Chapter 1

Alternating Current Circuits

1 Alternating Current (AC) Circuits

1.1 In Circuit Analysis

Natural response caused by internal dynamics of circuits & would
normally decay after some period of time (time constants);

Forced response determined by the specific forcing function & would
continue indefinitely (steady state);

Sinusoidal forcing functions are particularly important in electrical
engineering - power sources & communication signals are usually
transmitted as sinusoids or modified sinusoids;

This part of the course concerns with steady state analysis of circuits
driven by sinusoidal voltages or currents;


1.2 Properties of Sinusoids

Sinusoidal functions are represented in this form:

t V t v
m
sin ) ( =
where
) (t v : instantaneous value of the function;
m
V

: amplitude , the maximum value of the function ;
: angular frequency [rad/sec];
t : time [sec];

The sinusoid is a periodic function:

) ( ) ( t v T t v = +

where T=2 / [sec] is the period, the time the function goes through
a complete cycle before repeating itself.

1-1
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits

The frequency, [hertzs, Hz], is the number of cycles the function
repeats itself in one sec.
T f / 1 =

From the above, it is noted that

f 2 = [rad/sec]



General sinusoidal expression:

) sin( ) ( + = t V t v
m


where is the phase angle, or simply phase.


Note: we may write, as an example,

)
4
2 sin( ) (

+ = t V t v
m


or v ) 45 2 sin( ) (
o
m
t V t + =

Pending on whether the phase is expressed in degrees or in rad.

1-2
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits

Leading and Lagging of sinusoidal signals

) sin( ) (
1
+ = t V t v
m


leads ) sin( ) (
2
+ = t V t v
m

or v
2
lags v
1
by ( )

Refer to the diagram : we say

t V
m
sin lags V by radians. ) sin( + t
m


For example, consider

( )
o
t v 30 2 sin 4
1
+ = and ( )
o
t v 12 2 sin 6
2
=

Then v
1
leads v
2
by ( ) ( )
o o o
42 12 30 =

[ Note: , or ] ( ) t t sin 2 / cos = ( ) t t cos 2 / sin = +

Hence, we can write

( ) + = t V t v
m
sin ) (

as ( ) 2 / cos ) ( + = t V t v
m

1-3
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits

Example 1.1

Consider ( )
o
t v 30 2 cos 4
1
+ =
and ( )
o
t v 18 2 sin 2
2
+ =

Since ( )
o
t t 180 sin sin + =

we have ( ) ( )
o o o o o
t t v 90 180 18 2 cos 2 180 18 2 sin 2
2
+ + = + + =

( )
o
t 108 2 cos 2 + =

Thus, v
1
leads v
2
by ( )
o o o
78 108 30 =

Useful Formula :

t B t A sin cos +
(

+
+
+
+ = t
B A
B
t
B A
A
B A sin cos
2 2 2 2
2 2


| | sin sin cos cos
2 2
t t B A + + =

) cos(
2 2
+ = t B A

where
A
B
1
tan

= .


1-4
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits

1.3 RLC Circuit Driven by A Sinusoidal Forcing Function

Consider the RL circuit shown

By KVL, the describing equation is :

t V Ri
dt
di
L
m
cos = +

Assuming a trial solution :

t B t A i
f
sin cos + =

Substitute i into the circuit describing equation :

( ) ( ) t V t B t A R t B t A L
m
cos sin cos cos sin = + + +

Equating coefficients of the cos and sin terms, we have:

m
V LB RA = +

and 0 = + RB LA

Solving for A and B above we get


2 2 2
L R
RV
m
+
A = and
2 2 2
L R
LV
m

+
= B

Hence, the forced response (or steady state response) is :

t
L R
LV
t
L R
RV
i
m m
f

sin cos
2 2 2 2 2 2
+
+
+
=
or
( )

+ =
|
.
|

\
|

+
=

t I
R
L
t
L R
V
i
m
m
f
cos tan cos
1
2 2 2

1-5
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits

where

2 2 2
L R
V
I
m
m
+
= and
R
L

1
tan

=

Then, the natural response is


t
L
R
n
Ce i

=

It is obvious that after a short time, i and the current settles down to its
AC steady state value as
0
n


|
.
|

\
|

+
=

R
L
t
L R
V
m
f

1
2 2 2
tan cos i

Example 1.2

Consider the RLC circuit shown

By KVL, the describing equation is :

t v d i i
dt
di
t
c
2 cos 15 ) 0 ( ) ( 10 2 2
0
= + + + +

+


Differentiating and dividing by 2, we get

t i
dt
di
dt
i d
2 sin 15 5
2
2
= + +

Assuming a trial solution :

t B t A i 2 sin 2 cos + =
1-6
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits


Substitute i into the circuit differential equation, we get

( ) ( ) ( ) t t B t A t B t A t B t A 2 sin 15 2 sin 2 cos 5 2 cos 2 2 sin 2 2 sin 4 2 cos 4 = + + + +

Equating coefficients of the cos and sin terms, we have:

0 2 = + B A
and 15 2 = + B A

Solving for A and B above we get

6 = A and 3 = B

Hence, the forced response (or steady state response) is :

t t i 2 sin 3 2 cos 6 =

or the two quadrature terms may be combined into one by using the conversion
formulas :

5 3 3 6
2 2
= + = M


o
6 . 26
6
3
tan
1
=
|
.
|

\
|
=


Then, the forced response is

( ) ( )
o
t t M 6 . 26 2 cos 5 3 cos + = = i

In this AC topic, we are basically interested only in the steady state response of
the circuit to a sinusoid forcing function.

Some observations :

Analysis method straight forward and conventional; more complicated
and messy for higher order circuits. It may be anticipated that use of this
procedure would be even more cumbersome.

Better method to handle the steady state analysis of AC circuits is to
make use of complex number and phasor representation of AC
quantities.

1-7
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits

1.4 Use of Complex Numbers

Complex number A can be represented in rectangular form as

A = a + jb

where j= 1 and a = Re A (Real part of A), b= Im A (Imaginary part of A).

In Polar form as

= = A e A A
j


where A is the magnitude, given by

2 2
b a A + =

and is the angle or argument, given by
a
b
1
tan

= .
The relationship between rectangular form and polar form is captured in the
figure here.



The followings are obvious:

cos A = a
sin A b =

and j = 190
0
, and j
2
= -1 = 1180
0

1-8
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits

Eulers formula :

t j
e

t j t sin cos + =

so
t j
m
e V

t jV t V
m m
sin cos + =

Thus

V ) Re( cos
t j
m m
e V t

=
and ) Im( sin
t j
m m
e V t V

=


1.5 Complex Excitations

In general the circuit shown here, we are interested to obtain the real response
i(t) :

In general, if the forcing function is

( ) + = t V v
m g
cos

then the forced response is

( ) + = t I i
m
cos

If we now replaced the forcing function by

v
( ) +
=
t j
m
e V
1

it can be shown that the real response i (thats what we are looking for if the
forcing function is v
g
) can be obtained from

i ( )
1
Re i =

1-9
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits

where i
1
is the complex response of the circuit to v
1
(the complex excitation).

More specifically, let use

v
( ) t j j
m
t j
m
e e V e V

= =
+
1

the trial solution is then


t j
Ae i

=
1

Note that this is the complex response.

The real response is then

( ) ( )
t j
m
Ae t I

Re cos = +

Example 1.3

Given
) 15 2 cos( 2 12 8 2
2
2
o
t i
dt
di
dt
i d
+ = + +

find the forced response i .
f

First replace the real excitation by

) 15 2 (
1
2 12
o
t j
e v
+
= .

The complex response satisfies

) 15 2 (
2
2
2 12 8 2
o
t j
e i
dt
di
dt
i d
+
= + +

and is of the form
t j
Ae i
2
1
=

Thus

o
j t j t j
e e Ae j
15 2 2
2 12 ) 8 4 4 ( = + +

1-10
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits

so
o
o
o j
j
e
A
o
30 3
45 2 4
15 2 12
4 4
2 12
15
=

=
+
=


which gives

( )
o
t j t j o
e e i
30 2 2
1
3 ) 30 3 (

= =

Therefore, the real response is

( ) ( )
o
f
t i 30 2 cos 3 Re
1
= = i

Comment :
Compare with the solution using the actual real excitation, is this
approach much easier?



1.6 Phasors

The forced response of a circuit to a sinusoidal forcing function is another
sinusoid of the same angular frequency ; the quantities to be determined are :

Magnitude
Phase

of the forced response. This means, in any circuit, if the frequency is known,
then the voltages and currents are completely characterized by their respective
magnitudes and phase angles. This motivates the use of phasors to represent
such quantities.

Given a general sinusoidal voltage

v ( ) + = t V
m
cos

its phasor representation, or simply its phasor is defined as

V

= =
m
j
m
V e V

1-11
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits

Some examples :

Time-Domain Phasors
============== ========

t V v
m
cos =
o
m
V V 0 =

( ) + = t V v
m
cos =
m
V V

( )
o
t i 30 cos 5 =
o
I 30 5 =

( )
o
t i 30 3 sin 8 + =
( )
o o
t 90 30 3 cos 8 + =
( )
o
t 60 3 cos 8 =
o
I 60 8 =

Note : The sinusoids & their related phasors are on the basis of cosine
functions. You could also use sine functions as the basis. For instance,
the last example, on the basis of sine function, would have the phasor as

Based on sine function :

( )
o
t i 30 3 sin 8 + =
o
I 30 8 =

The choice is really arbitrary, but must be consistent.


Forced Response and Phasors


Consider the previous RL circuit in section (1.3)



1-12
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits

The describing equation is

t V Ri
dt
di
L
m
cos = +

lets use complex excitation


t j
m
e V v

=
1

Noting that the phase angle , we can write
o
0 =

V
m
o
m
V V = = 0

so that
t j
Ve v

=
1

Hence

t j
Ve Ri
dt
di
L

= +
1
1


The trial solution is

i
t j
Ie

=
1
Therefore


t j t j t j
Ve Ie R LIe j

= +

giving
V RI LI j = +

and thus
R
L
L R
m
V
L j R
V
I

1
tan
2 2 2


+
=
+
=

Substituting into i
1
, we have

) tan (
2 2 2
1
1
R
L
t j
m
e
L R
V
i

+
=

1-13
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits

from which, taking the real part we have the real solution

( )
1
Re i i i
f
= =


|
.
|

\
|

+
=

R
L
t
L R
V
m

1
2 2 2
tan cos


Comments :

This example illustrates that the use of phasor representations greatly
simplifies circuit calculations. In the process, a differential equation is
converted into an algebraic equation.

This is significant when dealing with circuits of higher order. The only
added complication in the process is that one now has to manipulate
complex numbers.

In general, the real solutions are time-domain functions, and their
phasors are frequency-domain functions (i.e. they are functions of the
frequency ).

So, to solve time-domain problems, we convert the relevant quantities
to phasors and solve the corresponding frequency-domain problems,
which are generally much easier.

Finally, we convert back to the time-domain by finding the time
function from its phasor representation.



1-14
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits

Voltage - Current Relationships for Phasors


Resistor
The V-I relationship in the time-domain is governed by Ohms law:

i R v =
where
v ) cos( + = t V
m

and i ) cos( + = t I
m

If we apply the complex voltage

V
) ( + t j
m
e

the resulting current is then


) ( + t j
m
e I

which gives
) ( ) ( + +
=
t j
m
t j
m
e RI e V

Suppressing e results in
t j

V
j
m
j
m
e RI e =
1-15
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits

Note that = , and in phasor form, we have

V=RI.

Thus the sinusoidal voltage and current for a resistor have the same phase angle
(i.e. the phase difference is zero , or the voltage and current vary in step ).

Example 1.4

When a voltage v V is applied across a 5- resistor, what
is the resulting current ?
) 30 100 cos( 10
o
t + =

The voltage is V V, Resulting current is then, by Ohms Law
o
30 10 =

I= A
R
0
0
30 2
5
30 10
=

=
V


In the time domain we have

i A ) 30 100 cos( 2
o
t + =


1-16
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits

Inductor
In this case, the voltage across the element is given by

dt
di
L v =

and with the complex excitation we have earlier would result in

( )
| |
) (
) (




+
+
+
= =
t j
m
t j
m t j
m
e LI j
dt
e I d
L e V

Again by dividing out the factor and identifying the phasors, we obtain the
phasor relationship:
t j
e


V LI j =

or ( ) ( )
o
m m m
LI I L j V 90 + = =
i.e. and
m m
LI V =
o
90 + =


In the time domain

( )
o
m
t LI v 90 cos + + =


1-17
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits

Important Observations :

The current lags the voltage by 90
0
; i.e. the current and voltage in the inductor
do not vary in step, but rather, they are out of phase, with the current
lagging the voltage.
o
90


Example 1.5

Consider an inductor of 2H with =100 rad/s and with voltage

( )
o
t v 50 cos 10 + = V

What is the current through the inductor ?

The phasor voltage is V and the phasor current is
o
50 10 =

o
L j
V
I 40 05 . 0 = =

A.
The time domain current expression is

( )
o
t i 40 100 cos 05 . 0 = A


1-18
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits

Capacitor

For the case of a capacitor, if we consider the same complex excitation applied
to the element, the complex current in the element is now given by

dt
dv
C i =

resulting in the following:

( )
| |
) (
) (




+
+
+
= =
t j
m
t j
m t j
m
e CV j
dt
e V d
C e I

Again following the previous steps, we have the phasor relation:

or CV j I =
C j
I
V

=
Alternatively,


o
m m
CV I 90 + =

giving and
m m
CV I =
o
90 + =

1-19
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits

Important Observations :

The current leads the voltage by 90 ; i.e. the current and voltage in the
capacitor do not vary in step, but rather, they are 90 out of phase, with the
current leading the voltage.
o
o




Example 1.6

Consider a capacitor voltage of

V t v cos 100 =

What is the current when =1000 rad/s and C=1 mF.

Since
o
V 0 100 =

we have A
o
CV j I 90 100 10 1000
3
= =

The time domain description is

( )
o
t 90 1000 cos 100 + = i A
1-20
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits

Summary of V-I Relationship



Element


Time-Domain

Phasor

Remark

Resistor R

Ri v =

RI V =

V and I in step


Inductor L

dt
di
L v =

LI j V =


I lags V by 90
o


Capacitor C

dt
dv
C i =

I
C j
V

1
=

I leads V by 90
o




Thus If V , where V is the voltage across the element. Then =
m
V V


for Resistor R :

o m
R
R
V
I 0 = A

for Inductor L :

o m
L
L
V
I 90 =

A

and for Capacitor C :

o
m C
C V I 90 = A



1-21
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits

Phasor Diagrams

Given a sinusoid
( ) + = t V t v
m
cos ) (

The phasor representation is

V

= =
m
j
m
V e V

The graphical views of this phasor V can be represented by a sinor rotating
counterclockwise and its projection on the real axis, as a function of time.

A phasor may be expressed in magnitude and phase (Direction), it behaves as
a vector. Such a graphical representation of phasors is known as a phasor
diagram.

For example : A phasor diagram showing V and . =
m
V =
m
I I
1-22
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits

Phasor Relationships for Circuit Elements

In general, let the current pass through a circuit element be

( ) + = t I i
m
cos

The phasor form of this current is

=
m
I I

The voltage across it

for Resistor R :
V =
m
RI


for Inductor L :
=
m
LI j V

1-23
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits

and for Capacitor C :

=
m
I
C j
V
1

Exercise : Draw the phasor diagrams for the three circuit elements if the current
has a zero phase angle (i.e. , i ).
o
0 = t I
m
cos =

Example 1.7

Consider the RLC series phasor circuit


First, how to choose the reference phasor ?

Yes, through observation, the current I is common to all elements and take it as
our reference phasor.

Denoting it by

o
I I 0 =

Note that it is possible to permit the addition of a constant phase shift to every
current and voltage by scaling of every phase by 1 so as to achieve the
reference phasor I has a phase angle of zero degrees.

1-24
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits

The voltage phasors of the circuit are

I R RI
R
= = V


o
L
I L LI j 90 = = V


o
C
I
C
I
C
j 90
1 1
= =

V

and V
C L R g
V V V + + =

Phasor Diagrams :

Case I :
C L
V V > Inductive Reactance
Case II :
C L
V V < Capacitive Reactance

1-25
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits

Case III :
C L
V V = Inductive and Capacitive reactance components cancel
each other.

Comments :

The phasor diagrams are a snapshot at time t of circular motion in
the complex plane.
0 =

All vectors rotate together in the counterclockwise direction.

Thus a more counterclockwise phasor leads a less counterclockwise one
in this motion.

For case III, the current and voltage are in phase, sine the inductive and
capacitive reactance components exactly cancel each other. Hence,


(

+
= =
C
L j R
V
Z
V
g g

1
I
and is characterized by

0
1
=
C
L

LC
1
=

1-26
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits

The locus of the phasor V as shown
g



The voltage phasor varies up and down along the dash line as varies
between zero and infinity.

The minimum amplitude of the voltage occurs when
LC
1
= .

For any other frequency, a larger voltage is required to produce the
same current.



1-27
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits

1.8 Impedance & Admittance

The V-I relationship for the phasor voltage and current appears to be similar to
the Ohms Law for resistor. The general phasor circuit as shown


We can define Ohms Law in phasor notation by

I
V
Z =

where Z is known as the Impedance .

The impedance Z also indicates opposition to current flow and it has the units
of ohms ( ). It completely defines the load elements behaviour in an AC
circuit. Z is in general a complex number, NOT a phasor, since it is not a
function of time.

The magnitude of Z reflects the amount of opposition to current flow exhibited
by the element, while the phase of Z reflects the phase shift between the voltage
and the current waveforms caused by the element.

Since and =
m
V V =
m
I I

then

=
m
m
m
m
I
V
I
V
Z


Thus = Z Z

means
m
m
I
V
Z = and =
1-28
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits


Since the impedance is a complex number, it may be written in the following
forms:

Rectangular form : jX R Z + =

Exponential form :
j
e Z Z =

Polar form : = Z Z


Also note that
2 2
X R Z + =
R
X
1
tan

=
cos Z R = (Resistive component or resistance)
and sin Z X = (Reactive component or reactance
for inductor, for capacitor)
L
X
C
X


Graphical representation of impedance :



|Z|
X
R
1-29
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits

Impedance of R , L and C :


Element


Z

Z



Resistor R

R

R

o
0


Inductor L

L j

L


o
90


Capacitor C

C j
1


C
1


-
o
90




Observations :

Phase angle for inductive impedance is positive, though it causes
current to lag the voltage ; so
o
L L
X X 90 = .

Phase angle for capacitive impedance is negative, though it causes
current to lead the voltage; so
o
C C
X X 90 = .

The reciprocal of Z is called the Admittance Y of the load element,
having the units of siemens, S :

jB G
Z
Y + = =
1
[S ]

where G is known as Conductance , and B the Susceptance.

Example 1.8

A voltage V V when applied to a circuit results in a current of
A. What is the impedance of the circuit ?
o
9 . 56 10 =
o
I 20 2 =


We have
o
o
o
I
V
Z 9 . 36 5
20 2
9 . 56 10
=

= =

Or ( ) 3 4 9 . 36 sin 9 . 36 cos 5 j j Z
o o
+ = + = .


The circuit is thus inductive, and the current lags the voltage by 36 .
o
9 .
1-30
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits

1.9 Kirchhoffs Laws and Phasor Circuits

Kirchhoffs laws hold for phasors.

In time domain,

KVL : 0
2 1
= + + +
n
v v v

KCL : 0
2 1
= + + +
m
i i i

Since the elements in the AC circuits are R , L , C , all the waveforms for the
currents and voltages anywhere in the circuit have the same frequency as that
of the source.

The sinusoidal ac waveforms can be replaced by their corresponding phasors.
Hence , in phasor form:

KVL : 0
2 1
= + + +
n
V V V

KCL : 0
2 1
= + + +
m
I I I

Therefore, in circuits having sinusoidal excitations with a common frequency ,
if we are interested only in the forced, or AC steady state response, we may find
the phasor voltages or currents of every element and use Kirchhoffs laws (and
any other circuit theorems) to complete the analysis.

The steady state analysis is identical to the resistive circuit analysis of the earlier
course, with impedances replacing resistances and phasors replacing time
domain quantities.

Once we have found the phasors, we can convert immediately to the time
domain sinusoidal quantities.

1-31
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits

Consider the circuit shown here. Find the equivalent impedance seen at the
terminals.
The voltages shown across each element are :

I Z V
1 1
=
I Z V
2 2
=





I Z V
N N
=

By KVL :

( ) I Z I Z Z Z V V V V
eq N N
= + + + = + + + =
2 1 2 1

Hence, the equivalent impedance is


N eq
Z Z Z Z + + + =
2 1

Similarly, it can be shown that for a circuit of N parallel admittances


N eq
Y Y Y Y + + + =
2 1

Note that for two impedances (N=2) in parallel, the equivalent impedance is
given by

2 1
2 1
2 1
1 1
Z Z
Z Z
Y Y Y
Z
eq
eq
+
=
+
= =
1-32
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits

Example 1.9

Consider the time-domain RLC series circuit shown, where R=2 , L=2H, and
C=
10
1
F. Find the steady state current i using phasors.
First, redraw the circuit in phasor form,

and by KVL we have:


o
L C
RI I Z I Z 0 15 = + +

where 5
10
1
2
1 1
j j
C j
Z
C
=

= =

and 4 2 2 j j L j Z
L
= = =

gives
o
I I j I j 0 15 2 4 5 = + +


o
j
I 6 . 26 5 3
2
15
=

= A
1-33
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits

Hence, the steady state current in the time domain is then

( )
o
t i 6 . 26 2 cos 5 3 + = A

An alternative approach by the source terminals equivalent impedance ,

j Z Z Z Z
C R L eq
= + + = 2

follow by Ohms law, gives

o
o
eq
j Z
V
I 6 . 26 5 3
2
0 15
=

= = A


Example 1.10

Consider the time-domain RLC series-parallel circuit shown.

Find the steady state current i using phasors.

The equivalent phasor circuit is


1-34
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits

Using series-parallel impedance equivalents, we get


( )
( )
621 . 0 45 . 1
2 2 3
2 2 3
1
j
j
j
Z =
+

=


( )( )
( )
75 . 0 583 . 0
1 1
1 1
1
1
2
j
j Z j
j Z j
Z =
+ +
+
=

so the equivalent impedance is

75 . 0 083 . 1 5 . 0
2
j Z Z
eq
= + =

and
o
o
eq
o
j Z
I 7 . 48 11 . 9
75 . 0 083 . 1
14 12 14 12
=

= A

Recalling that rad/s yields 1 =

( )
o
t i 7 . 48 cos 11 . 9 + = A

The desired AC steady-state current in time-domain.

1-35
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits

Example 1.11

Consider the circuit containing a dependent source below.
Find the steady state value of i ?

The corresponding phasor circuit :
Then by KCL at node a,

o
j
V V
I 0 3
2
2
1
1 1
=

+

By Ohms law, we have V , which when substituted into the above results
yields
I 4
1
=
6 ) 4 (
2
1
2 j I I j = +
giving
o
o
o
j
j
I 45
2
3
45 2 2
90 6
2 2
6
=


=

= A

Therefore, we have ) 45 4 cos(
2
3
o
t i = A
1-36
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits

1.10 AC Steady State Analysis -- Circuit Theorems

Circuit theorems and analysis methods applicable to DC circuits are
also applicable to AC circuits.

Nodal and loop (mesh) analysis , Thevenins and Nortons theorems ,
superposition theorem, and so on are used in the AC steady state
analysis when the phasor representations are used in conjunction.


Nodal Analysis

The following examples illustrate the nodal method by the phasor approach.

Example 1.12

Find the AC steady state voltages v and v for the circuit shown.
1 2

V 2 cos 5 t

2
1
H
2
1
F
2
1
H
4
1
A 2 cos 5 t
2
v
1
v
1
1 F









First obtain the phasor circuit by replacing the element values by their
impedances for =2 rad/s, and the source and node voltages by their phasors.


1-37
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits

Replace the two sets of parallel impedances by their equivalent impedances,
resulting in simpler circuit as shown.



Next obtain the node equations:

At node :
1
v 0
1 1
) 0 5 ( 2
2 1 1
1
=

j
V V
j
V
V
o


At node :
2
v 0 0 5
5 / ) 2 1 ( 1
2 2 1
= +
+

o
j
V
j
V V


Simplifying,

( ) 10 2 2
2 1
= + jV V j
and jV ( ) 5 1 1
2 1
= + V j

Solving by Cramers rule, the determinants:

o
j
j
j j
j j
j
j
V 6 . 26 5 1 2
5
5 10
1 1 1
1 2 2
1 1 5
1 10
1
= =

=

+

= V


o
j
j j
j
V 4 . 63 5 2 4 2
5
20 10
5
5 1
10 2 2
2
= + =
+
=

+
= V

1-38
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits

Therefore, the time domain solutions are :

) 6 . 26 2 cos( 5
1
o
t v = V
) 4 . 63 2 cos( 5 2
2
o
t v + = V.
Example 1.13

Consider the circuit containing a dependent source shown . Find the forced
response i.

Obtain the phasor representations and its phasor circuit as shown.

Taking the ground node as reference , assign the two unknown node voltages.

By KCL at the super node (dashed line) :

0
)
3
10 )( 1 2 (
3000
)
3
10 )( 2 1 (
5
2
)
3
10 (
2
1
4
=

j
I V
j
V V


Also from the phasor circuit we have


) 10 (
4
3
2
1
V
I

=
1-39
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits

Eliminating V and solve for I we obtain

A = mA
o
I 1 . 53 10 24
3
=
o
1 . 53 24

Therefore, in the time domain

( )
o
t i 1 . 53 5000 cos 24 + = mA

Mesh Analysis

The following example illustrate the mesh method by the phasor approach.

Example 1.14

Find the steady state response of v for the circuit .
1

The phasor representation of the circuit :

1-40
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits

The Thevenins impedance, Z
th
, is


sc
oc
th
I
V
Z =

Since terminal a-b are open, the current flows in the resistor and the
current 2 flows in the capacitor.
o
0 2
1
V

By KVL we have
) 2 )( 1 (
1 1
V j V V
oc
=
V 2 ) 1 ( 2
1
= = V

Hence V 4 2 j V V
th oc
+ = =

Next, by KCL, the two node equations are

2 2
1 1
1
1 1
=

+ V
j
V V


and 2
1
+ = V I
sc

From these we find
A. 1 3 j I
sc
+ =
The Thevenins impedance is

0
45 2 1 1
1 3
4 2
= + =
+
+
= j
j
j
Z
th


The Thevenin equivalent is as shown below :








+

V
b
a
- j1
1 + j1
2 + j4 V
By voltage division


o
j j
j j
j
V 6 . 26 5 2 2 4 ) 4 2 (
) 1 ( ) 1 1 (
1
= = +
(

+ +

= V

The time domain solution is
( )
o
t v 6 . 26 3 cos 5 2 = V
1-42
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits

Maximum Average Power Transfer Theorem

Consider a linear AC circuit connected to a load and is represented by its
Thevenin equivalent.
L
Z

Let the Thevenin impedance and the load impedance be :
Th
Z
L
Z

Th Th Th
jX R Z + =


L L L
jX R Z + =
The current through the load is

) ( ) (
L L Th Th
Th
L Th
Th
jX R jX R
V
Z Z
V
I
+ + +
=
+
=

The average power delivered to the load is

2 2
2
2
) ( ) (
2 /
2
1
L Th L Th
L Th
L ave
X X R R
R V
R I P
+ + +
= =

To adjust the load parameters and so that is maximum. We set
L
R
L
X
ave
P

0 =

L
ave
X
P
gives
Th L
X X =

0 =

L
ave
R
P
gives
2 2
) (
L Th Th L
X X R R + + =

leads to the conclusion that for maximum average power transfer, must be
selected so that
L
Z
Th Th Th L L L
jX R Z jX R Z = = + =



For maximum average power transfer, the load impedance must be equal
to the complex conjugate of the Thevenin impedance
L
Z
Z
Th

1-43
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits

AC Superposition Principle

When a circuit has two or more AC sources at different frequencies, or
one source whose waveform consists of the sum of two or more
sinusoids at different frequencies, then if the circuit is linear, the
principle of superposition applies.

Superposition principle holds for instantaneous voltage or current,
NOT for phasors representing sinusoids at different frequencies !

Find the phasor currents or voltages due to each input acting alone (i.e.
with the others dead) and add the individual corresponding TIME
DOMAIN responses to obtain the total.


Example 1.16

For the circuit shown, find the forced response i.



There are two sources, one with =2 rad/s, and the other = 0. Therefore


2 1
i i i + =


where i
1
is due to the voltage source acting alone, i
2
is due to the current source
acting alone.

We can find the respective phasor currents and .
1
I
2
I
1-44
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits

From the diagram:





o
o
j j
j j
j
I 1 . 8 2
) 1 2 1 (
) 1 )( 2 1 (
2 3
0 5
1
=
(

+
+
+ +

=

from which
) 1 . 8 2 cos( 2
1
o
t i = A

For , we have
2
I





o
I 0 1 ) 4 (
3 1
1
2
=
|
.
|

\
|
+
=

from which A. 1
2
= i

The total forced response is

1 ) 1 . 8 2 cos( 2
2 1
= + =
o
t i i i A

1-45
Chapter 1: Alternating Current Circuits