GE Foundation Workplace Skills Program

Module Six
Critical Thinking Skills

Participant Booklet
 Table of Contents

1. Introduction to Module Six – Critical Thinking Skills

2. Critical Thinking Skills Model

3. Critical Thinking Components

4. Case Study and Fishbowl

5. Critical Thinking – Standards and Questions to Ask

6. Critical Thinking Skills

7. Critical Thinking Skills Assessment

8. Characteristics and Qualities of Critical Thinkers

9. Egocentric Thinking – Why We Believe What We Do

10. Critical Thinking – Starting with Yourself

11. Mental Traps That Hurt Critical Thinking

12. Mental Traps Reflection

13. Stages of Critical Thinking Development

14. Introduction to deBono’s Six Thinking Hats

15. deBono’s Six Thinking Hats

16. Six Thinking Hats Discussion – Workload Issues

17. Six Thinking Hats Discussion – Communication Problems

18. Team Problem Solving and Decision Making

19. Problem Solving Stages and Steps

20. Team Problem Solving – Economy Sports Bar

21. Team Problem Solving – Hotel Management

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22. Problem Solving Assessment

23. Introduction to Group Decision-Making

24. Decision-Making and The Brain

25. Guidelines for Group Decision-Making

26. Reverse Weight Prioritization

27. Multi-Voting

28. Problem Solving Circle

29. Now – Next – Future

30. Stepladder Technique

31. Hybrid Technique

32. Beware of Groupthink

33. Continue – Stop – Start

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 Introduction to Module Six – Critical Thinking Skills

All employers want employees to make good decisions and to contribute to solving problems in
the workplace. This means developing critical thinking skills. Critical thinking is complex and
involves a number of sub skills that need to be learned and refined over time. Individuals with
strong critical thinking skills are a very valuable resource to teams and to businesses.

In this module you will explore what critical thinking is and is not. You will discuss the
components, skills, and specific characteristics and qualities that critical thinkers demonstrate.
You will also examine misconceptions and mental traps related to critical thinking. Critical
thinking develops over time, and we will discuss the stages of critical thinking development. In
addition, you will be introduced to deBono’s Six Thinking Hats approach and will have the
opportunity to practice lateral thinking while trying to solve two different workplace problems.

Ultimately, critical thinking skills are applied to solve problems and to make decisions. We will
work through a problem-solving model, and you will learn about and practice the different
steps and strategies within each stage. We will discuss decision making and fascinating new
research on the impact of information overload on our abilities to make good decisions.
Guidelines for making good decisions will be presented as well. You will also learn a number of
decision-making strategies that provide structures for groups to use, when they are being asked
for input, or offering suggestions for solving specific problems.

You will be engaged in self-reflection, problem-solving scenarios, self-assessments, discussions,

and group decision-making activities.

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 Critical Thinking Skills Model
Critical thinking is the art of analyzing and evaluating
thinking with a view to improving it.

Reasoning

Analyzing Evaluating
Critical
Thinking

Problem Decision-
Solving Making

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 Critical Thinking Components

In the workplace you will be expected to engage in critical thinking on a daily basis. Employees
will have to analyze, evaluate, reason, solve problems, and make decisions. While these
abilities are connected, they are also distinct and involve specific behaviors.

Analysis means having the ability to take something apart and examine the essential or
constituent parts, and the relationships between the parts. For example, when you take your
car in for a service check, the mechanic systematically does an analysis to determine the
problem that needs to be fixed. They are masters at taking things apart and putting them back
together.

Evaluating is making an assessment or judgment based on criteria, a set of standards, data, or

information. For example, when you go to the doctor, he or she completes a number of vital
signs tests, looks at data and your records, and arrives at a judgment about the status of your
health.

Reasoning is your ability to form a coherent and logical argument, and to be able to use
reasons to justify your argument. It is the process of using your mind to consider something
carefully and to be able to demonstrate that it is either true or false. The main function of
reasoning is to be able to devise and evaluate arguments intended to persuade others. For
example, lawyers use reasoning in the courtroom to convince a jury that the defendant is either
guilty or innocent.

Problem solving is the ability to understand the root causes of an issue or situation, consider
alternative solutions, and arrive at a decision about which solution is best to address the
problem. For example, a sales team is brought together because sales have dropped 25% in the
last quarter. They need to work through a systematic problem solving process in order to find a
solution.

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Decision-making is the ability to identify and choose a course of action from alternatives, based
on values and preferences. For example, when a young couple is buying their first house, they
usually start with determining the amount of money they have to spend. Then, they need to
consider location, size, and amenities. Typically, they end up having to decide between House A
and House B.

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 Case Study and Fishbowl

The Nova Company

• Nova is a car assembly plant that has been operating in South Carolina for the past five
years. Currently, the company is experiencing many pressures. The company has
invested considerable funds to build the plant, but within the past year Nova is having
trouble finding skilled workers, and production is not moving forward as anticipated.
• Costs are increasing and profits are down at Nova’s South Carolina plant, and this is
creating concerns from the boardroom to the plant floor. Everyone seems to know the
plant is struggling.
• There is a history of conflicts between the union and the company. There have been
threats of strikes over the past two years, but management and the union have
managed to reach a resolution on the issues at the 11th hour.
• The company is restructuring at the management level in New York City and this is
creating uncertainty about the plant’s future.
• Nova is an international company with plants in Canada, the US, and Europe. The new
CEO was told to cut costs, and get profits up, or there will be layoffs and plant closures.
• This pressure has created tensions between the frontline supervisors and the workers.
Frontline supervisors are pushing the workers because they have been directed to work
harder and faster

The general manager of the plant has called together a set of workers to problem solve about
how to increase workplace morale and increase productivity.

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 Critical Thinking – Standards and Questions to Ask
To ensure a team is thinking critically as a group, use the following universally accepted
standards and questions to keep people focused on improving the quality of their reasoning.

Standards Questions

Clarity 1. Can you elaborate on that point?

2. Can you give me an example of what you mean?

Accuracy 1. How can we find out if this is true?

2. How can we check that out?

Precision 1. Can you be more specific or exact?

2. Can you give me more details on that point?

Relevance 1. How does that point relate to this problem?

2. How does this information help us?

Depth 1. Why is this problem difficult or complex?

2. What are some of the complexities of this issue?

Breath 1. Do we need to consider other points of view?

2. Do we need to look at this issue in other ways?

Logic 1. Does this make sense?

2. Does what you say fit with the evidence?

Significance 1. Is this the most important problem to solve?

2. What is the central idea here?

Fairness 1. Are we listening to the viewpoints of others?

2. Do I have a conflict of interest here?

Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2006). Critical thinking concepts and tools. Dillon Beach, CA: The
Foundation for Critical Thinking.

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 Critical Thinking Skills

Critical thinking is the ability to think clearly and rationally. A person who is a good critical
thinker can:

• evaluate information in a systematic way

• understand the logical connections between ideas
• identify inconsistencies in others’ thinking
• effectively solve problems and make informed decisions
• separate what is important and what is irrelevant information
• construct strong evidence-based arguments
• view situations from different perspectives
• ask hard questions to challenge observations and assumptions

Critical thinkers typically engage in self-reflection and independent thinking. They think about
their thinking, and they are often able to think “outside the box.” Critical thinkers closely
examine their beliefs, assumptions, ideas, and arguments in order to identify misconceptions
and gaps in their reasoning. They are able to refine their thought processes over time, and they
are very skilled at synthesizing information.

Many people are under the false impression that if you can hold a lot of facts or knowledge in
your brain, and you are able to recall this information with ease, that you are a good critical
thinker. This simply means you are able to store and retrieve information from your memory
more effectively than others. It is not a guarantee that you will be a good critical thinker.

Critical thinkers are able to interpret what information really means, they are able to analyze
ideas and arguments, they are able to reach accurate conclusions based on evidence, and they
can assess whether people got the facts right. They can eventually sort out what is credible
and true from what is not credible and not true.

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 Critical Thinking Skills Assessment
Critical thinkers are able to:
Low High

1 Evaluate information in a systematic way. 1 2 3 4 5 6

2 Identify inconsistencies in others’ thinking 1 2 3 4 5 6

3 Understand the logical connections between ideas 1 2 3 4 5 6

4 Effectively solve problems and make informed decisions 1 2 3 4 5 6

5 Separate what is important and what is irrelevant information 1 2 3 4 5 6

6 Construct strong evidence-based arguments 1 2 3 4 5 6

7 View situations from different perspectives 1 2 3 4 5 6

8 Ask hard questions to challenge observations and assumptions 1 2 3 4 5 6

9 Interpret what information really means 1 2 3 4 5 6

10 Analyze ideas and arguments 1 2 3 4 5 6

11 Reach conclusions based on evidence 1 2 3 4 5 6

12 Assess whether people got the facts right 1 2 3 4 5 6

13 Identity misconceptions and gaps in their own reasoning 1 2 3 4 5 6

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 Characteristics and Qualities of Critical Thinkers

Employees who bring strong critical thinking to the workplace are invaluable to employers and
teammates. They bring a special kind of intelligence that ensures problems are analyzed and
solved both efficiently and effectively. They are not afraid to make mistakes, and as a matter of
fact, they often learn their most valuable lessons from their mistakes. Critical thinkers are able
to consistently help supervisors and teams anticipate the consequences of action or inaction,
and in the end help the team make good decisions.

Critical thinkers also bring the following seven characteristics to the workplace:

• Creative – They can see early patterns of thinking and behaviors surfacing, and they can
tap into innovative ideas and solutions.

• Curious – They are always interested in learning more about an idea, theory, or issue.
They want to develop explanations to all their questions or for what’s puzzling them,
beyond a surface level.

• Knowledgeable – They willing offer their analysis and conclusions, based on their
expertise. Their knowledge is typically very sound.

• Open-minded – They can listen to everyone’s opinion and then accurately assess the
strengths and weaknesses of their positions. They rarely assume they have the right
answers, and they recognize many shades of grey.

• Insightful – They are able to get to the core of a situation, or to an understanding of the
root causes of problems, without getting paralyzed or distracted by all the details. They
can tap into their intuition, and then use evidence to support their conclusions.

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 • Thought Provoking – They are able to present their ideas or thinking in a very clear and
fluid manner. They are very skilled at dialogue when discussions go back and forth about
ideas, solutions, or problems. They are not afraid to disagree.

• Proactive – They initiate action when faced with a problem, and they use their strong
thinking skills to find possible solutions. They typically don’t sit back and then react.

______________________________________________________________________________

How Others See You

When you are working in a group or a team, how often would others see you demonstrating
these critical thinking qualities?

Creative Rarely Sometimes Often Always

Curious Rarely Sometimes Often Always

Knowledgeable Rarely Sometimes Often Always

Open-minded Rarely Sometimes Often Always

Insightful Rarely Sometimes Often Always

Thought Provoking Rarely Sometimes Often Always

Proactive Rarely Sometimes Often Always

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 Egocentric Thinking
Why We Believe What We Do

One of the complex problems we face, when trying to become critical thinkers, is that we
typically engage in egocentric thinking. This simply means that we do not naturally consider the
rights and needs of others, or consider their point of view, when involved in discussions or
trying to problem solve. Humans often don’t appreciate the fact that we make our own
assumptions based on limited information, we look at situations through our own experiences
or lenses, we often interpret information through our biases, and we often reach conclusions
that somehow meet our own needs and interests. These egocentric ways of thinking constantly
interfere with our attempts to be an objective, critical thinker.

In other words, people often take the position that:

• it’s true because I believe it

• it’s true because we believe it
• it’s true because I want to believe it
• it’s true because I have always believed it
• it’s true because it is in my selfish interest to believe it

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 Critical Thinking: Starting With Yourself

An important quality of a critical thinker is the willingness and ability to look at themselves.
They constantly examine their own thinking. They challenge themselves to think in different
ways, and they try to look at old situations in novel ways.

These reflection exercises can consume your energy because you are uncovering your biases,
misconceptions, false beliefs, and thinking distortions that are obstacles to you becoming a
critical thinker.

Think about a time when you were talking through a problem and you showed a clear bias.

Think about a time you discovered that you believed something that was not true.

Think about a time when you thought you understood something, only to discover you had
a misconception.

Think about a time when you were in a debate or discussion with a friend, or family
member, and you realized your reasoning was off-track.

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 Mental Traps That Hurt Critical Thinking

Mental traps are bad habits in our thinking that we develop over the years. These ways of
thinking block us from making good decisions and often we are not even aware of their
influences over us. Like any habit, we fall into these mental traps automatically. The way to
change these habits is to intentionally bring them to our conscious awareness, acknowledge
that we engage in these behavior patterns, and then work to form new habits.

Some of these mental traps are:

• We continue to work on projects that have lost their meaning or value for us.
• We work harder than necessary to achieve our goals, wasting our energy and resources.
• We remain fixated or stuck on a task when it is clear that we are blocked from achieving
our goals.
• We know our plans have failed, the game is over, we have lost, yet we continue to dwell
on the “what ifs” and continue to replay the events.
• We start working on something too soon and we end up overworking, or working in vain.
• We try to hold on to the old course of action and we resist making the inevitable change.
• We clearly decide to do something, but we procrastinate, or have get difficulty getting
started and getting down to business.
• We try to attend to two things at once, and they both require focus or conscious
attention.
• We are rushing or hurried, acting faster than we should, and we don’t give the task the
time and attention that it needs.
• We spend too much time thinking about topics that shouldn’t even occupy our minds.
• We carelessly say or think something just because it seems to be true.

Kukal, A. (2006). Mental Traps. Toronto, ON: Random House.

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 Mental Traps Reflection

Think about your own life experiences, and identify two examples of times when you have
falleninto one or more of these mental traps.

Mental Trap Example

1.

2.

Talk about ways to avoid these mental traps. What do you need to start doing and stop doing?

Start Doing Stop Doing

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 Stages of Critical Thinking Development

Master Thinker
(Good habits of thought are second nature.)

Advanced Thinker
(We regularly practice our thinking skills.)

Practicing Thinker
(We recognize the need for regular practice.)

Beginning Thinker
(We try to improve our thinking, but without regular practice.)

Challenged Thinker
(We are faced with significant problems in our thinking.)

Unreflective Thinker
(We are unaware of significant problems in our thinking.)

Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2006). Critical thinking concepts and tools. Dillon Beach, CA: The
Foundation for Critical Thinking.
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 Introduction to deBono’s Six Thinking Hats

The purpose of the six thinking hats is to have people engage in a more practical and
cooperative method for developing critical thinking skills. In the past, improving our thinking
has been limited to the “argument method.” Individuals would be expected to create strong
arguments, and then find faults in another person’s thinking when discussing issues, problems,
or situations. The intent was that this argument method would eventually bring people to the
truth.

In the modern workplace, the argument method is limiting because employees, supervisors,
and employers are expected to work together to solve complex problems and to stimulate
innovations. The six thinking hats from Edward deBono offer an alternative to confrontational
thinking. His parallel thinking method is more aligned with the teamwork philosophy promoted
in most 21st century workplaces.

The six thinking hats method is intentioned to engage a team in thinking about an issue or
situation, from a variety of perspectives, to fully explore a problem. The six perspectives
involve individuals and teams in considering information, creativity, emotions, cautions,
benefits, and thinking about thinking.

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 deBono’s Six Thinking Hats

Six Possible Dispositions

Below is a brief explanation of each hat. Please understand that these hats represent thinking
that is much more complex than illustrated below. We encourage you to read one of the books
that deBono has published related to the hats. Our purpose here is to simply illustrate how the
hats can be woven into the problem solving process.

Information
The white hat represents data and information. When the white hat
is in use, you are attending to information that is both present and
missing. This includes sharing ideas, as well as asking for information.

• What information do we have?

• What information do we need?
• What information is missing and where is it?
• What do we know about ____________?

Creativity
The green hat represents creativity. When the green hat is in use, you
offer suggestions, make proposals, and explore alternatives. You
think outside the box, and make suggestions about additions and
modifications, without necessarily using logic to defend your ideas.

• What are some new ideas?

• What are some alternatives to what we are thinking about?

Emotion
The red hat represents emotion, feelings, and intuition. When the red
hat is in use, you freely share your feelings without having to justify
why. It allows for feelings and intuition to have a valid place in
discussions.

• How are people feeling about this?

• What’s your gut feeling telling you?
• What is your best hunch?

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 Caution
The black hat represents caution. This hat stops us and makes us
consider whether an action might be hurtful, impractical, time
consuming, too expensive, or just wrong. When this hat is in use, the
risks, hazards, weaknesses, and roadblocks of an idea are discussed. It
is the most widely used hat and the most useful hat. The caution is to
avoid over using the black hat.

• Where do we need to be cautious?

• What are the dangers?
• Where can things go wrong?
• Where do you see difficulties arising?

Benefits
The yellow hat represents benefits and positive aspects. When the
yellow hat is in use, you make an effort to find the value, benefits,
and good points about an idea or situation. The intent is to be
optimistic and realistic.

• Can we make this work?

• What are the benefits?

Managing the Thinking

The blue hat represents the overall thinking process. When the blue
hat is in use, there is attention to order and sequence. It is used at
the beginning to focus a discussion, or at the end of a discussion to
summarize. It is also useful when things are getting confusing. The
blue hat is focused on thinking about your thinking.

• It seems we are thinking ________________________

• What conclusions can we reach based on these discussions?
• We could summarize the discussion by saying ___________

deBono, E. (1992). Six thinking hats. The McQuaig Group Inc.

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 Six Thinking Hats Discussion – Workload Issues

Creative Communications is a public relations company in a Memphis, TN. There are 100
employees in the company. There is tension in the workplace because many people are
working very hard and others are not pulling their weight. A group of 10 support staff are
coming late and leaving early. They are also socializing extensively during the workday. In
addition, they are also extending the lunch hour and abusing sick days. On the other hand,
some support staff members are very effective and efficient, as well as very current with
technology. There are times when the work is not getting completed in a timely matter.

The public relations field workers are very divided about this issue. A number of them don’t
see it as a big problem, while others are getting increasingly frustrated. Certain individuals have
expressed the concern that addressing this issue will make things worse. Their position is “you
pick your battles” and bringing this up will create more tension in the workplace. Other
individuals feel this should be addressed immediately.

The president of the company has called together a small group to get advice on how to solve
this problem.

GE Foundation Workplace Skills Program – Module 6 22

 Six Thinking Hats Discussion – Communication Problems

The owners of a local electronics plant have decided to sell the business been put up for sale.
The company has been established in the community for the past 25 years and there are 1,500
employees. There is great uncertainty about job loss and when decisions are going to be made.
A number of people will be laid off, others will be transferred to another location, and some
may remain at the plant with the new owners. Everyone is anxious and rumors are starting to
spread. This is affecting productivity and morale.

The HR department has called together a group of workers to solicit ideas about developing a
communication plan, to help inform workers and community members about this change and
transition for employees.

GE Foundation Workplace Skills Program – Module 6 23

 Team Problem Solving and Decision Making

Everyone deals with problems on a daily basis. Some problems are small, while others are
serious and complex. Understanding the stages and steps in problem solving will help you
effectively and efficiently find solutions to obstacles, in the workplace and in life. Some of the
time you have to solve a problem on your own, but more often you will be involved in team
problem solving in the workplace. Teams outperform individuals, as they represent multiple
perspectives related to problems simply generate more possible solutions. There are many
decision-making points embedded in team problem solving, and the team needs to be able to
use a variety of proven group decision-making strategies.

Good problem solvers gather relevant information about a problem, analyze the data or
information, and begin to generate possible solutions. Employees who solve more problems,
small or large, are more valuable to employers. Things will go wrong at work and these
problems need solutions. Problem solvers can figure out where things have broken down and
come to an understanding of the root cause of a problem. This is a very important skill because
finding the real problem is critical to solving the problem. Seeking input from others, and
considering a number of solutions is also important, and good problem solvers typically do this.
They help everyone be more productive and effective in the workplace. Employers value
employees who are problem solvers, because they are able and willing to take on challenges by
thinking critically and creatively.

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 Problem Solving Stages and Steps

Effective problem solving usually involves working through a number of stages and steps.

Stage Four Stage One

Identifying
Acting on
the
Solutions
Problem

Looking
Agreeing
for
on
Possible
Solutions
Solutions

Stage Three Stage Two

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Identifying the Problem

• Identifying the real problem is the most important step in the problem solving process.
Too many times teams are focused on solving the symptoms of problems, rather than
the root causes of the problem.

• It is very important to have the right people in the room; people with the technical
knowledge and experience to help you solve the problem.

• Getting the right facts is also key to identifying the real problem. Teams need to collect
critical information related to the problem, and the team needs to talk to the right
people who can provide relevant facts and insights.

• In the beginning stage visually mapping the problem is an effective way to understand
what is going on. Teams often create these visuals to help people see the varied factors,
and interconnections between factors, that maintain the problem.

• Continue to ask the question: “Why is this happening?” When the team can no longer
answer “why” you are likely discussing the root causes of the problem.

• When the team has identified the root causes of the problem, reframe the problem by
writing it in the form of a question.

• Example:
o The problem was initially labeled – TIME Pressures
o Critical causes identified by the team:
 unequal workload
 unclear expectations
 ineffective use of time
o Problem statement – How do we create a more balanced workload, clarify
workplace expectations, and learn to use time more effectively?

GE Foundation Workplace Skills Program – Module 6 26

Looking for Possible Solutions

• This is the stage where everyone focuses on coming up with ideas and solutions to solve
the problem.

• It is very important to separate creating solutions from evaluating solutions. Teams

often fall into the trap of presenting ideas or solutions, and then immediately evaluating
them. Trying to invent and decide at the same time shuts down the creative process,
and limits the number of solutions that will be generated and evaluated in the end.

• Begin looking for solutions by brainstorming all the possible ideas that need to be
considered, discussed, and evaluated. Brainstorming guidelines:

o Generate as many ideas as possible

o Build on other’s ideas
o No discussing or evaluating ideas
o Wild ideas are accepted
o Record all ideas

• Take a two-minute break and let minds relax. Then, continue the brainstorming session.
It is important for team members to draw on both their rational thinking and intuitive
sense, when suggesting possible solutions.

• When the team believes they have exhausted all the possibilities, read the recorded list
aloud, and then generate additional ideas.

• Ensure all team members understand each of the possible solutions, before beginning
to discuss, debate, and decide on the best ideas.

GE Foundation Workplace Skills Program – Module 6 27

Selecting Solutions

• This is the stage where the team makes judgments and decides what to do.

• It involves weighing all the ideas as possible solutions, and then choosing the best ones.
This generally involves discussing the pros and cons of each solution.

• In order to help teams decide or weight the ideas, it is important to identify criteria that
will define the rules for testing the ideas. Criteria define the limits or boundaries the
team must work within. Developing criteria is basically building a fence around the
decision making, in order to increase the quality of the final decision. This avoids
developing solutions that the company cannot, or will not implement.

• Complete the phrase: The solution must _____________________________

• For example:

o The solution can’t cost more than $10,000 to implement.

o The solution must be able to be implemented within one year.
o The solution must have a proven track record.
o The solution must involve people already employed in the company.

• The team needs to judge each solution against the criteria. In other words, “How well
does each solution meet the criteria?”

• The team needs to come to agreement on the best solution.

• The team should discuss the following questions at this point:

o What are the risks with this solution?

o What are the opportunities with this solution?

GE Foundation Workplace Skills Program – Module 6 28

Acting on Solutions

• The next logical step is to develop an action plan. The first task is for the team to decide
if an action plan is needed. In many cases, designing an action plan is a good idea, to
ensure:

o People understand what steps need to be taken (What)

o Who is responsible for taking the action (Who)
o When each action step needs to be taken (When)

• We know that many good ideas never get implemented, because an action plan was
never developed.

• An important step in the problem-solving and decision-making process is to determine if

approval is needed, before implementing the proposed solution. If the team needs to
get approval before acting, then it is important to provide superiors with the following
information:

o How you arrived at the solution

o The action plan for implementation
o Why you have chosen this solution
o Possible consequences of acting or not acting

• Those responsible for implementing the action plan must have the skills and the
motivation to move the solution into action.

• The team must develop a monitoring and evaluation plan that will track the
implementation of the solution. Check-in early, in the implementation process, to
evaluate the effectiveness of the chosen solution. Make modifications and adjustments
as necessary. This means collecting and analyzing data, or information, to determine
whether or not the solution is actually working.

GE Foundation Workplace Skills Program – Module 6 29

 Team Problem Solving – Economy Sports Bar
Economy Sports Bar is a popular bar that attracts a large number of young college students, on
Wednesday and Saturday nights. Wednesday features a special ladies' night promotion, while
on Saturday there is always a live band, and a dance party on-site. All other nights of the week,
the bar is relatively quiet and rarely generates complaints requiring a police response.

On these two promotional nights, officers are frequently called, by local residents and bar
employees, to handle a variety of problems ranging from noise and traffic complaints, to
assaults, DUI's, and large crowds congregating in the street. In the typical response, police
officers faced extremely hostile, intoxicated crowds of young college-aged males that often
number in the hundreds. The bar had a capacity of 299 people. There are significant safety
issues for all involved.

Students often leave the bar after two am in the morning, and walk through a quiet, family-
oriented neighborhood, on their way back to the college. Many residents have called city
officials, university officials, and the police about the rowdiness, vandalism, noise, and over all
general drunkenness.

The college has called together a group of people (police, bar employees, students, residents,
and local government officials) to come up with solutions to this problem.

GE Foundation Workplace Skills Program – Module 6 30

 Problem Solving Worksheet – Economy Sports Bar

Stage 1 – Identifying the Problem Stage 2 – Looking for Possible Solutions

Stage 3 – Agreeing on Solutions Stage 4 – Acting on Solutions

GE Foundation Workplace Skills Program – Module 6 31

 Team Problem Solving – Hotel Management

At the Oceanside Resort in Maine there is a hotel, restaurant, beach, and horseback riding
facility. The resort is located in a small rural town that does not have a large pool of potential
employees to draw on. Joe was initially hired to organize the beach activities and horseback
riding. Last summer he was reassigned to oversee the hotel services. He has experience
working as a supervisor in other resorts, but has no experience managing the housekeeping
staff in a hotel. Joe is on the resort’s senior management team, and he is a good friend with the
general manager.

The furniture in the hotel rooms is very heavy and difficult to move and makes the work
physically demanding. All of the maids are women, and it is taking longer to clean the rooms.
Customers are complaining about not having access to their rooms when they arrive on site.
Joe is not happy with the pace of the work, and he is being tough and bullying some of the
employees. In addition, all the hotel employees are paid minimum wage, and they have been
told there will be no raises for the next two to three years. Recently, employees are starting to
quit because of the low wages, hard work, and the bullying that they are experiencing.

The owner of Oceanside Resort has heard about these issues, and she has gathered a group of
employees and respected community members to discuss these problems.

GE Foundation Workplace Skills Program – Module 6 32

 Problem Solving Worksheet – Hotel Management

Stage 1 – Identifying the Problem Stage 2 – Looking for Possible Solutions

Stage 3 – Agreeing on Solutions Stage 4 – Acting on Solutions

GE Foundation Workplace Skills Program – Module 6 33

 Problem-Solving Assessment

When your group is struggling with a problem, how do you behave? Reflect on your typical
actions while your group is trying to arrive at a solution to a problem.

1. I take the time to really study or define the problem the group is working on. I try to
make sure it is thoroughly explored until everyone understands what the problem is.

Never 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Always

2. I ask why the problem exists and explore the causes.

Never 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Always

3. I encourage the consideration of multiple solutions.

Never 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Always

4. I make sure that the group discusses the pros and cons of several different alternative
solutions to a problem.

Never 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Always

5. When a group decides upon a solution to adopt and implement, I make certain it is clear
what the decision is, who is responsible for action, and the timeframe.

Never 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Always

6. I push for definite follow-up action to check on the effectiveness of implementation.

Never 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Always

7. I consider if the results of the group’s work are worth the effort.

Never 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Always

GE Foundation Workplace Skills Program – Module 6 34

 Introduction to Group Decision-Making

Decision Making is the act of choosing between two or more courses of action.

We all have to make decisions all the time in both our personal and professional lives. Some
decisions are automatic and actually have become habits that require little thought. For
example, driving a car is generally a routine set of predetermined actions. Other decisions are
more important, and more complex. They can impact other people and have long-term
consequences. Routine decisions do not and should not take a lot of time. Major decisions
however require thoughtful research and reflection, and should not be made in haste.

Good decision makers are thoughtful, follow a systematic process, consult others, and they are
able to prioritize the importance among all the decisions that have to be made in a given day.
They generally have analytical ability, conceptual ability, intuitive judgment, tolerance, open-
mindedness, and a positive self-image.

Having structures and processes for decision-making is important for teams to function
effectively. The more strategies and tools you have in your repertoire, the more valuable you
will be to the team and the company.

Systematic decision-making can be hard work, particularly when you are dealing with
complicated situations. It can be tempting to take shortcuts and to look for an easy solution. In
the long run, good decision-making strategies and habits will pay dividends in both your
personal and professional life. As you work on your decision-making capabilities, you will gain
greater self-confidence in your critical thinking skills.

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 Decision-Making and The Brain

Neuroscientists are currently conducting fascinating research focused on the serious effects of
too much information and too many decisions. Every day we are faced with making hundreds
of decisions, many of which are insignificant or unimportant, however, we are also expected to
make many important decisions that require our undivided attention and mental alertness.
What neuroscientists are discovering is that many people are experiencing the stresses and
strains of information overload. This “information overload” is caused primarily by the fast-
pasted, high technology pressures that constantly surround our personal lives and our
workplaces. The key question is, “How do we cope and even thrive in this high tech, fast-paced
world?”

In his book “The Organized Mind,” neuroscientist Dr. Daniel Levitin presents a compelling case
for why it is even more important to think straight in an age of information overload. To
compound the problem of too many decisions and too much information, the process of
decision-making is naturally difficult for us because it involves uncertainty. We don’t know the
future and what will really happen as we make decisions.

Neuroscientists help us understand that the brain has difficulty separating trivial information
from the important information, and all this thinking to sort out the trivial from the important
taxes our brainpower. Research also suggests that making a series of meaningless decisions can
lead us to poor impulse control, and a lack of judgment about the next decision. Levitin
suggests that it is almost as if our brains are wired to make a certain number of decisions in a
day, and once we reach that number we can’t make any more decisions, or our ability to make
good decisions gets worse.

A central conclusion coming from the research in neuroscience is that our brains do have the
ability to process all the information coming in, but at a cost. And, the cost is that individuals
are feeling more and more overwhelmed, unproductive, unmotivated, and just plain tired as

GE Foundation Workplace Skills Program – Module 6 36

they struggle to make more and more decisions. We have also learned that the brain has
attention and memory limits. The process and capacity of the conscious mind has been
estimated at about 120 bits of information per second. In other words, this is the brain’s speed
limit, or its ability to pay conscience attention so information can get recorded and stored in
our memory. For example, one person talking to us takes 60 bits of information per second,
which means we can barely understand two people talking to us. No wonder we are feeling
overwhelmed with information overload. We also know, humans tend to shut down their
decision-making processes when we feel overwhelmed.

So what does this all mean when we think about the challenges of making decisions? It means
more than ever that individuals must learn how to think straight and approach decision-making
in a very structured and systematic way. It also means people need multiple strategies for
making difficult decisions, and to help them sort out what is trivial and what is important, so we
don’t waste our time and energy. Also, it requires us to shift our decision-making from our
brain to the external world. For example, it is wise to make a list when going to the grocery
store, rather than trying to hold all the information in your memory. These strategies can help
us reach our goal of making the best decisions possible.

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 Guidelines for Group Decision-Making

Include a balance of talents in the group, who have diverse abilities –

Include idealists and practical thinkers, critical and creative thinkers, action-
oriented and reflective team members.
Limit the size of the group. More than six to eight participants is likely to
Limit inhibit the effective exchange of ideas. Group size is usually dependent
on the nature of the issue.
Hold the meeting in a neutral place. The room should be attractive,
Hold comfortable, and without distraction. It should have materials to record
group thinking and decision-making.
Encourage open-mindedness and insist that everyone listen carefully to
Encourage each other. Ask questions to gain understanding, rather than criticizing
other’s ideas.
Clarify any misunderstandings or concerns as soon as possible. If you are
Clarify confused, speak up as you may not be the only one. Check for
understanding by using statements like: “Am I correct in understanding
….?” or “I need something clarified.”
Control people who are dominating. Invite other opinions and promote
Control the sharing of airtime, so everyone gets a chance to share their views and
ideas.
Downplay self-promotion. It is important to remember that reaching the
Downplay best decision is the paramount goal. You want to leverage the expertise of
everyone on the team, and get quality participation.
Be prepared to handle clashes and competition. Point out that no decision
Be Prepared will be made until all the different ideas and suggestions have been
presented. Depending on the nature of the disagreement, another
meeting may need to be scheduled, where more information is provided.
Be suspicious of agreement that comes too quickly. If you rush to a quick
Be Suspicious decision, you may have overlooked factors and have made the wrong
decision, which could have negative consequences.
Keep a record of what the group has accomplished, decisions made, and
Keep a Record what tasks and next steps have been agreed to. Set deadlines to ensure
that there is follow through.
Schedule another meeting when agreement can’t be reached in one
Schedule Another session. Don’t settle for a decision just because time is running out. It is
Meeting best to give think time and reconvene.

GE Foundation Workplace Skills Program – Module 6 38

 Reverse Weight Prioritization

1. Each person selects their top 5 choices.

2. Each person ranks their:

1st choice “5”

2nd choice “4”
3rd choice “3”
4th choice “2”
5th choice “1”

3. Individual choices are summarized on the attached chart (summary sheet).

4. Rows are totaled (across) to determine priorities.

5. Discussion is held on the group choices.

GE Foundation Workplace Skills Program – Module 6 39

 Workplace Scheduling Options

Small Large
Choices Individual Priority
Group Group

1. Early start 6 am – 3 pm

2. Five day work week 8 am – 5 pm

3. Four day week – 10 hour days

4. Early start 7 am – 4 pm

5. Work through lunch 7 am – 3 pm

6. Three days 1st week (12 hrs/days)

Four days 2nd week (11 hrs/days)

7. Two weeks on / two weeks off

8. Shift work – day 8 am – 4 pm and

night 4 pm – 12 pm

9. Early start 5 am – 2 pm

• Complete individual scoring.

• Total small group scores for each choice.

GE Foundation Workplace Skills Program – Module 6 40

 Multi-Voting
Where would you like to travel for a team retreat?

Round Round Round Round

1 2 3 4

New York City

Paris

London

Los Angeles

Seattle

Chicago

Rome

Dublin

Munich

Boston

GE Foundation Workplace Skills Program – Module 6 41

 Problem Solving Circle

• Form groups of four or five.

• One person describes a problem to the group.

• The person on the right serves as recorder.

• Group members ask clarifying questions.

• Each group member offers suggestions in a round-robin fashion.

• The recorder keeps notes, on the suggestions, for the problem presenter.

• Assign 5-8 minutes per problem. For more complex problems you can
extent the time limit.

The next person states a problem … repeat the process

GE Foundation Workplace Skills Program – Module 6 42

 Now – Next – Future

Now-Next-Future is a strategy for making decisions and setting priorities. It is a way to help a
group of people come to an agreement on a three-stage plan of activities or steps.
Consider the following list of tasks. Discuss the tasks and come to an agreement about which
tasks you will do first (Now), second (Next), and third (Future) in a job search. You can only put
three tasks in Now column and three tasks in Next column. The remaining four go in the Future
column.
______________________________________________________________________________

Job Searching

1. Develop a resume

2. Identify a sector you are interested in

3. Organize job shadowing

4. Talk to people in the field or within your area of interest

5. Apply for a student loan

6. Plan a job search strategy

7. Research community college programs

8. Consult with a career counselor

9. Practice interviewing

10. Research about job opportunities in the area

GE Foundation Workplace Skills Program – Module 6 43

 Now – Next – Future

NOW NEXT FUTURE

GE Foundation Workplace Skills Program – Module 6 44

 Stepladder Technique

The Stepladder Technique is a step-by-step approach that manages how members enter the
decision making group. It helps you ensure that all members of a group participate and are
heard. It allows everyone to hear many different viewpoints before reaching a final decision.

The Stepladder Technique has five basic steps. Here's how it works:

Step 1: The supervisor or meeting facilitator sends a task or problem by email to all members in
advance of a decision-making meeting. Individuals independently think about what needs to be
done and come up with a solution to the problem. The supervisor schedules times for different
group members to join the conversation.

Step 2: Two group members (John and Mary) meet and discuss the problem for ten minutes.

Step 3: Susan joins John and Mary and presents her ideas. Next, John and Mary share their
solutions. Then, the three discuss the options together.

Step 4: Martin joins the other three and presents his ideas. Next, John, Mary, and Susan share
their solutions. Then, the four discuss of all the ideas together. Continue the process until all
members have joined the group and presented their ideas.

Step 5: Reach a final decision only after all members have been brought in and have had the
opportunity to present their ideas.

GE Foundation Workplace Skills Program – Module 6 45

 Step Ladder Activity – High School Reunion

You are on a committee that is organization a 10-year high school reunion. Your committee is
responsible for organizing the activities for the two-day event. There will be approximately 400
people attending.

In a survey done last year when the idea of a 10-year reunion, members of the 2006 graduating
class were asked if they were interested in a gathering and what activities they wanted in the
program. There was an enthusiastic response to the idea of a reunion, and a large number of
the individuals surveyed are planning to attend. Also, respondents indicated they would like
opportunities to engage in a range of activities including golf, hiking, touring the school,
meeting the teachers, games and competitions, gathering in smaller groups (music, sports,
yearbook, environmental club, student council, student advisory). They also wanted an
organized social with a dance.

GE Foundation Workplace Skills Program – Module 6 46

 Hybrid Technique

Step 1 – Present the problem or issue.

Step 2 – Individuals independently write down their best two ideas or solutions.

Step 3 – Each individual shares their #1 idea with the group in round robin format. Other
members can ask clarifying questions, but there is no discussion.

Step 4 – Then, each individual shares their #2 idea with the group. Again, other members can
ask clarifying questions, but there is no discussion.

Step 5 – The full list is displayed to the group and a straw vote is taken. Ask participants what
they think is the best idea. Sometimes it becomes immediately clear which solution has the
most support and the decision is made.

Step 6 – If three or four solutions have support then have a “pro/con” discussion about each of
the ideas. Sometimes this leads to the decision.

Step 7 – Voting – if there is considerable disagreement about the best solution you may need to
go to a vote. Each person can vote for two of the solutions.

#1 ideas

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

#2 ideas

6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

GE Foundation Workplace Skills Program – Module 6 47

 Recognition in the Workplace

Results of a recent survey at a local Community College reported that recognition in the
workplace is one of the top concerns of faculty members. They are feeling stressed and
overwhelmed with increased workloads and class sizes due to budget cutbacks.

The president of the college has called together a group of students to ask for their input and
suggestions on what a recognition program should look like.

He wants ideas about how:

• students can recognize faculty

• instructors can recognize one another
• the college can recognize faculty members

Consider the following criteria as you come up with suggestions:

• Is the idea realistic?

• Is it affordable?
• Will the idea recognize many or only a few?
• Will faculty appreciate and participate in this idea?

Students to Faculty Faculty to Faculty College to Faculty

1. 1. 1.

2. 2. 2.

GE Foundation Workplace Skills Program – Module 6 48

 Beware of Groupthink

Groupthink occurs when a highly cohesive team’s desire for group consensus overrides people’s
common sense desire to present alternatives, critique a position, or express an opposing
opinion. When groupthink is in play, teams fail to evaluate all their alternatives and options.
The desire for group harmony effectively drives out good decision-making and problem solving.
Often groupthink is driven by a group, working against another group, who are opposed to their
goals.

The term “Groupthink,” was coined by Irving L. Janis, based on his research findings into why a
team reaches an excellent decision one time, and a disastrous one the next. What he found was
lack of conflict, or openness to opposing viewpoints, led to poor decisions. This happened
because alternatives were not fully analyzed, and because teams did not gather enough
information to make an informed decision.

Two well-known examples of Groupthink in action are the Challenger Space Shuttle disaster
and the Bay of Pigs invasion. Engineers of the space shuttle knew about some faulty parts
months before takeoff, but they did not want negative press, so they pushed ahead with the
launch anyway. With the Bay of Pigs invasion, President Kennedy made a decision and the
people around him supported it despite their own concerns.

Some symptoms of groupthink include:

Rationalization: Sometimes teams convince themselves that the decision they are presenting is
the best one, despite evidence to the contrary.

Peer Pressure: Sometimes team members pressure, or penalize a team member, who has a
different opinion or expresses concern about the group decision.

Complacency: Sometimes the group feels like all their decisions are fine, because there is no
disagreement from any source.

Moral High Ground: When morality is used as a basis for decision-making, the pressure to
conform is even greater, because no individual wants to be perceived as immoral.

GE Foundation Workplace Skills Program – Module 6 49

Stereotyping: As the group becomes more cohesive and uniform in their views, they can see
outsiders as inferior, and they use perceived negative characteristics to discredit those who
oppose them.

Illusion of Unanimity: Groups sometimes feel the group’s decision is unanimous, simply
because no one speaks out.

Avoid Groupthink

• Ensure you have a process in place for checking the assumptions behind decisions.
• Explore alternatives thoroughly.
• Encourage that ideas are challenged consistently.
• Go back and re-examine alternatives that were rejected.
• Gather information from outside sources.
• Use strategies that facilitate different perspectives.
• Invite critiques from members outside the team.
• Assign someone to record ideas and monitor consensus.
• Be aware of the signs of groupthink.

Groupthink can severely undermine the value of a group's work and, at its worst, it can cost
people their lives. On a lesser scale, it can stifle teamwork, and leave all but the most vocal
team members disillusioned and dissatisfied. If you're on a team that makes a decision you
don't really support, you need to speak up and disagree.

Teams are capable of being much more effective than individuals but, when Groupthink sets in,
the opposite can be true. By creating a healthy group-working environment, you can help to
ensure that the group makes good decisions, and manages any associated risks appropriately.

GE Foundation Workplace Skills Program – Module 6 50

 CONTINUE – STOP – START

CONTINUE STOP START

GE Foundation Workplace Skills Program – Module 6 51