend on how much of
DATING THE AGE OF ROCKS their energy is absorbed by ionising atoms along their path. Beta and gamma
Inorganic, non-living matter does not absorb carbon-14, so different techniques emitters that are absorbed by the body present less risk than alpha emitters,
must be used for finding out the age of rocks and minerals. because of their lower ionising power.
When a radioactive substance decays it transforms into a different isotope,
sometimes of the same element, sometimes of a different element. The original In all cases, the longer the period of exposure to radiation the greater the
radioisotope is called the parent nuclide (unstable nucleus) and the product is called risk of serious cell damage. Workers in the nuclear industry wear badges to
the daughter nuclide. Many of the products of decay, the daughter isotopes, are also indicate their level of exposure. Some are pieces of photographic film that
unstable and these too decay in turn. This means that as the parent isotope decays become increasingly 'foggy' (unclear) as the radiation exposure increases.
it breeds a whole family of elements in what is called a decay series. The end of the Another type of badge uses a property called thermoluminescence.
decay series is a stable isotope - one that does not decay further. Thermoluminescence means that the exposed material will give out light
The table shows some radioactive parent isotopes with the stable daughters formed when it is warmed. The radiation releases energy to make heat so the
at the end of their particular decay series. The half-life quoted is the time for half the thermoluminescent badges give out more light when exposed to higher levels
original number of parent nuclei to decay to the stable daughter element. of radiation. Workers have their badges checked regularly and this gives a
measure of their overall exposure to radiation.
Radioactive parent isotope Stable daughter element M lffii§ijMhfifM
potassium-40 argon-40 1.25 billion SAFE HANDLING OF RADIOACTIVE Samples of radioactive isotopes used in schools and colleges are very small.
thorium-232 lead-208 14 billion MATERIALS This is to limit the risk to users, particularly those who use them regularly - the
uranium-235 lead-207 704 billion teachers! Although the risk is small, certain precautions must be followed. The
samples are stored in lead-lined containers to block even the most penetrating
uranium-238 lead-206 4.47 billion
form of radiation, gamma rays. The containers are clearly labelled as a radiation
carbon-14 nitrogen-14 5568 hazard {danger) and must be stored in a locked metal cabinet. The samples are
handled using tongs and are kept as far from the body as possible.
For rocks containing such radioactive isotopes, the proportion of parent to stable
daughter nuclide gives a measure of the age of the rock. Notice that the half-lives of In the nuclear industry and research laboratories, much larger amounts of
most of the radioactive parent isotopes are extremely long, in some cases greater radioactive material are used. These have to be handled with great care. Very
than the lifetime of the Earth. energetic sources will be handled remotely by operators who are protected by
The decay series of potassium-40 ends with argon gas. As potassium-40 decays lead shields, concrete and thick glass viewing panels. As has been mentioned
in igneous rock, the argon produced remains trapped in the rock. Igneous rocks earlier, neutron radiation is absorbed by lighter elements and waste materials,
are formed when molten rock becomes solid. Igneous rocks are non-porous. The
like spent uranium fuel rods from nuclear reactors, are stored under water until
proportion of argon to potassium-40 again gives a measure of the age of the rock.
the neutron radiation levels drop to a safe level.
PMII+ THE DANGERS TO HEALTH OF IONISING RADIATION

120 g of living wood has a radioactive activity (corrected for background Ionising radiation can damage the molecules that make up the cells of living
radiation) of 24 Bq. A 120 g sample of wood from an historical site is found tissue. Cells suffer this kind of damage all the time for many different reasons.
to have an activity of 6 Bq. If the half-life of carbon-14 is 5600 years, Fortunately, cells can repair or replace themselves given time so, usually, no
estimate the age of the wood from the site. permanent damage results. However, if cells suffer repeated damage because
6 Bq = 24 Bq x txt of ionising radiation, the cell may be killed. Alternatively the cell may start to
behave in an unexpected way because it has been damaged. We call this
Since the activity of the sample has halved twice from that expected in effect cell mutation. Some types of cancer happen because damaged cells
living wood, two half-lives must have passed. start to divide uncontrollably and no longer perform their correct function.
The age of the sample is therefore around 2 x 5600 years = 11 200 years. Different types of ionising radiation present different risks. Alpha particles have
the greatest ionising effect, but they cannot pass through many materials.
There are limitations to the method of radiocarbon dating. It assumes the level This means that an alpha source presents little risk, as alpha particles do not
of cosmic radiation reaching the Earth is constant, which is not necessarily penetrate (pass through) the skin. The problem of alpha radiation is much
accurate. Fortunately, the technique has been adjusted to take the variations greater if the source of alpha particles is taken into the body. Here the radiation
of cosmic ray activity into account. This is done by testing samples of a known will be very close to many different types of cells and they may be damaged
age, like material from the mummies (preserved corpses) of Egyptian Pharaohs if the exposure is prolonged. Alpha emitters can be breathed in or taken in
and from very ancient living trees. through eating food. Radon gas is a decay product of radium and is an alpha
The radiocarbon method is not used to date samples older than 50 000-60 000 emitter. It therefore presents a real risk to health. Smokers greatly increase
years because, after 10 half-lives, the amount of carbon-14 remaining in their exposure to this kind of damage as they draw the radiation source right
samples is too small to measure accurately. into their lungs (cigarette smoke contains radon).
EXTENSION WORK Beta and gamma radiation do provide a serious health risk when outside the
body. Both can penetrate skin and flesh (body) and can cause cell damage
Radiocarbon dating may be used as a context in questions about the half-life of
by ionisation. Gamma radiation, as we have mentioned earlier, is the most
radioactive isotopes. What follows on dating the age of rocks is included for interest only.
penetrating. The damage caused by gamma rays will depend on how much of
DATING THE AGE OF ROCKS their energy is absorbed by ionising atoms along their path. Beta and gamma
Inorganic, non-living matter does not absorb carbon-14, so different techniques emitters that are absorbed by the body present less risk than alpha emitters,
must be used for finding out the age of rocks and minerals. because of their lower ionising power.
When a radioactive substance decays it transforms into a different isotope,
sometimes of the same element, sometimes of a different element. The original In all cases, the longer the period of exposure to radiation the greater the
radioisotope is called the parent nuclide (unstable nucleus) and the product is called risk of serious cell damage. Workers in the nuclear industry wear badges to
the daughter nuclide. Many of the products of decay, the daughter isotopes, are also indicate their level of exposure. Some are pieces of photographic film that
unstable and these too decay in turn. This means that as the parent isotope decays become increasingly 'foggy' (unclear) as the radiation exposure increases.
it breeds a whole family of elements in what is called a decay series. The end of the Another type of badge uses a property called thermoluminescence.
decay series is a stable isotope - one that does not decay further. Thermoluminescence means that the exposed material will give out light
The table shows some radioactive parent isotopes with the stable daughters formed when it is warmed. The radiation releases energy to make heat so the
at the end of their particular decay series. The half-life quoted is the time for half the thermoluminescent badges give out more light when exposed to higher levels
original number of parent nuclei to decay to the stable daughter element. of radiation. Workers have their badges checked regularly and this gives a
measure of their overall exposure to radiation.
Radioactive parent isotope Stable daughter element M lffii§ijMhfifM
potassium-40 argon-40 1.25 billion SAFE HANDLING OF RADIOACTIVE Samples of radioactive isotopes used in schools and colleges are very small.
thorium-232 lead-208 14 billion MATERIALS This is to limit the risk to users, particularly those who use them regularly - the
uranium-235 lead-207 704 billion teachers! Although the risk is small, certain precautions must be followed. The
samples are stored in lead-lined containers to block even the most penetrating
uranium-238 lead-206 4.47 billion
form of radiation, gamma rays. The containers are clearly labelled as a radiation
carbon-14 nitrogen-14 5568 hazard {danger) and must be stored in a locked metal cabinet. The samples are
handled using tongs and are kept as far from the body as possible.
For rocks containing such radioactive isotopes, the proportion of parent to stable
daughter nuclide gives a measure of the age of the rock. Notice that the half-lives of In the nuclear industry and research laboratories, much larger amounts of
most of the radioactive parent isotopes are extremely long, in some cases greater radioactive material are used. These have to be handled with great care. Very
than the lifetime of the Earth. energetic sources will be handled remotely by operators who are protected by
The decay series of potassium-40 ends with argon gas. As potassium-40 decays lead shields, concrete and thick glass viewing panels. As has been mentioned
in igneous rock, the argon produced remains trapped in the rock. Igneous rocks earlier, neutron radiation is absorbed by lighter elements and waste materials,
are formed when molten rock becomes solid. Igneous rocks are non-porous. The
like spent uranium fuel rods from nuclear reactors, are stored under water until
proportion of argon to potassium-40 again gives a measure of the age of the rock.
the neutron radiation levels drop to a safe level.
1
m D CRITICAL THINKING
.....
~a·\ 4 a Explain the difference between radioactive contamination and irradiation.
b Give an example of a use of irradiation.
m D CREATIVITY, #1~~ 5 Paper is made in a variety of different 'weights', with different thicknesses.
REASONING
"··" How could ionising radiation be used to check the thickness of paper during
production? You should consider the following:
• the type of radiation to be used
• how it will be used to measure the paper thickness
• what checks should be made to ensure that the measurements are
accurate
• safety procedures.
m D CRITICAL THINKING 6 Radiocarbon dating is used to estimate the age of organic (once-living)
.,~... materials. It uses a radioisotope of carbon, carbon-14 (C-14).

a How is carbon-14 formed ?
4 Figure 24.9 Radioactive samples are 4 Figure 24.10 Industrial sources of

.•.~,••••.......,..
41:•-.
b Why does all living matter contain a proportion of C-14?
stored in lead-lined containers and are

handled with tongs or protected fingers.
radioactivity must be handed with
a lot of care.
.....
• a: c What happens to the proportion of C-14 in an organism once it has died?
d What assumptions are made in the process of radiocarbon dating?
e Why is this method unsuitable for accurately dating material that is more
The major problem with nuclear materials is long-term storage. Some materials than 50 000 years old?
have extremely long half-lives so they remain active for thousands and
sometimes tens of thousands of years. Nuclear waste must be stored in sealed m D PROBLEM SOLVING 7 Most radioactive isotopes of elements have half-lives that are extremely
containers that must be capable of containing the radioactivity for enormously short compared to the age of the Earth. The Earth is about 4.5 billion years
long periods of time. old. Radium has a half-life of only about 1600 years.
11:i
...... a How many half-lives of radium have there been since the Earth formed?
CHAPTER QUESTIONS m D ANALYSIS Student A says all the radium formed when the Earth condensed out of the
More questions on applications of radioactivity can be found at the end of
Unit 7 on page 255. Sun's atmosphere, should have decayed away to an unmeasurably small
amount by now.
m D REASONING The most widely used isotope in medicine is technetium-99m. It has a half-
life of six hours and decays by the emission of low-energy gamma rays and Student B says that it depends on how much there was to start with.
beta particles. Student C says that there is still a significant amount of radium on the Earth.
a Explain why the characteristics of technetium-99m make it suitable for (f.) b Which st udent or students are correct? Give reasons for your answer.
diagnostic use in medicine.
1'!11!'111!11,, CREATIVITY, m D REASONING 8 An isotope that decays by alpha emission is relatively safe when outside the
~ REASONING b Technetium-99m can be chemically attached to a wide variety of body but very dangerous if absorbed by the body, either through breathing
pharmaceutical products so that it can be targeted at particular tissues or eating.
..,
or organs. How can its progress through the body be measured and
monitored? a Explain why this is so.
m D REASONING • 10 11 2 Technetium-99m is produced from molybdenum-99 in a device called .,....

,£1:i b Why is radon-220 a particularly dangerous isotope?
HINT "··' a technetium generator. Which decay process - a, 13 or y - could cause

molybdenum-99 to decay to technetium-99m? Explain your answer.
Look at Chapter 22.
1'!11!'111!11,, CREATIVITY,
~ REASONING 3 A radioactive isotope of iodine is used in both the diagnosis and treatment
of a condition of the thyroid gland. This gland naturally takes up ordinary
iodine as part of its function. If a patient has an overactive thyroid it
concentrates too much iodine in the gland and this has serious effects on
the patient's health.
How might the radioisotope iodine-131 be used to:
a identify an overactive thyroid gland?
b treat the overactive thyroid?
(lodine-131 has a half-life of eight days and is a high-energy beta emitter.)
1
m D CRITICAL THINKING
.....
~a·\ 4 a Explain the difference between radioactive contamination and irradiation.
b Give an example of a use of irradiation.
m D CREATIVITY, #1~~ 5 Paper is made in a variety of different 'weights', with different thicknesses.
REASONING
"··" How could ionising radiation be used to check the thickness of paper during
production? You should consider the following:
• the type of radiation to be used
• how it will be used to measure the paper thickness
• what checks should be made to ensure that the measurements are
accurate
• safety procedures.
m D CRITICAL THINKING 6 Radiocarbon dating is used to estimate the age of organic (once-living)
.,~... materials. It uses a radioisotope of carbon, carbon-14 (C-14).

a How is carbon-14 formed ?
4 Figure 24.9 Radioactive samples are 4 Figure 24.10 Industrial sources of

.•.~,••••.......,..
41:•-.
b Why does all living matter contain a proportion of C-14?
stored in lead-lined containers and are

handled with tongs or protected fingers.
radioactivity must be handed with
a lot of care.
.....
• a: c What happens to the proportion of C-14 in an organism once it has died?
d What assumptions are made in the process of radiocarbon dating?
e Why is this method unsuitable for accurately dating material that is more
The major problem with nuclear materials is long-term storage. Some materials than 50 000 years old?
have extremely long half-lives so they remain active for thousands and
sometimes tens of thousands of years. Nuclear waste must be stored in sealed m D PROBLEM SOLVING 7 Most radioactive isotopes of elements have half-lives that are extremely
containers that must be capable of containing the radioactivity for enormously short compared to the age of the Earth. The Earth is about 4.5 billion years
long periods of time. old. Radium has a half-life of only about 1600 years.
11:i
...... a How many half-lives of radium have there been since the Earth formed?
CHAPTER QUESTIONS m D ANALYSIS Student A says all the radium formed when the Earth condensed out of the
More questions on applications of radioactivity can be found at the end of
Unit 7 on page 255. Sun's atmosphere, should have decayed away to an unmeasurably small
amount by now.
m D REASONING The most widely used isotope in medicine is technetium-99m. It has a half-
life of six hours and decays by the emission of low-energy gamma rays and Student B says that it depends on how much there was to start with.
beta particles. Student C says that there is still a significant amount of radium on the Earth.
a Explain why the characteristics of technetium-99m make it suitable for (f.) b Which st udent or students are correct? Give reasons for your answer.
diagnostic use in medicine.
1'!11!'111!11,, CREATIVITY, m D REASONING 8 An isotope that decays by alpha emission is relatively safe when outside the
~ REASONING b Technetium-99m can be chemically attached to a wide variety of body but very dangerous if absorbed by the body, either through breathing
pharmaceutical products so that it can be targeted at particular tissues or eating.
..,
or organs. How can its progress through the body be measured and
monitored? a Explain why this is so.
m D REASONING • 10 11 2 Technetium-99m is produced from molybdenum-99 in a device called .,....

,£1:i b Why is radon-220 a particularly dangerous isotope?
HINT "··' a technetium generator. Which decay process - a, 13 or y - could cause

molybdenum-99 to decay to technetium-99m? Explain your answer.
Look at Chapter 22.
1'!11!'111!11,, CREATIVITY,
~ REASONING 3 A radioactive isotope of iodine is used in both the diagnosis and treatment
of a condition of the thyroid gland. This gland naturally takes up ordinary
iodine as part of its function. If a patient has an overactive thyroid it
concentrates too much iodine in the gland and this has serious effects on
the patient's health.
How might the radioisotope iodine-131 be used to:
a identify an overactive thyroid gland?
b treat the overactive thyroid?
(lodine-131 has a half-life of eight days and is a high-energy beta emitter.)
1
25 FISSION AND FUSION
Sc1ent1sts have speculated about the nature of lhe atom for thousands of years, but ,t ,s only relalively recently that our
current ideas were developed In this chapter you w,11 read about how our ideas about the structure of the atom have
developed over the centuries and how we use nuclear energy to produce electnc,ty.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
A 'slow' neutron is The resulting nucleus
absorbed by a of uranium-236
• Know that nuclear reactions, including fission, fusion • Understand the role of shielding around a nuclear uranium-235 nucleus. is unstable ...
and radioactive decay, can be a source of energy reactor I
• Understand how a nucleus of U-235 can be split (the 11 Explain the difference between nuclear fusion and
... and splits apart
process of fission) by collision with a neutron, and that nuclear fission forming two lighter
this process releases energy as kinetic energy of the 111 Describe nuclear fusion as the creation of larger
nuclei, three neutrons
and gamma radiation.
fission products nuclei resulting in a loss of mass from smaller nuclei,
• Know that the fission of U-235 produces two radioactive accompanied by a release of energy A Figure 25.1 One example of fission of uranium-235
daughter nuclei and a small number of neutrons
111 Know that fusion is the energy source for stars The resulting nucleus of uranium-236 is unstable and splits apart. The
• Describe how a chain reaction can be set up if the 11 Explain why nuclear fusion does not happen at low fragments of this decay are the two daughter nuclei of barium-144 and
neutrons produced by one fission strike other U-235 temperatures and pressures, due to electrostatic krypton-89. The decay also produces gamma radiation and three more
nuclei repulsion of protons neutrons. The equation for this decay is:
2
• Describe the role played by the control rods and ~ U .... ' ~ Ba+ ~ Kr+ 3 i n + y radiation
moderator in the fission process The fission reaction produces a huge amount of energy. This is because the
mass of the products, the barium and krypton nuclei and the three neutrons,
is slightly less than that of the original uranium-236 nuclei. This lost mass is
converted to energy. Most of the energy is carried away as the kinetic energy
NUCLEAR REACTIONS AS A SOURCE OF ENERGY of the two lighter nuclei. Some is emitted as gamma radiation. The three
neutrons produced by the fission may hit other nuclei of uranium-235, so
Nuclear reactions involve a change in the qualities of atoms. Heavy atoms
causing the process to repeat, as shown in Figure 25.2. If one neutron from
may split into lighter atoms and other pieces in a process called fission. Lighter
each fission causes one nearby uranium-235 to split, then the fission reaction
atoms may be forced to join together to make heavier atoms in a process
will keep going. If more than one neutron from each fission causes fission
called fusion. In either process, the mass of the starting atoms is greater than
in surrounding nuclei, then the reaction gets faster and faster - a bit like an
the mass of the products. This missing mass has been converted into energy.
avalanche.
Within the core of the Earth, radioactive isotopes of elements like uranium,
thorium and potassium provide a large proportion of the heat within the Earth EXTENSION WORK
itself through radioactive decay.
A 'slow' neutron is a low-energy neutron produced by a nuclear decay. Faster
In t he Sun, hydrogen is converted into helium in a fusion reaction providing moving, more energetic neutrons do not cause fission.
us with a continuous supply of energy in the form of heat and other
electromagnetic radiation.
This is called a chain reaction. Each fission results in more nuclei splitting
apart. If the amount of uranium-235 is small, many of the neutrons released
NUCLEAR FISSION do not hit other uranium nuclei and the reaction does not get faster and
faster. For a chain reaction to happen there must be a minimum amount of the
Uranium-235 is used as fuel in a nuclear reactor. It is used because its nuclei uranium-235. This minimum amount is called the critical mass.
can be split by a neutron. The process of splitting an atom is called fission.
In an atomic bomb two pieces of fissile material (isotopes that can be triggered
Uranium-235 is called a fissile material because it goes through the splitting into splitting apart) that are smaller than the critical mass are forced together
process easily. The fission process is shown in Figure 25.1. under high pressure to form a mass greater than the critical mass. The result
In the fission reaction, a slow-moving neutron is absorbed by a nucleus of is a chain reaction with the rapid and uncontrolled release of huge amounts of
uranium-235. energy.
1
25 FISSION AND FUSION
Sc1ent1sts have speculated about the nature of lhe atom for thousands of years, but ,t ,s only relalively recently that our
current ideas were developed In this chapter you w,11 read about how our ideas about the structure of the atom have
developed over the centuries and how we use nuclear energy to produce electnc,ty.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
A 'slow' neutron is The resulting nucleus
absorbed by a of uranium-236
• Know that nuclear reactions, including fission, fusion • Understand the role of shielding around a nuclear uranium-235 nucleus. is unstable ...
and radioactive decay, can be a source of energy reactor I
• Understand how a nucleus of U-235 can be split (the 11 Explain the difference between nuclear fusion and
... and splits apart
process of fission) by collision with a neutron, and that nuclear fission forming two lighter
this process releases energy as kinetic energy of the 111 Describe nuclear fusion as the creation of larger
nuclei, three neutrons
and gamma radiation.
fission products nuclei resulting in a loss of mass from smaller nuclei,
• Know that the fission of U-235 produces two radioactive accompanied by a release of energy A Figure 25.1 One example of fission of uranium-235
daughter nuclei and a small number of neutrons
111 Know that fusion is the energy source for stars The resulting nucleus of uranium-236 is unstable and splits apart. The
• Describe how a chain reaction can be set up if the 11 Explain why nuclear fusion does not happen at low fragments of this decay are the two daughter nuclei of barium-144 and
neutrons produced by one fission strike other U-235 temperatures and pressures, due to electrostatic krypton-89. The decay also produces gamma radiation and three more
nuclei repulsion of protons neutrons. The equation for this decay is:
2
• Describe the role played by the control rods and ~ U .... ' ~ Ba+ ~ Kr+ 3 i n + y radiation
moderator in the fission process The fission reaction produces a huge amount of energy. This is because the
mass of the products, the barium and krypton nuclei and the three neutrons,
is slightly less than that of the original uranium-236 nuclei. This lost mass is
converted to energy. Most of the energy is carried away as the kinetic energy
NUCLEAR REACTIONS AS A SOURCE OF ENERGY of the two lighter nuclei. Some is emitted as gamma radiation. The three
neutrons produced by the fission may hit other nuclei of uranium-235, so
Nuclear reactions involve a change in the qualities of atoms. Heavy atoms
causing the process to repeat, as shown in Figure 25.2. If one neutron from
may split into lighter atoms and other pieces in a process called fission. Lighter
each fission causes one nearby uranium-235 to split, then the fission reaction
atoms may be forced to join together to make heavier atoms in a process
will keep going. If more than one neutron from each fission causes fission
called fusion. In either process, the mass of the starting atoms is greater than
in surrounding nuclei, then the reaction gets faster and faster - a bit like an
the mass of the products. This missing mass has been converted into energy.
avalanche.
Within the core of the Earth, radioactive isotopes of elements like uranium,
thorium and potassium provide a large proportion of the heat within the Earth EXTENSION WORK
itself through radioactive decay.
A 'slow' neutron is a low-energy neutron produced by a nuclear decay. Faster
In t he Sun, hydrogen is converted into helium in a fusion reaction providing moving, more energetic neutrons do not cause fission.
us with a continuous supply of energy in the form of heat and other
electromagnetic radiation.
This is called a chain reaction. Each fission results in more nuclei splitting
apart. If the amount of uranium-235 is small, many of the neutrons released
NUCLEAR FISSION do not hit other uranium nuclei and the reaction does not get faster and
faster. For a chain reaction to happen there must be a minimum amount of the
Uranium-235 is used as fuel in a nuclear reactor. It is used because its nuclei uranium-235. This minimum amount is called the critical mass.
can be split by a neutron. The process of splitting an atom is called fission.
In an atomic bomb two pieces of fissile material (isotopes that can be triggered
Uranium-235 is called a fissile material because it goes through the splitting into splitting apart) that are smaller than the critical mass are forced together
process easily. The fission process is shown in Figure 25.1. under high pressure to form a mass greater than the critical mass. The result
In the fission reaction, a slow-moving neutron is absorbed by a nucleus of is a chain reaction with the rapid and uncontrolled release of huge amounts of
uranium-235. energy.
1
the moderator is to absorb some of the kinetic energy of the neutrons to

slow them down. This is because slow neutrons are more easily absorbed by
uranium-235. A neutron slowed in this way can start the fission process.
In the nuclear reactor there are also control rods, made of boron or
cadmium. These absorb the neutrons and take them out of the fission process
completely. When the control rods are fully inside the core, the chain reaction
neutron starts the ......._ c,

fission chain . ....... - •
-... * "'
• ...o.....-··
·-., o,,_
is almost completely stopped and the rate of production of heat is low. As the
control rods are withdrawn, the rate of fission increases producing heat at a
greater rate.
The reactor vessel is made of steel and surrounded by a concrete layer about
5 metres in thickness. This prevents any radiation escaping, even neutrons.
I
The nuclear process in a reactor produces a variety of different types of
radioactive material. Some have relatively short half-lives and decay rapidly.
These soon become safe to handle and do not present problems of long-term
storage. Other materials have extremely long half-lives. These will continue to
produce dangerous levels of ionising radiation for thousands of years. These
waste products present a serious problem for long-term storage. They are
• usually sealed (closed) in containers which are then buried deep underground.
The sites for underground storage have to be carefully selected. The rock must
be water resistant and the geology of the site must be stable - storing waste in
A Figure 25.2 A chain reaction in uranium-235 earthquake zones or areas of volcanic activity would not be sensible.
If this is allowed to take place in a nuclear reactor, the reactor core overheats, Some reactors are designed to produce plutonium. Plutonium is a very
resulting in a nuclear explosion with the sudden release of enormous amounts radioactive artificial element. Small amounts of plutonium represent a serious
of heat energy and radiation. In a nuclear reactor the process is controlled danger to health. Plutonium is another fissile material. If a large enough mass
so that the heat energy is released over a longer period of time. The heat of plutonium is brought together a chain reaction will start. Plutonium can be
produced in the core or heart of the reactor is used to heat water. The steam used in the production of nuclear weapons.
produced then drives turbines (engines) to turn generators. The basic parts of Nuclear power stations do not produce carbon dioxide or acidic gases
a nuclear reactor are shown in Figure 25.3. as fossil fuel power stations do. This means that nuclear power does not
contribute to global warming or acid rain. Only small amounts of uranium
The reactor core contains fuel rods of enriched uranium. Enriched uranium
is uranium-238 with a higher proportion of uranium-235 than is found in are needed for a chain reaction and the supply of nuclear fuel will last many
hundreds of years - unlike some fossil fuels that could run out in the next fifty
natural reserves of uranium. Graphite is used as a moderator. The job of
years.
nuclear reactor vessel surrounded steam heat exchanger steam turbine generator or dynamo
by a shield of thick concrete
.· ······· ···. NUCLEAR FUSION
concrete deuterium
chamber cfJ. neutron
cadmium or-f. .'===c<II

~ --- 0
boron control
rods 6 --~ -- cS,
tritium
helium
uranium rods spent _ 4-_ _,e,..., A Figure 25.4 Here a nucleus of deuterium collides with a nucleus of tritium. They undergo fusion to
(fuel) steam
form the nucleus of helium, a neutron and a large amount of energy.
-
graphite core
(moderator)
water condenser
1
steel vessel o"
pressurised
pump water (as coolant)
A Figure 25.3 A nuclear reactor controls a chain reaction so that heat energy is released slowly. A Figure 25.5 The mass of the products of fusion is smaller than the two hydrogen nuclei.
1
the moderator is to absorb some of the kinetic energy of the neutrons to

slow them down. This is because slow neutrons are more easily absorbed by
uranium-235. A neutron slowed in this way can start the fission process.
In the nuclear reactor there are also control rods, made of boron or
cadmium. These absorb the neutrons and take them out of the fission process
completely. When the control rods are fully inside the core, the chain reaction
neutron starts the ......._ c,

fission chain . ....... - •
-... * "'
• ...o.....-··
·-., o,,_
is almost completely stopped and the rate of production of heat is low. As the
control rods are withdrawn, the rate of fission increases producing heat at a
greater rate.
The reactor vessel is made of steel and surrounded by a concrete layer about
5 metres in thickness. This prevents any radiation escaping, even neutrons.
I
The nuclear process in a reactor produces a variety of different types of
radioactive material. Some have relatively short half-lives and decay rapidly.
These soon become safe to handle and do not present problems of long-term
storage. Other materials have extremely long half-lives. These will continue to
produce dangerous levels of ionising radiation for thousands of years. These
waste products present a serious problem for long-term storage. They are
• usually sealed (closed) in containers which are then buried deep underground.
The sites for underground storage have to be carefully selected. The rock must
be water resistant and the geology of the site must be stable - storing waste in
A Figure 25.2 A chain reaction in uranium-235 earthquake zones or areas of volcanic activity would not be sensible.
If this is allowed to take place in a nuclear reactor, the reactor core overheats, Some reactors are designed to produce plutonium. Plutonium is a very
resulting in a nuclear explosion with the sudden release of enormous amounts radioactive artificial element. Small amounts of plutonium represent a serious
of heat energy and radiation. In a nuclear reactor the process is controlled danger to health. Plutonium is another fissile material. If a large enough mass
so that the heat energy is released over a longer period of time. The heat of plutonium is brought together a chain reaction will start. Plutonium can be
produced in the core or heart of the reactor is used to heat water. The steam used in the production of nuclear weapons.
produced then drives turbines (engines) to turn generators. The basic parts of Nuclear power stations do not produce carbon dioxide or acidic gases
a nuclear reactor are shown in Figure 25.3. as fossil fuel power stations do. This means that nuclear power does not
contribute to global warming or acid rain. Only small amounts of uranium
The reactor core contains fuel rods of enriched uranium. Enriched uranium
is uranium-238 with a higher proportion of uranium-235 than is found in are needed for a chain reaction and the supply of nuclear fuel will last many
hundreds of years - unlike some fossil fuels that could run out in the next fifty
natural reserves of uranium. Graphite is used as a moderator. The job of
years.
nuclear reactor vessel surrounded steam heat exchanger steam turbine generator or dynamo
by a shield of thick concrete
.· ······· ···. NUCLEAR FUSION
concrete deuterium
chamber cfJ. neutron
cadmium or-f. .'===c<II

~ --- 0
boron control
rods 6 --~ -- cS,
tritium
helium
uranium rods spent _ 4-_ _,e,..., A Figure 25.4 Here a nucleus of deuterium collides with a nucleus of tritium. They undergo fusion to
(fuel) steam
form the nucleus of helium, a neutron and a large amount of energy.
-
graphite core
(moderator)
water condenser
1
steel vessel o"
pressurised
pump water (as coolant)
A Figure 25.3 A nuclear reactor controls a chain reaction so that heat energy is released slowly. A Figure 25.5 The mass of the products of fusion is smaller than the two hydrogen nuclei.
Figure 25.4 shows a fusion process that is being used in projects to develop
nuclear fusion reactors. Two isotopes of hydrogen, deuterium {H-2) and UNIT QUESTIONS
tritium {H-3), collide at very high speed. The result is the formation of a helium
•••, D
nucleus, a neutron and a large amount of energy. The fusion process is the
IP.IIJllll!li,, PROBLEM SOLVING
lliiMiiiiil"" • :... a Which of the following particles has the smallest mass?
energy source of our Sun and all stars.
This process uses materials that are more readily available than the uranium A alpha
used in a conventional fission reactor and has the advantage of producing
B neutron
no radioacti ve waste. The problem is creating the very high temperatures
needed to make the deuterium and tritium nuclei collide with enough energy C proton
to overcome the repulsive {pushing away) force between the positive electric
charge in the nuclei of each isotope. The high temperature (100 million °C) D electron
liquid must be contained within a very strong magnetic field or 'magnetic (1)
bottle'. In order to increase the chance of fusion between the light nuclei in the
CRITICAL THINKING b When a radioactive isotope emits an alpha particle its
hot liquid, the pressure within the liquid must be very high.
A atomic mass decreases and its atomic number decreases
CHAPTER QUESTIONS B atomic mass increases and its atomic number decreases
More questions on the structure of the atom can be found at the end of Unit 7
on page 255. C atomic mass decreases and its atomic number increases
mD CRITICAL THINKING a Uranium-235 {U-235) is a fissile material. What does this mean? D atomic mass is unchanged and its atomic number decreases
b If there is a large enough mass of U-235, it may cause a chain reaction. (1)
(This is called the critical mass for the isotope.)
c The emission of which of the following particles from a radioisotope causes
~..:.>. Describe how a chain reaction may take place when a U-235 nucleus
splits apart.
it to change into the next element in the periodic table?
•10111, A positron
ii A chain reaction is unlikely to take place if there is only a small amount
"··' of U-235. Explain why this is so.
2 List two advantages and two disadvantages of nuclear fission as a way of
B electron
C neutron
producing energy.
mD D alpha
...,
REASONING 3 In a nuclear fission reactor, fuel rods made up of a fissile material, like
U-235, are lowered into tubes in a large block of graphite. In between the
(1)
fuel rods are control rods made of boron which may be raised out of the PROBLEM SOLVING 9 . d A radioactive isotope has an activity of 1000 Bq; after 5 hours its activity
reactor or lowered into it. The reactor container {vessel) is surrounded by
steel and a very thick layer of concrete. "··" has fallen to 125 Bq. The half-life of this isotope is
a Explain the purpose of the graphite around the fuel rods. A 1 hour
b Describe what effect the action of raising the control rods out of the B 75 minutes
reactor core has on the behaviour of the reactor. C 125 minutes
c Explain how the workers in a nuclear power station are protected from
the dangerous types of radiation produced by this nuclear reactor. D 2.5 hours
mD CRITICAL THINKING 4 Describe the differences between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.
(1)
mD CRITICAL THINKING e Which of the following particles that may be emitted in radioactive decay is
5 Explain why creating energy in a nuclear reactor by fusion is so much more not ionising?
d ifficult than creating power by nuclear fission. A alpha
B beta minus
C neutron
D beta plus
(1)
(Total for Question 1 =5 marks)
Figure 25.4 shows a fusion process that is being used in projects to develop
nuclear fusion reactors. Two isotopes of hydrogen, deuterium {H-2) and UNIT QUESTIONS
tritium {H-3), collide at very high speed. The result is the formation of a helium
•••, D
nucleus, a neutron and a large amount of energy. The fusion process is the
IP.IIJllll!li,, PROBLEM SOLVING
lliiMiiiiil"" • :... a Which of the following particles has the smallest mass?
energy source of our Sun and all stars.
This process uses materials that are more readily available than the uranium A alpha
used in a conventional fission reactor and has the advantage of producing
B neutron
no radioacti ve waste. The problem is creating the very high temperatures
needed to make the deuterium and tritium nuclei collide with enough energy C proton
to overcome the repulsive {pushing away) force between the positive electric
charge in the nuclei of each isotope. The high temperature (100 million °C) D electron
liquid must be contained within a very strong magnetic field or 'magnetic (1)
bottle'. In order to increase the chance of fusion between the light nuclei in the
CRITICAL THINKING b When a radioactive isotope emits an alpha particle its
hot liquid, the pressure within the liquid must be very high.
A atomic mass decreases and its atomic number decreases
CHAPTER QUESTIONS B atomic mass increases and its atomic number decreases
More questions on the structure of the atom can be found at the end of Unit 7
on page 255. C atomic mass decreases and its atomic number increases
mD CRITICAL THINKING a Uranium-235 {U-235) is a fissile material. What does this mean? D atomic mass is unchanged and its atomic number decreases
b If there is a large enough mass of U-235, it may cause a chain reaction. (1)
(This is called the critical mass for the isotope.)
c The emission of which of the following particles from a radioisotope causes
~..:.>. Describe how a chain reaction may take place when a U-235 nucleus
splits apart.
it to change into the next element in the periodic table?
•10111, A positron
ii A chain reaction is unlikely to take place if there is only a small amount
"··' of U-235. Explain why this is so.
2 List two advantages and two disadvantages of nuclear fission as a way of
B electron
C neutron
producing energy.
mD D alpha
...,
REASONING 3 In a nuclear fission reactor, fuel rods made up of a fissile material, like
U-235, are lowered into tubes in a large block of graphite. In between the
(1)
fuel rods are control rods made of boron which may be raised out of the PROBLEM SOLVING 9 . d A radioactive isotope has an activity of 1000 Bq; after 5 hours its activity
reactor or lowered into it. The reactor container {vessel) is surrounded by
steel and a very thick layer of concrete. "··" has fallen to 125 Bq. The half-life of this isotope is
a Explain the purpose of the graphite around the fuel rods. A 1 hour
b Describe what effect the action of raising the control rods out of the B 75 minutes
reactor core has on the behaviour of the reactor. C 125 minutes
c Explain how the workers in a nuclear power station are protected from
the dangerous types of radiation produced by this nuclear reactor. D 2.5 hours
mD CRITICAL THINKING 4 Describe the differences between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.
(1)
mD CRITICAL THINKING e Which of the following particles that may be emitted in radioactive decay is
5 Explain why creating energy in a nuclear reactor by fusion is so much more not ionising?
d ifficult than creating power by nuclear fission. A alpha
B beta minus
C neutron
D beta plus
(1)
BID PROBLEM SOLVING In the Sun and other stars the temperature and pressure make hydrogen BID CRITICAL THINKING
..
9
D~
~ a Explain the conditions that are needed to cause nuclear fusion. (31
nuclei fuse together to form heavier nuclei. This process produces a very large
amount of energy, various types of radiation and helium. The steps of this BID REASONING
"··"
1:i
• ••ti
b State two reasons why nuclear fusion reactors may be a better alternative
fusion process are shown in the following nuclear equations. to nuclear fission reactors. (21
Balance these equations by filling in the boxes: (Total for Question 5 =5 marks}
(2) BID CRITICAL THINKING ,~:i

.... D a Explain what t he letters A and Z tell us about the structure (make up) of the
nucleus of any element X.
(2)
(3)
BID PROBLEM SOLVING .,·~~
"··"
~
b Here is a list of the type of radiation that may be emitted (given out) by an
unstable nucleus:
~
(Total for Question 2 =7 m arks) A alpha B beta C gamma D neutron

Here are descriptions of some nuclear particles: Which type affects A but not Z? (11
Particle A has O mass and a charge +1. ii Which type affects Z but not A? (11
Particle B has 1 mass and a charge 0. iii Which type affects both A and Z? (11
Particle C has 1 mass and a charge + 1.
iv Which type affects neither A nor Z? (11
Particle D has o mass and a charge - 1.
Particle E has 4 mass and a charge +2.
(Total for Question 6 =6 marks}
a State which particle is an alpha. (1)

b State which particle is a beta minus. (1)
c State which particle is a positron. (11
d State which particle is a proton. (1)
e State which particle is a neutron. (11
BID CRITICAL TIUNKING

D Two types of nuclear reactor are used to produce energy. Fission reactors are
already in use in nuclear power plants around the world. Fusion reactors are
still at the experimental stage.
a Explain what is meant by:
nuclear fission (4)
ii nuclear fusion (4)
b In a fission reactor the process of generating energy is a chain reaction
using a suitable fissile fuel like uranium-235.
Explain what a chain reaction is, and (4)
ii how it be controlled or shut down completely. (4)
(Total for Question 4 = 16 marks)
BID PROBLEM SOLVING In the Sun and other stars the temperature and pressure make hydrogen BID CRITICAL THINKING
..
9
D~
~ a Explain the conditions that are needed to cause nuclear fusion. (31
nuclei fuse together to form heavier nuclei. This process produces a very large
amount of energy, various types of radiation and helium. The steps of this BID REASONING
"··"
1:i
• ••ti
b State two reasons why nuclear fusion reactors may be a better alternative
fusion process are shown in the following nuclear equations. to nuclear fission reactors. (21
Balance these equations by filling in the boxes: (Total for Question 5 =5 marks}
(2) BID CRITICAL THINKING ,~:i

.... D a Explain what t he letters A and Z tell us about the structure (make up) of the
nucleus of any element X.
(2)
(3)
BID PROBLEM SOLVING .,·~~
"··"
~
b Here is a list of the type of radiation that may be emitted (given out) by an
unstable nucleus:
~
(Total for Question 2 =7 m arks) A alpha B beta C gamma D neutron

Here are descriptions of some nuclear particles: Which type affects A but not Z? (11
Particle A has O mass and a charge +1. ii Which type affects Z but not A? (11
Particle B has 1 mass and a charge 0. iii Which type affects both A and Z? (11
Particle C has 1 mass and a charge + 1.
iv Which type affects neither A nor Z? (11
Particle D has o mass and a charge - 1.
Particle E has 4 mass and a charge +2.
(Total for Question 6 =6 marks}
a State which particle is an alpha. (1)

b State which particle is a beta minus. (1)
c State which particle is a positron. (11
d State which particle is a proton. (1)
e State which particle is a neutron. (11
BID CRITICAL TIUNKING

D Two types of nuclear reactor are used to produce energy. Fission reactors are
already in use in nuclear power plants around the world. Fusion reactors are
still at the experimental stage.
a Explain what is meant by:
nuclear fission (4)
ii nuclear fusion (4)
b In a fission reactor the process of generating energy is a chain reaction
using a suitable fissile fuel like uranium-235.
Explain what a chain reaction is, and (4)
ii how it be controlled or shut down completely. (4)
(Total for Question 4 = 16 marks)

Unit07 Edexcel International Gcse 9 1 Physics P220to257

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1

FISSION AND FUSION 250

22 ATOMS AND RADIOACTIVITY

UNITS ELECTRONS, PROTONS AND NEUTRONS

FISSION AND FUSION 250

22 ATOMS AND RADIOACTIVITY

UNITS ELECTRONS, PROTONS AND NEUTRONS

222 RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES

222 RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES

224 RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES

224 RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES

226 RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES

Eil@H:EIHH:ilHIIHIMt::·rrt:::t'llttl:l't•N iliWIMhEt-. Here is an example of alpha decay:

•• letters W and Y are not the symbols of

226 RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES

Eil@H:EIHH:ilHIIHIMt::·rrt:::t'llttl:l't•N iliWIMhEt-. Here is an example of alpha decay:

•• letters W and Y are not the symbols of

SETA (P ·) DECAY Here is an example of beta minus decay:

in p- decay, element X is transformed into element Y by the emission of a

SETA (P ·) DECAY Here is an example of beta minus decay:

in p- decay, element X is transformed into element Y by the emission of a

230 RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES

5 Copy and complete the following sentences:

230 RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES

5 Copy and complete the following sentences:

232 RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES

DD CRITICAL THINKING d What type of decay is taking place in this transformation?

232 RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES

DD CRITICAL THINKING d What type of decay is taking place in this transformation?

THE GEIGER-MULLER (GM) TUBE NATURAL BACKGROUND RADIATION

NAfURAL BACKGROUND RADIATION

THE GEIGER-MULLER (GM) TUBE NATURAL BACKGROUND RADIATION

NAfURAL BACKGROUND RADIATION

236 RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES

236 RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES

238 RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES

uranium-238 4.5 billion years a particle emission

or ~ of the original value, and so ~ of the original activity or amount.

238 RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES

uranium-238 4.5 billion years a particle emission

or ~ of the original value, and so ~ of the original activity or amount.

240 RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES

mD CRITICAL THINKING 2 a Explain simply the principle of the Geiger-MOiier tube.

240 RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES

mD CRITICAL THINKING 2 a Explain simply the principle of the Geiger-MOiier tube.

242 RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES

.t. Figure 24.2 Scanner used to provide 30 images of a patient's body

242 RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES

.t. Figure 24.2 Scanner used to provide 30 images of a patient's body

244 RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES

A variety of different methods involving radioisotopes are used to date minerals

244 RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES

A variety of different methods involving radioisotopes are used to date minerals

PMII+ THE DANGERS TO HEALTH OF IONISING RADIATION

PMII+ THE DANGERS TO HEALTH OF IONISING RADIATION

248 RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES

.,~... materials. It uses a radioisotope of carbon, carbon-14 (C-14).

4 Figure 24.9 Radioactive samples are 4 Figure 24.10 Industrial sources of

stored in lead-lined containers and are

m D REASONING • 10 11 2 Technetium-99m is produced from molybdenum-99 in a device called .,....