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What is Data -> Raw Facts (Not Organized)

What is Information -> Organized Format (CSV, TSV, Tables…)

Database: Collection of interrelated information

Advantages:

1. Permanent storage of information

2. Security
3. Multiuser support

Available Databases: SQL Server, Oracle, Teradata, MySQL, MS-Access, DB2, Sybase, Fox Pro, Ingres
sql, PostgreSQL, etc.,

Database Objects: Tables, Stored Procedures, Cursors, Views, Triggers, Functions, Indexes,
Synonyms, User Defined Types, Cubes, etc.,

Among the above database objects, Table has structure and Data. Remaining are used to
implement functionality and business logic.

Database Testing is the act of validating the structure/schema and data.

Authentication: Verifying the user credentials

Authorization: Permissions of the user

SQL: Structured Query Language. SQL is the database language used to perform certain
operations on the database.

Query: Request to the database to perform some manipulation on DB

SQL Uses certain commands to carry out the required tasks.

These SQL commands are mainly categorized into following categories.

DDL: Data Definition Language

DML: Data Manipulation Language

DRL: Data Retrieval Language

DCL: Data Control Language

TCL: Transaction Control Language

DDL: Data Definition Language actually consists of the SQL commands that can be used to define
the database schema. It simply deals with descriptions of the database schema and is used to create
and modify the structure of database objects in the database. DDL is a set of SQL commands used
to create, modify, and delete database structures but not data. These commands are normally not
used by a general user, who should be accessing the database via an application.

List of DDL Commands:

CREATE: This command is used to create the database or its objects (like table, index,
function, views, store procedure, and triggers).

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DROP: This command is used to delete objects from the database.

ALTER: This is used to alter the structure of the database.

TRUNCATE: This is used to remove all records from a table, including all spaces allocated for
the records are removed.

Rename: This is used to rename an object existing in the database.

DML: The SQL commands that deal with the manipulation of data present in the database belong
to DML or Data Manipulation Language and this includes most of the SQL statements.

List of DML commands:

INSERT: It is used to insert data into a table.

UPDATE: It is used to update existing data within a table.

DELETE: It is used to delete records from a database table.

DRL: DRL is a component of SQL statement that allows getting data from the database and imposing
order upon it. It includes the SELECT statement. This command allows getting the data out of the
database to perform operations with it. When a SELECT is fired against a table or tables the result is
compiled into a further temporary table, which is displayed or perhaps received by the program i.e.
a front-end.

List of DML commands:

SELECT: It is used to retrieve data from the database.

DCL: DCL commands mainly deal with rights, permissions, and other controls of the database system.

List of DCL Commands:

GRANT: This command gives users access privileges to the database.

REVOKE: This command withdraws the user’s access privileges given by using the GRANT
command.

DENY: The DENY statement prevents users from performing actions.

TCL: TCL commands deal with the transaction within the database.

List of TCL commands:

COMMIT: Commits a Transaction.

ROLLBACK: Rollbacks a transaction in case of any error occurs.

SAVE: Sets a save point within a transaction.

Data Types:

data type is a guideline for SQL to understand what type of data is expected inside of each
column, and it also identifies how SQL will interact with the stored data.

Data Type specifies

1. Type of data
2. Size of the memory it occupies.

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Numeric Data Types:

Data Type Description Storage

Bit Integer value 0, 1 or NULL
Tiny Int Integer values from 0 to 255 1 byte
Small Int Values from -32,768 and 32,767 2 bytes
Int Values from -2,147,483,648 and 2,147,483,647 4 bytes
Big Int Values from -9,223,372,036,854,775,808 and 9,223,372,036,854,775,807 8 bytes
Decimal(p,s) Fixed Precision and Scale Numbers
Allows numbers from -10^38 +1 to 10^38 –1
The p parameter indicates the maximum total number of digits that
can be stored (both to the left and to the right of the decimal point). p 5-17
must be a value from 1 to 38. Default is 18. bytes
The s parameter indicates the maximum number of digits stored to the
right of the decimal point. s must be a value from 0 to p. Default value
is 0

numeric(p,s) Fixed precision and scale numbers.

Allows numbers from -10^38 +1 to 10^38 –1.
The p parameter indicates the maximum total number of digits that
can be stored (both to the left and to the right of the decimal point). p 5-17
must be a value from 1 to 38. Default is 18. bytes
The s parameter indicates the maximum number of digits stored to the
right of the decimal point. s must be a value from 0 to p. Default value
is 0

Smallmoney Monetary data from -214,748.3648 to 214,748.3647 4 bytes

Money Monetary data from -922,337,203,685,477.5808 to
8 bytes
922,337,203,685,477.5807
Float(n) Floating precision number data from -1.79E + 308 to 1.79E + 308.
The n parameter indicates whether the field should hold 4 or 8 bytes. 4 or 8
Float (24) holds a 4-byte field and float (53) holds an 8-byte field. bytes
Default value of n is 53.
Real Floating precision number data from -3.40E + 38 to 3.40E + 38 4 bytes

String Data Types:

Data Type Description Max Size Storage

Char(n) Fixed width character string 8000 characters Defined size
varchar(n) Variable width character string 8000 Characters 2 bytes + number of
characters
Varchar(max) Variable width character string 1,073,741,824 2 bytes + number of
characters characters
Text Variable width character string 2GB of text data 4 bytes + number of
characters
Image Variable width binary string 2 GB

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Date and Time Data Types:

Data Type Description Storage

Datetime Allows from January 1, 1753 to December 31, 9999 8 bytes
Timestamp timestamp value is based upon an internal clock and does not 8 bytes
correspond to real time
Date Store a date only. From January 1, 0001 to December 31, 9999 3 bytes
Time Store a time only to an accuracy of 100 nanoseconds 3-5 bytes

DDL Commands:

Create: This is the command useful to create any database object like Table, Database,
Trigger, etc.

Create:

Database Creation syntax: create database <database name>

Here <database name> indicates the user defined database name

Ex: create database Persons

Table creation syntax: create table <table name> (col1 datatype, col2, datatype ,…,coln
datatype)

Here <database name> indicates the user defined table name

Col specifies the name of the column and data type specifies the type of data that the
column can hold

Ex: create table employee (eid int, ename varchar (20), salary money, age int, gender char
(1), did int)

Alter: This is the command useful to modify the database object structure like adding a new
column, deleting existing column, changing the datatype of the column.

Adding new column to existing table syntax: alter table <table name> add <col_name>
<data type>

Ex: alter table emp add locid int

Removing existing column from table syntax: alter table <table_name> drop <col name>

Ex: alter table emp drop locid

Changing the datatype of existing column syntax: alter table <table name> alter <col
name><datatype>

Ex: alter table emp alter salary int

Renaming table name syntax: sp_rename ‘emp’,’employee’

Drop: This statement is used to drop an existing table in a database. This will remove table
data as well as table definition

Syntax: Drop table <table name>

Ex: drop table emp

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Note: Be careful before dropping a table. Deleting a table will result in loss of complete
information stored in the table

DML Commands:

Insert: Insert command is used to insert records into a table. THis can be done in two ways.

 Insert data to all the columns of the table

Syntax: insert into table_name values(col1,col2,...,coln)

Ex: insert into emp values(101,’Rama’,10)

 Insert data to specific columns of the table

Syntax: insert into table_name(col1,col2,..,coln) values(col1 data, col2 data,...,coln

data)

Ex: insert into emp(eid, ename) values(102,’Krishna’)

Note: The columns for which data is not available will be inserted with ‘NULL’

Update: Update command is used to modify the existing records in a table

Syntax: update table_name set col1 = value1,col2 = value2 where [condition]

Ex: update emp set ename = ‘Prasad’ where eid = 102

Note: Be careful when updating records in a table! Notice the WHERE clause in the UPDATE
statement. The WHERE clause specifies which record(s) that should be updated. If we omit the
WHERE clause, all records in the table will be updated

Delete: Delete command is used to delete existing records from the table

Syntax: Delete from table_name where [condition]

Ex: Delete from emp where eid = 102

Note: Be careful when deleting records in a table! Notice the WHERE clause in the DELETE
statement. The WHERE clause specifies which record(s) should be deleted. If we omit the WHERE
clause, all records in the table will be deleted

Truncate: Truncate command is used to data inside the table but not the table definition

Syntax: Truncate table table_name

Ex: Truncate table emp

DRL Commands:

Select: Select command is used to retrieve information from the database objects.

Using select it is possible to retrieve all the columns data or the specific column(s) data

To retrieve data from all the columns

Syntax: select * from table_name

Ex: select * from emp

To retrieve data from specific column(s)

Syntax: select col1, col2,...,coln from table_name

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Ex: select eid, ename from emp

Group By: The GROUP BY statement groups rows that have the same values into summary
rows, like "find the number of customers in each country".

The GROUP BY statement is often used with aggregate functions (COUNT(), MAX(), MIN(),
SUM(), AVG()) to group the result-set by one or more columns

Syntax: SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE condition GROUP BY

column_name(s)

Ex: Select count(*) from emp group by did

Having: Having is used to apply condition on the result set of group by query.

Syntax: select * from table_name group by col_name having [condition]

Ex: select count(*) from emp group by did having count(*) > 1

Distinct: Distinct is used to retrieve unique values from the table

Syntax: select distinct col_list from table_name

Ex: select distinct did from emp

Operators: Different operators can be used in sql while retrieving information

Top: Top is used to retrieve top records from the table

Syntax: select top number col_list from table_name

Ex: select top 2 * from emp

Arithmetic Operators: +, -, *, /, %

Ex: select salary+1000 from emp

Comparison Operators: <, <=, >, >=, =, <>, Is

select * from emp where salary <= 5000

Logical Operators: AND, OR, NOT

select * from emp where did = 10 and salary <=5000

List Comparison Operators: IN, ANY, ALL

select * from emp where did in(10,20,30)

Between Operator: To check the range

select * from emp where did between 10 and 30

Date Functions: Following is the list of date functions in MS SQL Server.

GETDATE() It will return the current date along with time.
Syntax − GETDATE()
Select getdate() as currentdatetime

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DATEPART() It will return the part of date or time.

Syntax - DATEPART(datepart, datecolumnname)
Select datepart(day, getdate()) as currentdate

DATEADD() It will display the date and time by add or subtract date and time interval.
Syntax − DATEADD(datepart, number, datecolumnname)
Select dateadd(day, 10, getdate()) as after10daysdatetimefromcurrentdatetime

DATEDIFF() It will display the date and time between two dates.
Syntax − DATEDIFF(datepart, startdate, enddate)
Select datediff(hour, 2015-11-16, 2015-11-11) as
differencehoursbetween20151116and20151111

Like: To retrieve information using pattern

LIKE operator is used in a WHERE clause to search for a specified pattern in a column.

There are wildcards often used in conjunction with the LIKE operator. They are:

Wildcard Character Description

% Represents zero or more characters

_ Represents a single character

[] Represents any single character within the brackets

^ Represents any character not in the brackets

- Represents any single character within the specified range

Syntax: Select col_list from table_name where col_name like pattern

Ex: select * from emp where ename like ‘a%’

Result: arun, amar, anirudh, akanksha

select * from emp where ename like ‘r[ao]m’

Result: ram, rom

Set: UNION, UNIONALL, INTERSECT, EXCEPT

UNION: The UNION operator is used to combine the result-set of two or more SELECT statements.

The UNION operator selects only distinct values by default

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 Every SELECT statement within UNION must have the same number of columns
 The columns must also have similar data types
 The columns in every SELECT statement must also be in the same order

Syntax: SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1

UNION

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table2;

Ex: select eid, ename from emp

UNION

select did, dname from dept

UNION ALL: The UNION ALL operator is used to combine the result-set of two or more SELECT
statements same as UNION but includes duplicates.

Syntax: SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1

UNION ALL

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table2;

Ex: select eid, ename from emp

UNION ALL

select did, dname from dept

INTERSECT: The SQL INTERSECT clause/operator is used to combine two SELECT statements, but
returns rows only from the first SELECT statement that are identical to a row in the second SELECT
statement. This means INTERSECT returns only common rows returned by the two SELECT statements.

Just as with the UNION operator, the same rules apply when using the INTERSECT operator.
MySQL does not support the INTERSECT operator.

Syntax: SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1

INTERSECT

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table2;

Ex: select eid, ename from emp

INTERSECT

select did, dname from dept

EXCEPT: The SQL EXCEPT clause/operator is used to combine two SELECT statements and returns rows
from the first SELECT statement that are not returned by the second SELECT statement. This means
EXCEPT returns only rows, which are not available in the second SELECT statement.

Just as with the UNION operator, the same rules apply when using the EXCEPT operator.
MySQL does not support the EXCEPT operator.

Syntax: SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1

EXCEPT

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SELECT column_name(s) FROM table2;

Ex: select eid, ename from emp

EXCEPT

select did, dname from dept

JOINS:

Join is used to retrieve information from two or more tables based on a common column
between them.

Different Types of Joins:

INNER JOIN: Returns records that have matching values in

both tables

Syntax: select col_list from table1 inner join table2 on

table1.colname = table2.colname where [condition]

Ex: select * from emp inner join dept on emp.did = dept.did

LEFT OUTER JOIN: Returns all records from the left table, and the
matched records from the right table

Syntax: select col_list from table1 left join table2 on

table1.colname = table2.colname where [condition]

Ex: select * from emp left join dept on emp.did = dept.did

RIGHT OUTER JOIN: Returns all records from the right table,
and the matched records from the left table

Syntax: select col_list from table1 right join table2 on

table1.colname = table2.colname where [condition]

Ex: select * from emp right join dept on emp.did = dept.did

FULL OUTER JOIN: Returns all records when there is a match

in either left or right table

Syntax: select col_list from table1 full join table2 on

table1.colname = table2.colname where [condition]

Ex: select * from emp full join dept on emp.did = dept.did

CROSS JOIN: Returns all records with association of each

record from left table to right table

Syntax: select col_list from table1 cross join table2

Ex: select * from emp inner join dept on emp.did = dept.did

SELF JOIN: Returns records by joining the table with itself. Alias is used for self-join

Syntax: select col_list from table as X, table as Y where [condition]

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Ex: select * from emp x, emp y where x.eid = y.mgrid

Sub Queries: A Subquery or Inner query or a Nested query is a query within another SQL query. A
subquery is used to return data that will be used in the main query as a condition to further restrict
the data to be retrieved.

Subqueries can be used with the SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE statements along with
the operators like =, <, >, >=, <=, IN, BETWEEN, etc.

Ex: select * from emp where did = (select did from dept where dname = ‘HR’)

Backup Tables:

There are two scenarios to take backup of the table data.

1. Backup table definition is not available, create a table and insert the data
2. Backup table definition is available, insert data into existing backup table

Select * Into: This is used to create the table and insert the data

Syntax: select * into new_table from old_table where [condition]

Ex: select * into emp_temp from emp

Select * into emp_temp from emp where did = 20

Insert into select: This is used to insert data into existing table

Syntax: Insert into table1 select * from table2 where [condition]

Ex: insert into emp_temp select * from emp

insert into emp_temp select * from emp where did = 20

Constraints: Constraints are used to specify rules for data in a table. Constraints are used to limit the
type of data that can go into a table. This ensures the accuracy and reliability of the data in the
table. If there is any violation between the constraint and the data action, the action is aborted.

Below is the list of constraints available in SQL:

1. Primary Key: It will not allow duplicate values, nulls. Only one primary key per table is
allowed.

Syntax: <col name><data type> primary key

2. Unique: It will not allow duplicate values. One Null value

Syntax: <col name><data type> unique

3. Not Null: It will not allow null values

Syntax: <col name><data type> not null

4. Check: To apply condition we need to use check

Syntax: <col name><data type> check(condition)

5. Default: To insert default value into the column

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Syntax: <col name><data type> default <value>

6. Foreign Key:(Referential Integrity) Foreign Key column of primary table should be the
primary key column of the referencing table

Syntax: <col name><data type> foreign key references <table name>(<col name>)

7. Composite Primary Key: Primary key will be applied on the combination of columns.

Syntax: Primary Key (col list)

Ex: create table dept (did int primary key, dname varchar(10))

create table emp

(eid int primary key,

ename varchar(20) not null,

age int check (age>18),

gender varchar(10) default 'NA',

email varchar(50) unique,

did int foreign key references dept(did)

Views: view is a virtual table based on the result-set of an SQL statement. View contains rows and
columns, similar to a table. A view can be created from one or more tables in a database.

View returns the updated data every time as it recreates the view every execution.

All actions can be performed on views similar to tables.

Creation of a view:

Syntax: create view view_name as select col_list from table_name where [condition]

Ex: create view emp_view as select * from emp where did = 10

Retrieving information from a view:

Syntax: select col_list from view_name

Ex: select * from emp_view

Deleting a view:

Syntax: Drop view view_name

Ex: drop view emp_view

Note: Insert, Update and Delete manipulations can be done on views. The manipulation will
be impacted on the original table.

Indexes: Indexes are used to speed up the retrieval of data from the database. Best practice is
creating indexes on the columns that will be frequently used from searching. Why because, updating
the table with indexes will take more time than updating tables without indexes as the indexes also
need to be updated.

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Types of Indexes:

1. Unique Index: It will not allow duplicate values

Syntax: create unique index index_name on table_name(col_name)

Ex: create unique index i1 on emp(eid)

2. Composite Index: It will create index on two or more columns

Syntax: create index index_name on table_name (col1, col2..coln)

Ex: create index i2 on emp(eid, did)

3. Implicit Index: Default index will be created on table columns of primary key and unique
4. Index: It will allow duplicates.

Syntax: create index index_name on table_name(col_name)

Ex: create index i3 on emp(eid)

Normalization: Normalization is the process of organizing data in a database. This includes creating
tables and establishing relationships between those tables according to rules designed both to
protect the data and to make the database more flexible by eliminating redundancy and
inconsistent dependency.

Types of Normalization Forms:

 1NF (First Normal Form)

 2NF (Second Normal Form)
 3NF (Third Normal Form)
 BCNF (Boyce-Codd Normal Form)
 4NF (Fourth Normal Form)
 5NF (Fifth Normal Form)
 6NF (Sixth Normal Form)

First Normal Form:

 Eliminate repeating groups in individual tables.

 Create a separate table for each set of related data.
 Identify each set of related data with a primary key.

Second Normal Form:

 Create separate tables for sets of values that apply to multiple records.
 Relate these tables with a foreign key.

Third Normal Form:

 Eliminate fields that do not depend on the key.

Denormalization: Denormalization is a database optimization technique in which we add

redundant data to one or more tables.

Pros of Denormalization:

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Retrieving data is faster since we do fewer joins

Queries to retrieve can be simpler (and therefore less likely to have bugs), since we need to
look at fewer tables.

Cons of Denormalization:

Updates and inserts are more expensive.

Denormalization can make updating and insert code harder to write.

Data may be inconsistent. Which is the “correct” value for a piece of data?

Data redundancy necessitates more storage.

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SQL Interview Questions:

1. Explain authentication modes in Sql Server

Ans: Windows and Mixed Mode

2. Explain about Joins

3. Is it possible to connect to other server from sql server?

Ans: SQL server can be connected to any database which has an OLE-DB provider to give a
link. Example: Oracle has an OLE-DB provider which has a link to connect with the SQL server
group.

4. What is a subquery?

Ans: A subquery is a query which can be nested inside a main query like Select, Update, Insert
or Delete statements. This can be used when expression is allowed.

Properties of sub query can be defined as

 A sub query should be placed in the right hand side of the comparison operator of
the main query
 A subquery should be enclosed in parenthesis because it needs to be executed first
before the main query
 More than one subquery can be included

5. What is a Trigger?

Ans: Triggers are used to execute a batch of SQL code when insert or update or delete
commands are executed against a table. Triggers are automatically triggered or executed
when the data is modified

6. Types of Triggers

Ans:

 Insert
 Delete
 Update
 Instead of

7. What is Identity?

Ans: IDENTITY column is used in table columns to make that column as Auto increment
number

8. What is the difference between UNION and UNION ALL?

9. How can we get count of the number of records in a table

Ans: select count (*) from table_name

10. What is the difference between COMMIT and ROLLBACK?

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Ans: Every statement between BEGIN and COMMIT becomes persistent to the database
when the COMMIT is executed. Every statement between BEGIN and ROLLBACK are reverted
to the state when the ROLLBACK was executed

11. How can data be copied from one table to another table?

Ans: INSERT INTO SELECT: This command is used to insert data into a table which is already
created.

Ex: Insert into <new table name> select * from <old table name>

SELECT INTO: This command is used to create a new table and its structure and data can be
copied from existing table

Ex: select * into <new table name> from <old table name>

12. How to delete duplicate rows in SQL Server?

Ans: WITH CTE AS(

SELECT eid, ename, salary, DOJ, Deptid,

RN = ROW_NUMBER()OVER(PARTITION BY eid ORDER BY eid)

FROM emp

Delete FROM CTE WHERE RN > 1

(OR)

select distinct * into emp2 from emp

truncate table emp

insert into emp select * from emp2

13. What is the query to find 4th highest salary?

Ans:

 When salary values are unique: select top 1 * from (select top 4 * from emp order by
salary desc) temp order by salary asc
 When salary values are having duplicates: select * from emp where salary = (select
top 1 * from (select top 3 * from (select distinct(salary) from emp ) temp1 order by
salary desc) temp2 order by salary asc)

14. What Is query?

Ans: Request to the database to perform some manipulation on DB

15. Explain Constraints

Ans: SQL constraints are a set of rules or conditions implemented on an RDBMS to specify
what data can be inserted, updated, or deleted in its tables. This is done to maintain data
integrity and ensure that the information stored in database tables is accurate.

16. What is the purpose of Indexes?

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Ans: An SQL index stores important parts of a database table to allow for a quick and
efficient lookup. Rather than searching the entire database, users only have to consult the
index during data retrieval. Indexes, therefore, help improve performance in an RDBMS

17. What is alias?

Ans: Aliases are temporary names given to tables or columns for the duration of a particular
SQL query

18. What is the difference between normalization and denormalization?

Ans: Normalization is the process of dividing data into tables to remove redundant data
and improve data integrity.

Denormalization is used to combine multiple tables in order to reduce the time required to
perform queries.

19. How do you select all even or odd numbers in a table?

Ans:

For even numbers, use ‘MOD (column name, 2) = 1’

For odd numbers, use ‘MOD (column name, 2) = 0’

20. Differences between delete and truncate

Delete Truncate

The DELETE command is used to delete While this command is used to delete all the rows from a
specific rows(one or more). table.

There may be a WHERE clause in the

While there will not be a WHERE clause in the TRUNCATE
DELETE command in order to filter the
command.
records.

The DELETE statement removes rows one TRUNCATE TABLE removes the data by deallocating the
at a time and records an entry in the data pages used to store the table data and records
transaction log for each deleted row. only the page deallocations in the transaction log.

The DELETE command is slower than the While the TRUNCATE command is faster than the DELETE
TRUNCATE command. command.

The delete can be used with indexed

Truncate cannot be used with indexed views.
views.

21. Write a query to get the count of employees from each department?

Ans: select Deptid, count(*) as No_of_Employees from emp group by deptid

22. Write a query to get the duplicate employee records from each department

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Ans: select Deptid, count(*) as No_of_Employees from emp group by deptid having
No_of_Employees > 1

23. Write a query to list all the employees whose name starts with ‘A’

Ans: select * from emp where ename like ‘A%’

24. write a query to list all the employees whose name starts with ‘A’ and ends with ‘N’

Ans: select * from emp where ename like ‘A%N’

25. Write a query to list all the employees whose name start with ‘A’ and ends with ‘N’ and 2
characters in between

Ans: select * from emp where ename like ‘A__N’ (Two underscores between A and N)

26. write a query to retrieve 2-4 highest salaries?

Ans: select * from emp order by salary

offset 1 rows

fetch next 4 rows only

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