1 - REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISMS

Reproduction is a process in which an organism produces young ones (offspring) similar to itself.
The period from birth to the natural death of an organism is known as its lifespan.
No individual is immortal, except unicellular organisms. There is no natural death in unicellular organisms.

Organis Lifespan Organism Lifespan Organism Lifespan

Rose 5-7 years Butterfly 1-2 weeks Tortoise 100-150 yrs
Life spans of Rice plant 3-7 months Fruit fly 2 weeks Crow 15 yrs
some
organisms Banyan tree 400+ yrs Parrot 140 yrs Cow 22 yrs
Banana tree 2 2-3 yrs Crocodile 60 yrs Elephant 50-70 yrs
Dog 22 yrs Horse 40-50 yrs

- Based on the number of participants, reproduction is 2 types: Asexual reproduction & Sexual reproduction

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
It is the production of offspring by a single parent.
It is seen in unicellular organisms, simple plants & animals.
The offspring are identical to one another and to their parent. Such morphologically and genetically
similar individuals are known as clone.

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TYPES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
a. Fission: In this, the parent cell divides (cell division)into two or more individuals. E.g. Protists and
Monerans. Fission is 2 types:
Binary fission: It is the division of parent cell into two individuals. E.g., Amoeba, Paramecium.
Multiple fission: It is the division of parent cell into many individuals. E.g. Plasmodium, Amoeba.

Under unfavourable condition, Amoeba withdraws its pseudopodia and secretes a 3-layered hard covering
(cyst) around itself. It is called encystation. Under favourable conditions, encysted Amoeba undergoes
multiple fission to give many minute amoeba or pseudopodiospores. The cyst wall bursts out and spores are
liberated to grow up into many amoebae. This is called sporulation

b. Budding: In this, a bud appears and grows in the parent body. After maturation, it is detached from
parent body to form new individual. E.g. Hydra, Sponge, Yeast etc.

c. Fragmentation: In this, the body breaks into distinct

pieces (fragments) and each fragment grows into an adult
capable of producing offspring. E.g. Hydra.

d. Vegetative propagation: It is the production of offspring

from vegetative propagules in plants. Vegetative
propagules are units of vegetative propagation.
EXAMPLES FOR VEGETATIVE PROPAGULES:
Buds (‘eyes’) of the potato tuber.
Rhizomes of banana & ginger.
Buds & Rhizomes arise from the nodes of modified stems.
The nodes come in contact with damp soil or water and produce roots and new plants.
Adventitious buds of Bryophyllum.
They arise from the notches at margins of leaves. Bulbil of Agave.
Offset of water hyacinth. Runner, sucker, tuber, bulb etc

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Other asexual reproductive structures: E.g. zoospores (microscopic motile structures in some algae and
protists), conidia (Penicillium) and gemmules (sponge).

Asexual reproduction is the common method in simple organisms like algae and fungi. During adverse
conditions, they can shift to sexual method.
Higher plants reproduce asexually (vegetative) & sexually. But most of the animals show only sexual
reproduction.

It is the reproduction that involves formation of male and female gametes, either by the same individual
or by different individuals of the opposite sex.
It results in offspring that are not identical to the parents or amongst themselves. - It is an elaborate,
complex and slow process as compared to asexual reproduction.

The period of growth to reach in maturity for sexual reproduction is called the juvenile phase. In plants, it
is known as vegetative phase.

In higher plants, the flowering indicates the end of vegetative phase (beginning of reproductive phase).
Annual & biennial plants show clear cut vegetative, reproductive & senescent phases. In perennial plants,
these phases are very difficult to identify.

- Some plants exhibit unusual flowering. E.g.

• Bamboo species flower only once in their lifetime (after 50-100 years), produce large number of fruits
and die.
• Strobilanthus kunthiana flowers once in 12 years.
- In animals, juvenile phase is followed by morphological & physiological changes prior to reproductive
behaviour.
- Birds living in nature lay eggs only seasonally. However, birds in captivity (e.g. poultry) can be made to lay
eggs throughout the year.
- The females of placental mammals exhibit cyclical changes in the ovaries, accessory ducts and hormones
during the reproductive phase. It is called oestrus cycle in nonprimates (cows, sheep, rat, deer, dog, tiger
etc.) and menstrual cycle in primates (monkeys, apes & humans).

Based on breeding season, mammals are 2 types:

a. Seasonal breeders: The mammals (living in natural conditions) exhibiting reproductive cycles only
during favourable seasons.
b. Continuous breeders: They are reproductively active throughout their reproductive phase.
Senescence (old age):
- It is the last phase of lifespan and end of reproductivephase.
- During this, concomitant changes occur in the body. E.g. slowing of metabolism etc. It ultimately leads to
death.

In plants & animals, hormones cause transition between juvenile, reproductive & senescence phases.
Interaction between hormones and environmental factors regulate the reproductive processes and the
associated behavioural expressions of organisms.

EVENTS IN SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

3 stages: Pre-fertilisation, Fertilisation & Postfertilisation events.

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1. Pre-fertilisation Events
These are the events prior to the fusion of gametes. They include gametogenesis and gamete transfer.
a. Gametogenesis
It is the formation of male and female gametes.
Gametes (haploid cells) are 2 types:

a. Homogametes (isogametes): Similar gametes. They cannot categorize into male & female gametes. E.g.
Some algae like Cladophora.
b. Heterogametes: The male and female gametes are distinct types. Male gamete is called antherozoid
(sperm) and female gamete is called egg (ovum). E.g. Fucus (an alga), Human beings etc.

Sexuality (bisexual or unisexual) in organisms:

Bisexual: Male & female reproductive structures present in the same individual.
Bisexual plants: E.g. Hibiscus, Pisum. In flowering plants, male flower is staminate (bears stamens) and
female flower is pistillate (bears pistils).
If male & female flowers are present on same plant, it is called monoecious. E.g. Cucurbits, coconuts, Chara.
Bisexual animals (hermaphrodites): E.g. Earthworms, leech, sponge, tapeworm, etc.
b. Unisexual: Male and female reproductive structures are present on different individuals. If male & female
flowers are present on different plants, it is called dioecious. E.g. papaya, date palm, Marchantia

Unisexual animals: E.g. Cockroach, higher animals etc. Fungi may be homothallic (bisexual) or heterothallic
(unisexual).

Cell division during gamete formation:

- Many monerans, fungi, algae & bryophytes have haploid parental body. They produce haploid gametes by
mitosis.
- Pteridophytes, gymnosperms, angiosperms & animals have diploid parental body. They produce haploid
gametes by meiosis of meiocytes (gamete mother cell).

Chromosome number
Name of organism
In meiocytes (2n) In gametes (n)

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Human being 46 23
Housefly 12 6
Rat 42 21
Dog 78 39
Cat 38 19
Fruit fly 8 4
Ophioglossum 1260 630
Apple 34 17
Rice 24 12
Maize 20 10
Potato 48 24
Butterfly 380 190
Onion 16 8

b. Gamete Transfer
Male gametes need a medium to move towards female gametes for fertilisation.
In most organisms, male gamete is motile and the female gamete is stationary. In some fungi and algae,
both types of gametes are motile.
In simple plants (algae, bryophytes & pteridophytes), gamete transfer takes place through water
medium. To compensate the loss of male gametes during transport, large number of male gametes is
produced.
In seed plants, pollen grains (in anthers) carry male gametes and ovule carries the egg. Pollen grains are
transferred to the stigma.
In bisexual self-fertilizing plants (e.g. peas), anthers & stigma are closely located for easy transfer of
pollen grains.
In cross pollinating plants (including dioecious plants), pollination helps in transfer of pollen grains. Pollen
grains germinate on the stigma and the pollen tubes carrying the male gametes reach the ovule and
discharge male gametes near the egg.
In dioecious animals, the fertilisation helps for successful transfer and coming together of gametes.
 2. Fertilisation (syngamy)
It is the fusion of gametes to form a diploid zygote.
In rotifers, honeybees, some lizards, birds (turkey) etc., female gamete develops to new organisms
without fertilisation. This is called parthenogenesis.
Types of fertilization:
a. External fertilisation: Syngamy occurs in the external medium (water), i.e. zygote is formed outside the
body.
E.g. most aquatic organisms (many algae, bony fishes etc.) and amphibians.
Such organisms show synchrony between the sexes and release large number of gametes into the
surrounding medium to ensure syngamy.
Disadvantage: The offspring are extremely vulnerable to predators threatening their survival up to
adulthood.

b. Internal fertilisation:
Syngamy occurs inside the body of the organism. E.g. terrestrial organisms, belonging to fungi, animals

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(reptiles, birds, mammals) & plants (bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms & angiosperms). In this, non-
motile egg is formed inside the female body to where motile male gamete reaches and fuses. In seed
plants, the non-motile male gametes are carried to female gamete by pollen tubes.
There is large number of sperms produced but the number of eggs is very low.

3. Post-fertilisation Events
These are the events after the formation of zygote.
Zygote
Development of the zygote depends on the type of life cycle of the organism and the nature of
environment.
In fungi and algae, zygote develops a thick wall that is resistant to desiccation and damage. It
undergoes a period of rest before germination.
In organisms with haplontic life cycle, zygote divides by meiosis into haploid spores that grow into
haploid individuals.
Sexually reproducing organisms begin life as a zygote.
Zygote is the vital link between organisms of one generation and the next.

Embryogenesis
It is the development of embryo from the zygote.
During embryogenesis, zygote undergoes cell division (mitosis) and cell differentiation.
Cell divisions increase the number of cells in the embryo. Cell differentiation causes the modifications of
groups of cells into various tissues and organs to form an organism.

Based on place of zygote development, animals are 2 types:

a. Oviparous: Here, animals lay fertilized/unfertilized eggs. E.g. Reptiles & birds lay fertilized eggs covered
by hard calcareous shell. After incubation, young ones hatch out.
b. Viviparous: Here, zygote develops into a young one inside the female body. Later, the young ones are
delivered out of the body. E.g. most of mammals. It shows proper care and protection. So the chances of
survival of young ones are greater.

Embryogenesis in flowering plants (see next chapter)

 2 - SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN
FLOWERING PLANTS
All flowering plants (angiosperms) show sexual reproduction. Flowers are the sites of sexual reproduction.

PRE-FERTILISATION: STRUCTURES & EVENTS

Several hormonal and structural changes result in differentiation & development of the floral
primordium.
Inflorescences bear the floral buds and then the flowers

A typical flower has 2 parts: Androecium & Gynoecium.

Androecium (male reproductive part)
It consists of a whorl of stamens. Their number and length are variable in different species.
A stamen has 2 parts:
a. Filament: Long and slender stalk. Its proximal end is attached to the thalamus or the petal of the flower.
b. Anther: Terminal and typically bilobed. Each lobe has 2 thecae (dithecous). Often a longitudinal groove

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runs lengthwise separating the theca.
Transverse section of anther:

The anther is a tetragonal structure consisting of four microsporangia located at the corners (2 in each
lobe).
The microsporangia develop to pollen sacs. They extend longitudinally all through the length of an anther
and are packed with pollen grains.
Structure of a microsporangium:
A typical microsporangium is near circular in outline.
It is surrounded by 4 wall layers: epidermis, endothecium, middle layers & tapetum (innermost layer).
The outer 3 layers give protection and help in dehiscence of anther to release the pollen.
The tapetum nourishes the developing pollen grains. Cells of the tapetum contain dense cytoplasm and
generally have more than one nucleus.
In young anther, each microsporangium has sporogenous tissue at centre. It consists of compactly
arranged homogenous diploid cells (sporogenous cells).
Microsporogenesis:
As the anther develops, each sporogenous cell (microspore mother cell or pollen mother cell) undergoes
meiotic divisions to form microspore tetrads (microspores arranged in a cluster of four cells).
Formation of microspores from pollen mother cell (PMC) through meiosis is called microsporogenesis.
As the anthers mature and dehydrate, the microspores dissociate from each other and develop into
pollen grains.
Each microsporangium contains thousands of pollen grains. They are released with the dehiscence of
anther.
Pollen grain (male gametophyte):
Generally spherical. 25-50 µm in diameter. Cytoplasm is surrounded by a plasma membrane.
A pollen grain has a two-layered wall: exine and intine.
Exine: Hard outer layer. Made up of sporopollenin (highly resistant organic material). It can withstand high
temperature and strong acids and alkali. Enzymes cannot degrade sporopollenin. Exine has apertures
called germ pores where sporopollenin is absent. Pollen grains are preserved as fossils due to the
presence of sporopollenin. Exine exhibits patterns and designs.
Intine: Inner wall. It is a thin and continuous layer made up of cellulose and pectin.
A matured pollen grain contains 2 cells:
Vegetative cell: It is bigger, has abundant food reserve and a large
irregularly shaped nucleus.
Generative cell: It is small and floats in the cytoplasm of the vegetative
cell. It is spindle shaped with dense cytoplasm and a nucleus.

Over 60% angiosperms shed their pollen grains at 2-celled stage. In others, generative cell divides

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mitotically to give 2 male gametes. Thus pollen grains are shed at 3-celled stage.
The shed pollen grains have to land on the stigma before they lose viability. The viability period of pollen
grains is variable. It depends on temperature and humidity.
Viability of pollen grains of some cereals (rice, wheat etc.) is 30 minutes. Some members of Leguminoseae,
Rosaceae & Solanaceae have viability for months.
Economic importance of pollen grains:
These are rich in nutrients. Pollen tablets are used as food supplements. Pollen tablets & syrups increase
performance of athletes and race horses.
They are stored for years in liquid nitrogen (-1960C). They can be used as pollen banks in crop breeding
programmes.
Pollen grains of some plants (e.g. Parthenium or carrot grass) are allergic for some people. It leads to
chronic respiratory disorders (asthma, bronchitis, etc.).
Gynoecium (female reproductive part)
It may have a single pistil (monocarpellary) or more than one pistil (multicarpellary).
In multicarpellary, the pistils may be fused together (syncarpous) or free (apocarpous).

1. Hibiscus pistil.
2. Multicarpellary,
syncarpous
pistil of
Papaver.
3. Multicarpellary,
apocarpous
gynoecium of
Michelia

Each pistil has three parts:

Stigma: Landing platform for pollen grains.
Style: Elongated slender part beneath the stigma.
Ovary: Basal bulged part. It has ovarian cavity (locule) in which placenta islocated. Arising from the
placenta are the ovules (megasporangia). Number of ovules in an ovary may be one (wheat, paddy,
mango etc.) to many (papaya, water melon, orchids etc.).
Structure of Megasporangium (Ovule):
Ovule is attached to the placenta by a stalk (funicle).
Junction between the body of ovule and funicle is called hilum.
Each ovule has 1 or 2 protective envelopes (integuments) except at the tip
where a small opening (micropyle) is present.
Opposite the micropylar end is the chalaza (basal part).
Enclosed within the integuments, there is a mass of cells called nucellus. Its
cells contain reserve food materials.
Inside the nucellus is embryo sac (female gametophyte).
An ovule generally has a single embryo sac formed from a megaspore.
Megasporogenesis:
It is the formation of megaspores from megaspore mother cell (MMC).
Ovules generally differentiate a single MMC in micropylar region of the nucellus. It is a large cell
containing dense cytoplasm and a prominent nucleus.
MMC undergoes meiosis to produce 4 megaspores.

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Formation of Female gametophyte (embryo sac):
In majority of flowering plants, one megaspore is functional while the other three degenerates.
The functional megaspore develops into the female gametophyte. The embryo sac formation from a
single megaspore is called monosporic development.
Nucleus of the functional megaspore divides mitotically to form two nuclei. They move to the opposite
poles, forming 2-nucleate embryo sac.
The nuclei again divide two times forming 4-nucleate and 8-nucleate stages of the embryo sac.

These divisions are free nuclear, i.e. nuclear divisions are not followed immediately by cell wall formation.
After the 8-nucleate stage, cell walls are laid down leading to the organization of the typical female
gametophyte.
6 of the 8 nuclei are surrounded by cell walls and organized into cells. Remaining 2 nuclei (polar nuclei) are
situated below the egg apparatus in the large central cell.
Distribution of cells within the embryo sac:
A typical mature embryo sac is 8-nucleate and 7-celled.
3 cells (2 synergids + one egg cell) are grouped at the micropylar end and form egg apparatus. Synergids
have special cellular thickenings at the micropylar tip called filiform apparatus. It helps to guide the pollen
tubes into the synergid.
3 cells (antipodals) at the chalazal end.
A large central cell with two polar nuclei.
 POLLINATION
It is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of a pistil.
Based on the source of pollen, pollination is 3 types:
a. Autogamy (self-pollination): It is the transfer of pollen grains from the
anther to stigma of the same flower.
In flowers with exposed anthers & stigma, complete autogamy is rare.
Autogamy in such flowers requires synchrony in pollen release and stigma
receptivity. Also, anthers & stigma should be close to each other.
Plants like Viola (common pansy), Oxalis & Commelina produce 2 types of
flowers:
Chasmogamous flowers: They are similar to flowers of other species with exposed anthers and stigma.
Cleistogamous flowers: They do not open at all. Anthers & stigma lie close to each other. They are
autogamous. When anthers dehisce in the flower buds, pollen grains come in contact with stigma for
pollination. Cleistogamous flowers produce assured seed-set even in the absence of pollinators.
Cleistogamy leads to inbreeding depression.

b.Geitonogamy: It is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of another flower of the
same plant. It is functionally cross-pollination involving a pollinating agent. But it is genetically similar to
autogamy since the pollen grains come from the same plant.
c. Xenogamy: It is the transfer of pollen grains from anther to the stigma of a different plant. It brings
genetically different pollen grains to the stigma.
Agents of Pollination

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1. Abiotic agents (wind & water)
Pollination by wind (anemophily):
More common abiotic agent
Wind pollinated flowers often have a single ovule in each ovary and numerous flowers packed into an
inflorescence.
E.g. Corncob – the tassels are the stigma and style which wave in the wind to trap pollen grains. Wind-
pollination is quite common in grasses.
Ways for effective pollination:
1. The flowers produce enormous amount of pollen.
2. Pollen grains are light and non-sticky.
3. They often possess well-exposed stamens (for easy dispersion of pollens into wind currents).
4. Large, feathery stigma to trap air-borne pollen grains

Pollination by water (hydrophily):

It is quite rare. It is limited to about 30 genera, mostly monocotyledons. E.g. Vallisneria & Hydrilla (fresh
water), Zostera (marine sea-grasses) etc.
But in lower plants, water is a regular mode of transport for the male gametes. Distribution of some
bryophytes & pteridophytes is limited because they need water for the transport of male gametes and
fertilisation.
In Vallisneria, the female flower reaches the surface of water by the long stalk and the male flowers or
pollen grains are released on to the surface of water. They are carried by water currents and reach the
female flowers.
In sea grasses, female flowers remain submerged in water. Pollen grains are long and ribbon like. They
are carried inside the water and reach the stigma.
The pollen grains of most of the water-pollinated species have a mucilaginous covering to protect from
wetting.
Not all aquatic plants use hydrophily. In most of aquatic plants (water hyacinth, water lily etc.), the
flowers emerge above the level of water for entomophily or anemophily.
Wind and water pollinated flowers are not very colourful and do not produce nectar.
 2. Biotic agents (animals)
Majority of flowering plants use animals as pollinating agents. E.g. Bees, butterflies, flies, beetles, wasps,
ants, moths, birds (sunbirds & humming birds) bats, primates (lemurs), arboreal (tree-dwelling) rodents,
reptiles (gecko lizard & garden lizard) etc.
Pollination by insects (Entomophily), particularly bees is more common
- Often flowers of animal pollinated plants are specifically adapted for a particular species of animal.
Features of insect-pollinated flowers:
1. Large, colourful, fragrant and rich in nectar. Nectar & pollen grains are the floral rewards for pollination.
2. Small flowers form inflorescence to make them visible.
3. The flowers pollinated by flies and beetles secrete foul odours to attract these animals.
4. The pollen grains are generally sticky.
When the animal comes in contact with the anthers and the stigma, its body gets pollen grains. When it
comes in contact with the stigma, it results in pollination
Some plants provide safe places as floral reward to layeggs. E.g. Amorphophallus (It has the tallest
flower of 6 feet). A moth species and the plant Yucca cannot complete their life cycles without each other.
The moth deposits its eggs in the locule of ovary. The flower gets pollinated bymoth. The larvae come
out of the eggs as seeds start developing
Many insects consume pollen or nectar without bringing about pollination. They are called pollen/nectar
robbers
Outbreeding Devices
Hermaphrodite flowers can undergo self-pollination. Continued self-pollination results in inbreeding
depression. To avoid self-pollination (autogamy) and encourage crosspollination, there are some devices in
plants:

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Avoiding synchronization: Here, the pollen is released before the stigma becomes receptive or stigma
becomes receptive before the release of pollen.
Arrangement of anther & stigma at differentpositions
Self-incompatibility: It is a genetic mechanism to prevent self-pollen (from same flower or other flowers
of the same plant) from fertilization by inhibiting pollen germination or pollen tube growth in the pistil.
Production of unisexual flowers: If male & female flowers are present on the same plant (i.e., monoecious,
e.g. castor & maize), it prevents autogamy but not geitonogamy. In dioecious plants (e.g. papaya), male
and female flowers are present on different plants (dioecy). This prevents both autogamy and
geitonogamy.
Pollen-pistil Interaction
It is a process in which pistil recognizes compatible or incompatible pollen through
the chemical components produced by them.
Pistil accepts compatible pollen and promotes postpollination events.
It rejects incompatible pollen by preventing pollen germination or pollen tube
growth.
- Pollen grain germinates on the stigma to produce a pollen tube through one of the
germ pores. The contents of pollen grain move into pollen tube. Pollen tube
growsthrough the tissues ofstigma and style and reaches the ovary.
In plants which shed pollen grains at 2-celled condition (a vegetative cell & a
generative cell), the generative cell divides into two male gametes during pollen
tube growth.
In plants which shed pollen in 3-celled condition, pollen tubes carry 2 male gametes from the beginning.
Pollen tube → ovary → micropyle → ovule → enters one of the synergids through filiform apparatus.
Filiform apparatus guides the entry of pollen tube.
 A plant breeder can manipulate pollen-pistil interaction, even in incompatible pollinations, to get desired
hybrids
Artificial hybridisation
It is a crop improvement programme in which desired pollen grains are used for pollination.
Steps:
1. Emasculation: Removal of anthers from the bisexual flower bud of female parent before the anther
dehisces.
2. Bagging: Here, emasculated flowers are covered with a bag (butter paper) to prevent contamination of its
stigma with unwanted pollen.
3. Pollination: When stigma attains receptivity, pollen grains collected from male parent are dusted on the
stigma.
4. Rebagging the flowers. It is allowed to develop the fruits
For unisexual flowers, there is no need for emasculation. Female flower buds are bagged before the flowers
open.

DOUBLE FERTILISATION
After entering the synergid, the pollen tube releases 2 male gametes into the
cytoplasm of the synergid. One male gamete moves towards the egg cell and fuses
with its nucleus (syngamy) to form zygote (diploid).
The other male gamete moves towards the two polar nuclei located in the central cell
and fuses with them to produce a triploid primary endosperm nucleus (PEN). Asit
involves fusion of 3 haploid nuclei, it is called triple fusion.
Since 2 types of fusions (syngamy & triple fusion) take place in an embryo sac, it is

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called double fertilisation.
It is an event unique to flowering plants
The central cell after triple fusion becomes the primary endosperm cell (PEC) and
develops into the endosperm while the zygote develops into an embryo.

POST- FERTILISATION: STRUCTURES & EVENTS

Post-fertilisation events: Endosperm & embryo development, maturation of ovule(s) into seed(s) & ovary into
fruit.
Endosperm development
- Primary endosperm cell (PEC) divides repeatedly to form a triploid endosperm tissue.
Endosperm cells are filled with reserve food materials. They are used for nutrition of the developing
embryo.
In common endosperm development, PEN undergoes successive nuclear divisions to give free nuclei
(freenuclear endosperm). Number of free nuclei varies greatly.
Endosperm becomes cellular due to cell wall formation.
Tender coconut water is a free-nuclear endosperm (made up of thousands of nuclei) and the surrounding
white kernel is the cellular endosperm.
Embryo development
Embryo develops at the micropylar end of the embryo sac where the zygote is situated.
Most zygotes divide only after the formation of some endosperm. This provides nutrition to developing
embryo.
In monocots & dicots, seeds differ greatly but embryogeny (early embryonic developments) is similar.
Zygote →
Pro-embryo → Globular → Heart-shaped →
Mature embryo.
Dicotyledonous embryo
It has an embryonal axis and 2 cotyledons.
Portion of embryonal axis above the level of cotyledons is the epicotyl, which terminates with plumule
(stem tip).
The cylindrical portion below the level of cotyledons is hypocotyl that terminates with the radicle (root
tip). The root tip is covered with a root cap.
Monocotyledonous embryo
They possess only one cotyledon.
Cotyledon of the grass family is called scutellum.
It is situated lateral to the embryonal axis. At its lower end, the embryonal axis has the radicle and root
cap enclosed in coleorrhiza (an undifferentiated sheath).
Portion of embryonal axis above the level of attachment of scutellum is the epicotyl. It has a shoot apex
and a few leaf primordia enclosed in coleoptile (a hollow foliar structure).

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Seed from Ovule
Seed is the fertilized ovule formed inside fruits. It is the final product of sexual reproduction.
It consists of seed coat(s), cotyledon(s) & an embryo axis.
The cotyledons are simple, generally thick and swollen due to storage food (as in legumes).
Mature seeds are 2 types:
1. Non-albuminous (Ex-albuminous) seeds: Have no residual endosperm as it is completely consumed during
embryo development. E.g. pea, groundnut, beans.
2. Albuminous seeds: Retain a part of endosperm. E.g. wheat, maize, barley, castor, coconut.
Occasionally, in some seeds (black pepper, beet etc.) remnants of nucellus are also persistent. It is called
perisperm.
Integuments of ovules harden as tough protective seed coats. It has a small pore (micropyle) through
which O2 & water enter into the seed during germination.
As the seed matures, it becomes dry by reducing water content (10-15 % moisture by mass). The
metabolic activity of the embryo slows down. It may enter a state of inactivity (dormancy). Under
favourable conditions (moisture, oxygen & suitable temperature), they germinate.
Advantages of seeds:
Since pollination and fertilisation are independent of water, seed formation is more dependable.
Better adaptive strategies for dispersal to new habitats. It helps the species to colonize in other areas.
They have food reserves. So seedlings are nourished until they are capable of photosynthesis.
The hard seed coat protects the young embryo.
Being products of sexual reproduction, they generate new genetic combinations and variations.
Dehydration & dormancy helpsto store seeds. It can be used as food throughout year and to raise crop in
next season
Viability of seeds after dispersal:
In a few species, the seeds lose viability within a few months. Seeds of many species live for several years.
Some seeds can remain alive for hundreds of years. The oldest is that of a lupine (Lupinus arcticus)
excavated from Arctic Tundra. The seed germinated and flowered after an estimated record of 10,000
years of dormancy.
2000 years old viable seed is of the date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) discovered during the archeological
excavation at King Herod’s palace near the Dead Sea.
Fruit from Ovary
The ovary develops into a fruit. Transformation of ovules into seeds and ovary into fruit
proceedssimultaneously.
The wall of ovary develops into pericarp (wall of fruit).
The fruits may be fleshy (e.g. guava, orange, mango, etc.) or dry (e.g. groundnut, mustard etc.).
Fruits are 2 types:
1. True fruits: In this, fruit develops only from the ovary. Other floral parts degenerate & fall off. E.g. most

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plants.
2. False fruits: In this, the thalamus also contributes to fruit formation. E.g. apple, strawberry, cashew etc.
In some species, fruits develop without fertilisation. Such fruits are called parthenocarpic fruits. E.g.
Banana
Parthenocarpy can be induced through the application of growth hormones. Such fruits are seedless.

APOMIXIS AND POLYEMBRYONY

Apomixis is the production of seeds without fertilisation. E.g. Some species of Asteraceae and grasses.
It is a form of asexual reproduction that mimics sexual reproduction.
In some species, diploid egg cell isformed without reduction division and develops into the embryo without
fertilisation.
In many species (e.g. many Citrus & Mango varieties)some nucellar cells surrounding the embryo sac
divide, protrude into the embryo sac to form embryos. Thus eachovule contains many embryos.
Occurrence of more than one embryo in a seed is called polyembryony.
Importance of apomixis in hybrid seed industry
If the seeds collected from hybrids are sown, plants in the progeny will segregate and lose hybrid
characters.
- Production of hybrid seeds is costly. So hybrid seeds are also expensive. If the hybrids are made into
apomicts, there is no segregation in the hybrid progeny. So farmers can keep on using hybrid seeds to
raise new crop.
 3 - HUMAN REPRODUCTION
Reproduction is the production of young ones by an organism. Humans are sexually reproducing and
viviparous.

HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

1. Male Reproductive System
It consists of paired testes, Accessory ducts, Accessory glands & external genitalia (penis).

a. Paired testes
Primary sex organs that produce sperms & testosterone.
Testes are formed within the abdomen. Soon after the birth or at the 8th month of pregnancy they
descent into the scrotal sac (scrotum) through inguinal canal.
The low temperature (2-2.50 C less than the body temperature) of scrotum helps for proper functioning

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of testes and for spermatogenesis.
Each testis is oval shaped. Length 4-5 cm, width: 2-3cm.
Each lobule contains 1-3 coiled seminiferous tubules.
Seminiferous tubule is lined internally with spermatogonia (male germ cells) & Sertoli cells (supporting
cells).
Sertoli cells give shape and nourishment to developing spermatogonia.
The regions outside the seminiferous tubules (interstitial spaces) contain small blood vessels, interstitial
cells (Leydig cells) and immunologically competent cells
Leydig cells secrete testicular hormones (androgens).

DOUBLE FERTILISATION
b. Accessory ducts (Duct system)
Include rete testis, vasa efferentia, epididymis & vas deferens. They conduct sperms from testis
asfollows:
Seminiferous tubules → rete testis (irregular cavities)→vasa efferentia (series of fine tubules) →
epididymis (stores sperms temporarily) → vas deferens →
join with duct of seminal vesicle to form
ejaculatory duct → urethra → urethral meatus.
Urethra receives ducts of prostate and Cowper’s glands
c. Accessory glands
Include a prostate gland, a pair of seminal vesicles and a pair of Cowper’s glands (bulbo-urethral glands)
Their collective secretion (seminal plasma) is rich in fructose, Ca and enzymes.
Seminal plasma + sperms → semen
 Functions of seminal plasma:
1. Helps for transporting sperms
2. Supplies nutrients to sperms
3. Provides alkalinity to counteract the acidity of uterus.
4. Secretions of Cowper’s glands lubricate the penis.
Secretions of epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicle & prostate help for maturation and motility of
sperms
d. Penis (external genitalia)
It is a copulatory organ made of erectile spongy tissue.
When spongy tissue is filled with blood, the penis erects. It facilitates insemination.
The cone-shaped tip of the penis is called glans penis. It is covered by prepuce (foreskin).

a. Paired ovaries
Primary sex organs which produce ova (female gamete) & steroid ovarian hormones (estrogen &
progesterone).
Each ovary is 2-4 cm in length.

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They are located on both side of the lower abdomen and connected to the pelvic wall and uterus by
ligaments.
Each ovary is covered by a thin epithelium which encloses the ovarian stroma.
The stroma has outer cortex and inner medulla.
Ovary contains groups of cells (Ovarian follicles). Each follicle carries a centrally placed ovum.
b. Accessory ducts (Duct system)
Include 2 oviducts (Fallopian tubes), a uterus & vagina.
Oviducts: Each oviduct (10-12 cm long) has 3 parts:
1. Infundibulum: Funnel-shaped opening provided with many finger-like fimbriae. It helps to collect the
ovum.
2. Ampulla: Wider part.
3. • Isthmus: Narrow part. It joins the uterus
The ciliated epithelium lined the lumen of the oviduct drives the ovum towards the uterus.
Uterus (womb): It is inverted pear shaped. It is supported by ligaments attached to the pelvic wall.
Uterus has 3 parts- Upper fundus, middle body and terminal cervix. Cervix opens to vagina.
Cervical canal and vagina forms birth canal.
The uterine wall has 3 layers:
1. Perimetrium: External thin membrane.
2. Myometrium: Middle thick layer of smooth muscle.
3. Endometrium: Inner glandular and vascular layer.
Vagina: It opens to the exterior between urethra & anus. The lumen of vagina is lined by a glycogen-rich
mucous membrane consisting of sensitive papillae & Bartholin’s glands. Bartholin’s glands secrete mucus
that lubricates the penis during sexual act.
c. External genitalia (vulva or pudendum)
Consist of Mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, hymen & clitoris.
Mons pubis: A cushion of fatty tissue covered by pubichair
Labia majora: Large, fleshy, fatty and hairy outer folds. Surrounds vaginal opening
 Hymen (Maiden head): A membrane which partially cover the vaginal opening. It is often torn during the
first coitus. It may also be broken by a sudden fall or jolt, insertion of a vaginal tampon; active
participation in some sports items etc. In some women, hymen persists after coitus. So the hymen is not a
reliable indicator of virginity or sexual experience.
Clitoris: A highly sensitive organ lying just in front of the urethral opening.

Mammary glands (breasts)

A pair of mammary glands contains glandular tissue & fat.

Glandular tissue of each breast has 15-20 mammary lobes containing clusters of cells (mammary alveoli).
Cells of alveoli secrete milk. It is stored in lumen of alveoli.
The alveoli open into mammary tubules.

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The tubules of each lobe join to form a mammary duct.
Several mammary ducts join to form a wider mammary ampulla which is connected to lactiferous duct
through which milk is sucked out.

GAMETOGENESIS
It is the formation of gametes in the gonads.
It is 2 types: Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis.
1. Spermatogenesis
It is the process of formation of sperms (spermatozoa) in seminiferous tubules of testis. It has 2 stages:
a. Formation of spermatids: In this, Sperm mother cells (Spermatogonia or male germ cells) produce
spermatids.
b. Spermiogenesis: Spermatids transform into sperm.
Schematic representation of spermatogenesis

4 spermatids are formed from each primary spermatocyte.

After spermiogenesis, sperm heads are embedded in Sertoli cells to get nourishment. Then they are
released to lumen of seminiferous tubules. It is called spermiation.
 Role of Hormones in Spermatogenesis
Hypothalamus releases Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH).
GnRH stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to secrete 2 gonadotropins such as Luteinizing hormone (LH)
and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH).
LH acts on the Leydig cells and stimulates secretion of androgens. Androgens stimulate the
spermatogenesis
FSH acts on the Sertoli cells and stimulates secretion of some factors for the spermiogenesis.

Structure of spermatozoa (Sperm)

A mature sperm is about 60 µ (0.06 mm) long.

A plasma membrane envelops the whole body of sperm.
A sperm has 3 regions:
1. Head: Oval shaped. Formed of nucleus and acrosome. Acrosome is formed from
Golgi complex. It contains lytic enzymes. Behind the head is a neck.
2. Middle piece: Composed of axial filament surrounded by mitochondria & cytoplasm.
Mitochondria produce energy for the sperm motility.
3. Tail: Consists of a central axial filament. The sperm moves in fluid medium and
female genital tract by the undulating movement of the tail.
Man ejaculates 200-300 million sperms during a coitus.
For normal fertility, at least 60% sperms must have normal shape and size. 40% of
them must show vigorousmotility.

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2. OOGENESIS
It is the process of formation and maturation of ovum.
It takes place in Graafian follicles.
Oogenesis is initiated in embryonic stage when 2 million of egg mother cells (oogonia) are formed within
each ovary.

No more oogonia are formed and added after birth.

- Oogonia multiply to form primary oocytes. They enter prophase-I of the meiosis and get temporarily
arrested at that stage.
Each primary oocyte gets surrounded by a layer of granulosa cells to form primary follicle.
Many primary follicles degenerate during the phase from birth to puberty. Therefore, at puberty, only
60,000-80,000 primary follicles are left in each ovary.
Primary follicles get surrounded by more layers of granulosa cells and a new theca to form
secondaryfollicles.
The secondary follicles transform into a tertiary follicle. It has a fluid filled cavity (antrum). The theca layer
forms an inner theca interna and an outer theca externa.
The primary oocyte in tertiary follicle grows and undergoes first unequal meiotic division to form a large
secondary oocyte (n) & a tiny first polar body (n). So, secondary oocyte retains nutrient rich cytoplasm of
primary oocyte.
It is unknown that whether the first polar body divides further or degenerates.
The tertiary follicle further changes into the mature follicle (Graafian follicle).
Secondary oocyte forms a new membrane (zona pellucida).
Graafian follicle now ruptures to release the secondary oocyte (ovum) from the ovary. This is called
ovulation.
 Spherical and non-motile. About 0.2 mm in diameter.
Ovum has 3 membranes:
1. . Plasma membrane: Innermost layer.
2. Zona pellucida: Outer to the plasma membrane.
3. Corona radiata: Outer layer formed of follicle cells.
Spermatogenesis & Oogenesis- A comparison

Spermatogenesis Oogenesis
Occurs in testis. Occurs in ovary
Limited growth phase Elaborated growth phase
Each primary spermatocyte gives 4
Each primary oocyte gives one ovum.
sperms.

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No polar body formation Polar bodies are formed
Begins at embryonic stage but
Begins at puberty and extends up to
suspends up to puberty. It ceases
senility
around the age of fifty.

MENSTRUAL CYCLE (REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE)

It is the cyclic events starting from one menstruation till the next during the reproductive period (from
puberty to menopause) of a woman’s life.
Its duration is 28 or 29 days.
Menstrual cycle is also seen in other primates.
Menstrual cycle includes Ovarian cycle (changes in ovary) & Uterine cycle (changes in uterus, oviduct &
vagina).
Menstrual cycle has the following phases:
I. Menstrual phase: 1-5th day
The cycle starts with menstrual flow (bleeding).
It lasts for 3-5 days.
Menstruation occurs if the released ovum is not fertilized. It results in breakdown of endometrial lining
and uterine blood vessels that comes out through vagina.
Lack of menstruation indicates pregnancy. It may also be caused due to stress, poor health etc.
Menarche: The first menstruation during puberty.
II. Follicular (Proliferative) phase: 5-13 th day
It starts from 5 th day after menstruation and completed within 8-12 days.
In this phase, the action of gonadotropins (FSH &LH) from pituitary occurs. FSH stimulates.
Development of primary follicles into Graafian follicles.
Secretion of oestrogens by Graafian follicles.
Oestrogens stimulate
Proliferation of ruptured uterine endometrium and mucus lining of oviduct & vagina.
Development of secondary sexual characters.
o Suppression of FSH secretion.
Secretion of LH (Luteinizing hormone).
 III. Ovulatory phase: 14th day
LH & FSH attain a peak level in the middle of cycle.
Rapid secretion of LH (LH surge) induces rupture of Graafian follicle and thereby ovulation (on 14th day).

IV. Secretory (Luteal) phase: 15-28th day

After ovulation, Graafian follicle istransformed to a yellow endocrine mass called Corpus luteum. It
secretes progesterone.
Functions of progesterone:
Makes the endometrium maximum vascular, thickand soft. Thus, the uterus gets ready for
implantation.
Inhibits the FSH secretion to prevent development of a second ovarian follicle.
If fertilization does not occur, corpus luteum degenerates. It causes disintegration of endometrium. It
leads to next menstruation and new cycle.
- If a woman becomes pregnant, all events of menstrual cycle stop and there is no menstruation.
Menstrual cycle ceases around 50 years of age. It is called Menopause.

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Menstrual hygiene:
Take bath and clean body regularly.
Use sanitary napkins or clean homemade pads.
Change them after every 4–5 hrs as per the requirement.
Dispose the used napkins or pads properly. Do not throw them in the drainpipe of toilets or in the open
area.
After handling the napkin, wash hands with soap.

FERTILIZATION AND IMPLANTATION

During copulation, semen is released by the penis into the vagina. It is called insemination.
Fusion of a sperm with ovum is called fertilization. It occurs in Ampullary region of fallopian tube.

SPERMS → VAGINA → CERVICAL CANAL → UTERUS → ISTHMUS

↓
FERTILIZATION ← AMPULLARY REGION
↑
OVUM (FROM OVARY) → FIMBRIAE →INFUNDIBULUM
Fertilization happens only if ovum & sperms are transported simultaneously. So all copulations do not
lead to fertilization & pregnancy.
A sperm contacts with zona pellucida. It induces changes in the membrane that block entry of
additionalsperms.
The secretions of the acrosome help sperm to enter the egg cytoplasm via zona pellucida & plasma
membrane. This causes second meiotic division of secondary oocyte to form an ovum (ootid) and a
second polarbody.
The haploid nuclei of the sperm and ovum fuse together to form a diploid zygote.
Zygote undergoes mitotic division (cleavage) as it moves through the isthmus towards the uterus and
forms 2, 4, 8, 16 daughter cells called blastomeres.
The embryo with 8-16 blastomeres is called a morula.
Morula continues to divide and transforms into blastocyst.
In blastocyst, blastomeres are arranged into trophoblast (outer layer) and an inner cell mass attached to
trophoblast.
The trophoblast layer gives nourishment to inner cell mass. Also, it gets attached to endometrium.
After attachment, uterine cells divide rapidly and cover the blastocyst. Thus, the blastocyst becomes
embedded in the endometrium. This is called implantation.
The inner cell mass gets differentiated to 3 germ layers (outer ectoderm, middle mesoderm & inner
endoderm). This 3-layered structure (gastrula) forms the embryo.

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PREGNANCY AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT
After implantation, finger-like projections (chorionicvilli) appear on the trophoblast.
They are surrounded by uterine tissue and maternal blood. - The chorionic villi & uterine tissue are
interdigitated to form placenta. It is a structural and functional unit b/w embryo (foetus) and maternal
body.
Placenta is connected to the embryo by an umbilical cord. It transports substances to and from the
embryo.
 Functions of placenta
Acts as barrier between the foetus and mother.
Supply O2, nutrients etc. from mother to foetus.
Remove CO2 and excretory wastes fromfoetus.
Acts as an endocrine gland. It secretes Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), human placental lactogen
(hPL), oestrogens, progesterone & relaxin. Relaxin is also secreted by ovary.
During pregnancy, levels of estrogens, progestogens, cortisol, prolactin, thyroxin etc. are also increased
in maternal blood. They support the fetal growth, metabolic changes in the mother and maintain
pregnancy.
The germ layers give rise to all tissues (organs). The stem cells in inner cell mass have the potency to give
rise to all the tissues and organs.
Human pregnancy (gestation period) lasts 9 months (for cats: 2 months, dogs: 2 months, elephants: 21
months).
Changes in embryo during pregnancy
After one month: Heart isformed.
End of second month: Limbs and digits are developed.
End of 12 weeks (first trimester): Major organs (limbs, external genital organs etc.) are well developed.
During 5th month: First movement of foetus and appearance of hair on the head.
End of 24 weeks (end of 2nd trimester): Body is covered with fine hair, eyelids separate and eye lashes
are formed.
End of 9 months: Ready for delivery.
PARTURITION AND LACTATION

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Parturition (labour): Process of giving birth to young ones.
Parturition is induced by neuroendocrine mechanism.
The signals originating from the foetus and placenta induce mild uterine contractions (fetal ejection
reflex). This causes the release of oxytocin from maternal pituitary.
Oxytocin causes stronger uterine muscle contractions which in turn stimulate further secretion of
oxytocin. This process is continued leading to expulsion of the baby out of the uterus through the birth
canal.
After parturition, the umbilical cord is cut off.
The placenta & remnants of umbilical cord are expelled from the maternal body after parturition. It is
called “after birth”.
The mammary glands produce milk towards the end of pregnancy. It is called lactation.
The yellowish milk produced during the initial few days of lactation is called colostrum. It contains several
antibodies essential to develop resistance for the new born babies.
 4 - REPRODUCTIVE HEALH
According to World Health Organisation (WHO), Reproductive health is a total well-being in all aspects of
reproduction i.e., physical, emotional, behavioural & social.

REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH: PROBLEMS & STRATEGIES

India initiated reproductive health programmes (family planning) in 1951.
Wider reproduction-related areas are in operation under the Reproductive & Child Health Care (RCH)
programmes.
Such programmes deal the following:
Give awareness about reproduction related aspects for creating a reproductively healthy society.
Educate people about birth control, care of pregnant mothers, post-natal care of mother and child,
importance of breast feeding, equal opportunities for male & female child etc.
Awareness of problems due to population explosion, social evils like sex-abuse and sex-related crimes,etc.
Aims and needs of sex education in schools
To provide right information about sex-related aspects. It helps to avoid sex-related myths and
misconceptions.
To give proper information about reproductive organs, adolescence and related changes, safe and
hygienic sexual practices, sexually transmitted diseases (STD), AIDS etc.

POPULATION STABILIZATION & BIRTH CONTROL

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In 1900, world population was about 2 billion. By 2000, it rocketed to about 6 billion and 7.2 billion in 2011.
In India, population was nearly 350 million at the time of independence. It reached 1 billion by 2000 and
crossed1.2 billion in May 2011. It means every sixth person in the world is an Indian.
According to the 2011 censusreport, our population growth of semen into female reproductive tract. rate
was less than 2% (i.e. 20/1000/year), a rate at which our population could increase rapidly.
Reasons for population explosion
Increased health facilities and better living conditions.
Rapid decline in death rate, maternal mortality rate (MMR) and infant mortality rate (IMR).
Increase in number of people in reproducible age.
Impacts of population explosion
Scarcity of basic requirements (e.g. food, shelter & clothing).
Control measures
Motivate smaller families by using contraceptive methods.
Aware peoples about a slogan Hum Do Hamare Do (we two, our two). Many couples have adopted a ‘one
child norm’.
Statutory rising of marriageable age of females (18 years) and males (21 years).
Properties of an ideal contraceptive
User-friendly, easily available, effective and reversible.
o No or least side-effects.
It should not interfere with sexual drive, desire & sexual act.

CONTRACEPTIVE METHODS
1. Natural/Traditional methods
Avoid chances of ovum and sperms meeting. It includes.
Periodic abstinence: Avoid coitus from day 10 to 17 of the menstrual cycle (fertile period) to prevent
conception.
Coitus interruptus (withdrawal): Withdraw penis from the vagina just before ejaculation to avoid
insemination.
Lactational amenorrhea: It is the absence of menstrual cycle & ovulation due to intense lactation after
parturition. Fully breastfeeding increases lactation. This method helps to prevent conception. This is
effective up to 6 months following parturition.
It has no side effect. But chances of failure are high.
 2. Barriers
They prevent physical meeting of sperm & ovum. E.g.
Condoms (E.g. Nirodh): Made of rubber/latex sheath.
Condoms for male: Cover the penis.
Condoms for female: Cover the vagina & cervix
Condoms are used just before coitus. They prevent the entryof semen into female reproductive tract
Condoms are very popular because:
It protects the user from STDs and AIDS.
Easily available and disposable.
It can be self-inserted and thereby give privacy to user.
Diaphragms, cervical caps and vaults:
Made of rubber and are inserted into the female reproductive tract to cover the cervix during coitus.
They block the entry of sperms through the cervix.
They are reusable.
Spermicidal creams, jellies & foams are used along Control measures with these barriers to increase
contraceptive efficiency.
3. Intra Uterine Devices (IUDs)
These are inserted by doctors or nurses in the uterus through vagina. They increase phagocytosis of sperms.
o Statutory rising of marriageable age of females (18 years) and males (21 years). IUDs are ideal method to
delay pregnancy or space children.
Types of IUDs:
Non-medicated IUDs: They retard sperm motility. Also have spermicidal effect. E.g. Lippes loop.
Copper releasing IUDs: Cu ions suppress motility and fertilising capacity of sperms. E.g. CuT, Cu7,

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Multiload 375.
Hormone releasing IUDs: They make the uterusunsuitable for implantation and the cervix hostile to the
sperms. E.g. Progestasert, LNG-20.
4. Oral contraceptives
Oral administration of progestogens or progestogen– oestrogen combinations in the form of
tablets(pills).
Pills are taken daily for 21 days starting within the first five days of menstrual cycle. After a gap of 7
days(menstruation period), it should be repeated in the same pattern till the female desires to prevent
conception.
They inhibit ovulation and implantation and thicken cervical mucus to prevent entry of sperms.
Pills are very effective with lesser side effects.
Saheli: New oral contraceptive for the females. It is developed by Central Drug Research Institute(CDRI) in
Lucknow. It contains a non-steroidal preparation. It is a ‘once a week’ pill with very few side effects and
high contraceptive value.
5. Injectables
Progestogens or Progestogens-oestrogen combination are used by females as injections or implants
under skin.
Their mode of action is like that of pills and their effective.
periods are much longer.
Progestogens or progestogen-oestrogen combinations & IUDs are used as emergency contraceptiveswithin
72 hours of coitus.
It avoids pregnancy due to rape or casual intercourse

6. Surgical methods (sterilization)

It helps to block gamete transport and thereby prevents conception. It is very effective but reversibility is
poor.
Vasectomy: Sterilization procedure in males. In this, a small part of the vas deferens is removed or tied
up through a small incision on the scrotum.
- Tubectomy: Sterilization procedure in females. In this, a small part of the fallopian tube is removed or
tied up through a small incision in the abdomen or through vagina.

Side effects of anti-natural contraceptives:

Nausea, abdominal pain, breakthrough bleeding, irregular menstrual bleeding, breast cancer etc.
 POPULATION STABILIZATION & BIRTH CONTROL
2. Barriers

It protects the user from STDs and AIDS.

Easily available and disposable.
It can be self-inserted and thereby give privacy to user.
Diaphragms, cervical caps and vaults:
Made of rubber and are inserted into the female reproductive tract to cover the cervix during coitus.
They block the entry of sperms through the cervix.
They are reusable.
Spermicidal creams, jellies & foams are used along Control measures with these barriers to increase
contraceptive efficiency.
3. Intra Uterine Devices (IUDs)
These are inserted by doctors or nurses in the uterus through vagina. They increase phagocytosis of sperms.
o Statutory rising of marriageable age of females (18 years) and males (21 years). IUDs are ideal method to
delay pregnancy or space children.
Types of IUDs:
Non-medicated IUDs: They retard sperm motility. Also have spermicidal effect. E.g. Lippes loop.
Copper releasing IUDs: Cu ions suppress motility and fertilising capacity of sperms. E.g. CuT, Cu7,
Multiload 375.
Hormone releasing IUDs: They make the uterusunsuitable for implantation and the cervix hostile to the

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sperms. E.g. Progestasert, LNG-20.
4. Oral contraceptives
Oral administration of progestogens or progestogen– oestrogen combinations in the form of
tablets(pills).
Pills are taken daily for 21 days starting within the first five days of menstrual cycle. After a gap of 7
days(menstruation period), it should be repeated in the same pattern till the female desires to prevent
conception.
They inhibit ovulation and implantation and thicken cervical mucus to prevent entry of sperms.
Pills are very effective with lesser side effects.
Saheli: New oral contraceptive for the females. It is developed by Central Drug Research Institute(CDRI) in
Lucknow. It contains a non-steroidal preparation. It is a ‘once a week’ pill with very few side effects and
high contraceptive value.
5. Injectables
Progestogens or Progestogens-oestrogen combination are used by females as injections or implants
under skin.
Their mode of action is like that of pills and their effective.
periods are much longer.
Progestogens or progestogen-oestrogen combinations & IUDs are used as emergency contraceptiveswithin
72 hours of coitus.
It avoids pregnancy due to rape or casual intercourse

6. Surgical methods (sterilization)

It helps to block gamete transport and thereby prevents conception. It is very effective but reversibility is
poor.
Vasectomy: Sterilization procedure in males. In this, a small part of the vas deferens is removed or tied
up through a small incision on the scrotum.
- Tubectomy: Sterilization procedure in females. In this, a small part of the fallopian tube is removed or
tied up through a small incision in the abdomen or through vagina.

Side effects of anti-natural contraceptives:

Nausea, abdominal pain, breakthrough bleeding, irregular menstrual bleeding, breast cancer etc.
 MEDICAL TERMINATION OF PREGNANCY (MTP)
Intentional or voluntary termination of pregnancy before full term is called MTP or induced abortion.
45 to 50 million MTPs are performed in a year all over the world (i.e. 1/5th of total number of conceived
pregnancies).
MTP helps to decrease the population.
Many countries have not legalised MTP due to emotional, ethical, religious and social issues.
Government of India legalised MTP in 1971 with some strict conditions to check illegal female foeticides.

Importance of MTP
To avoid unwanted pregnancies due to casual intercourse or failure of the contraceptive used during
coitus or rapes.
It is essential in cases where continuation of pregnancy could be harmful to the mother or to the foetus
or both.
MTPs are safe during the first trimester, (up to 12 weeks of pregnancy). 2nd trimester abortions are very
risky.

Problems related with MTPs

Majority of the MTPs are performed illegally
Misuse of amniocentesis test for foetal sex determination.
If the foetus is female, it is followed by MTP. Such practices are dangerous for the young mother and
foetus.

Amniocentesis: In this, some amniotic fluid of the foetus istaken to analyse the foetal cells & dissolved

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substances. It is used to test the presence of genetic disorders, survivability of the foetus etc.

Government of India enacted The Medical Termination of Pregnancy (Amendment) Act, 2017 to reduce illegal
abortion and consequent maternal mortality and morbidity. According to this Act, a pregnancy may be
terminated within the first 12 weeks on the opinion of a registered medical practitioner. If the pregnancy is
between 12 - 24 weeks, two registered medical practitioners must be of the opinion.

MEDICAL TERMINATION OF PREGNANCY (MTP)

Diseases or infections transmitted through sexual intercourse swellings, etc. in the genitalregion.
are called Sexually transmitted diseases/infections (STDs • Absence or less significant early symptoms
and the social or STIs)/Venereal diseases (VD) or Reproductive tract stigma deter the infected persons to
consult a doctor. This infections (RTI). E.g. Gonorrhoea, syphilis, genital herpes, leads to pelvic
inflammatory diseases (PID), infertility, chlamydiasis, genital warts, trichomoniasis, hepatitis-B & ectopic
pregnancies, abortions, still births, cancer of the HIV leading to AIDS. reproductive tract etc.
Hepatitis-B & HIV are also transmitted
By sharing of injection needles, surgical instruments etc.
By transfusion of blood.
From infected mother to foetus.
Except hepatitis-B, genital herpes & HIV, other diseases are completely curable if detected early and
treated properly.
arly symptoms: Itching, fluid discharge, slight pain,reproductive tract etc.
All persons are vulnerable to STDs. These are very high among persons in the age group of 15-24 years.
Prevention:
1. Avoid sex with unknown partners/multiple partners
2. Always use condoms during coitus.
3. In case of doubt, go to a qualified doctor for early detection and get complete treatment.
 INFERTILITY
It is the inability to conceive or produce children even after 2 years of unprotected sexual cohabitation.
The reasons for this may be physical, congenital, diseases, drugs, immunological or even psychological.

ASSISTED REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGIES (ART)

These are the technologies used to correct the infertility problems. Some of them are given below:

1. In vitro fertilisation (IVF) or Test tube baby programme

In this method, ova from the wife/donor and sperms fromthe husband/donor are collected and are induced
to form zygote under simulated conditions in the laboratory. This is followed by Embryo transfer (ET).
ET is 2 types:
Zygote Intra Fallopian Transfer (ZIFT): Transfer of zygote or early embryo (with up to 8 blastomeres)
into fallopian tube.
Intra Uterine Transfer (IUT): Transfer of embryo with more than 8 blastomeres into the uterus.
Embryo formed by in vivo fertilisation (fertilisation within the female) is also used for such transfer to assist
those females who cannot conceive

2. Gamete Intra Fallopian Transfer (GIFT)

Transfer of an ovum from a donor into the fallopian tube of another female who cannot produce ovum, but
can provide suitable environment for fertilization and development.

3. Intra cytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI)

It is a laboratory procedure in which a single sperm (from male partner) is injected directly into an egg (from
female partner). After fertilization, the embryo is implanted into the woman’s uterus.

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4. Artificial insemination (AI) technique
The semen collected from husband or a donor is artificially introduced into the vagina or the uterus of the
female.
Artificial insemination into the uterus is known as intrauterine insemination (IUI). This technique is useful for
the male partner having inability to inseminate female or low sperm counts etc.

Problems of ART
It requires specialized professionals and expensive instrumentation. Therefore, these facilities are
available only in very few centres.
Emotional, religious and social problems.
Legal adoption is a good method for couples looking for parenthood.
 PRINCILES OF INHERITANCE AND VARIATIION
IMPORTANT TERMS
Genetics: Study of inheritance, heredity and variation of characters or Study of genes and chromosomes.
Inheritance: Transmission of characters from parents to progeny. It is the basis of Heredity.
Variation: Difference between parents and offspring.
Character: A heritable feature among the parents & offspring. E.g. Eye colour.
Trait: Variants of a character. E.g. Brown eye, Blue eye.
Allele: Alternative forms of a gene. E.g. T (tall) and t (dwarf) are two alleles of a gene for the character
height.
Homozygous: The condition in which chromosome pair carries similar alleles of a gene. Also known as
pure line (True breeding). E.g. TT, tt, YY, yy etc.
Heterozygous: The condition in which chromosome pair carries dissimilar alleles of a gene. E.g. Tt, Yy etc.
Dominant character: The character which is expressed in heterozygous condition. It indicates with capital
letter.
Recessive character: The character which is suppressed in heterozygous condition. It indicates with small
letter.
Phenotype: Physical expression of a character.
Genotype: Genetic constitution of a character.
Hybrid: An individual produced by the mating of genetically unlike parents.
Punnett square: A graphical representation to calculate probability of all genotypes of offspring in a
genetic cross.

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MENDEL’S LAWS OF INHERITANCE
Gregor Mendel is the Father of genetics. He conducted some hybridization experiments on garden peas
(Pisum sativum) for 7 years (1856-1863).
Steps in making a cross (Deliberate mating) in pea:
Selection of 2 pea plants with contrasting characters.
Emasculation: Removal of anthers of one plant to avoid self-pollination. This is female parent.
Pollination: Collection of pollen grains from the male parent and transferring to female parent.
Collection & germination of seeds to produce offspring. Mendel selected 7 pairs of true breeding pea
varieties:

Contrasting Traits
7 Characters
Dominant Recessive
1. Stem height Tall Dwarf

2. Flower colour Violet White

3. Flower position Axial Terminal

4. Pod shape Inflated Constricted
5. Pod colour Green Yellow
6. Seed shape Round Wrinkled
7. Seed colour Yellow Green

INHERITANCE OF ONE GENE

Monohybrid cross: A cross involving 2 plants differing in one character pair. E.g. Mendel crossed tall and
dwarf pea plants to study the inheritance of one gene.
 INHERITANCE OF ONE GENE
Monohybrid cross: A cross involving 2 plants differing in one character
pair. E.g. Mendel crossed tall and dwarf pea plants to study the
inheritance of one gene.
Monohybrid phenotypic ratio: 3 Tall: 1 Dwarf = 3:1
Monohybrid genotypic ratio:
1 Homozygous tall (TT)
2 Heterozygous tall (Tt)
1 Homozygous dwarf (tt)
= 1:2:1
Mendel made similar observations for other pairs of traits. He proposed
that some factors were inherited from parent to offspring. Now it is
called as genes.

Do not use T for tall and d for dwarf because it is difficult to remember whether T & d are alleles of same gene
or not.

The F1 (Tt) when self-pollinated, produces gametes T and t in equal proportion. During fertilization, pollen

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grains of T have 50% chance to pollinate eggs of T & t. Also, pollen grains of t have 50% chance to pollinate
eggs of T and t. 1/4th of the random fertilization leads to TT (¼ TT). 1/2 (2/4) of the random fertilization leads
to Tt (½ Tt). 1/4th of the random fertilization leads to tt (¼ tt).
Tt x Tt
Binomial expression = (ax + by) 2
Hence (½ T + ½ t) 2 = (½ T + ½ t) (½ T + ½ t)
= ¼ TT + ¼ Tt + ¼ Tt + ¼ tt
= ¼ TT + ½ Tt + ¼ tt
Mendel self-pollinated the F2 plants. He found that dwarf F2 plants continued to generate dwarf plants in F3 &
F4. He concluded that genotype of the dwarfs was homozygous- tt.

Backcross and Testcross

Backcross: Cross between a hybrid and its any parent.
Testcross: Crossing of an organism with dominant phenotype to a recessive individual. E.g.

Hence monohybrid test cross ratio= 1:1

Test cross is used to find out the unknown genotype of a character. E.g.

Mendel conducted test cross to determine the F2 genotype.

 MENDEL’S PRINCIPLES OR LAWS OF INHERITANCE
1. FIRST LAW (LAW OF DOMINANCE)
Characters are controlled by discrete units called factors.
Factors occur in pairs.
In a dissimilar pair of factors, one member of the pair dominates (dominant) the other (recessive).

2. Second Law (Law of Segregation)

“During gamete formation, the factors (alleles) of a character pair present in parents segregate from each
other such that a gamete receives only one of the 2 factors”
Homozygous parent produces similar gametes.
Heterozygous parent produces two kinds of gametes.

INHERITANCE OF TWO GENES

Dihybrid cross: It is a cross between two parents differing in 2 pairs of contrasting characters. E.g. Cross
b/wpea plant with homozygous round shaped & yellow coloured seeds (RRYY) and wrinkled shaped & green
coloured seeds(rryy).

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On observing the F2, Mendel found that yellow and green colour segregated in a 3:1 ratio.

Round & wrinkled seed shape also segregated in a 3:1 ratio. Dihybrid Phenotypic ratio= 9 Round yellow: 3
Round green: 3 Wrinkled yellow: 1 Wrinkled green = 9:3:3:1
The ratio of 9:3:3:1 can be derived as a combination series of 3 yellow: 1 green, with 3 round: 1 wrinkled.
i.e. (3: 1) (3: 1) = 9: 3: 3: 1
Dihybrid genotypic ratio: 1:2:1:2:4:2:1:2:1
RRYY =1 RRYy =2 RrYY =2
RrYy =4 RRyy =1 Rryy =2
rrYY =1 rrYy =2 rryy =1

Mendel’s 3rd Law: Law of Independent Assortment

- It is based on the results of dihybrid crosses.
It states that “When two pairs of traits are combined in a hybrid, segregation of one pair of
charactersisindependent of the other pair of characters”.
 THE CONCEPT OF DOMINANCE
Every gene contains information to express a particular trait.
In heterozygotes, there are 2 types of alleles:
Unmodified (normal or functioning) allele: It is generally dominant and represents original phenotype.
Modified allele: It is generally recessive.
E.g. Consider a gene that containsinformation for producing Gametes: F2: RY Ry rY ry RY Ry rY ry an
enzyme. Normal allele of that gene produces a normal enzyme. Modified allele is responsible for
production of
Normal/less efficient enzyme or
A non-functional enzyme or
No enzyme at all
In the first case: The modified allele will produce the same phenotype like unmodified allele. Thus, modified
allele is equivalent to unmodified allele.
In 2nd and 3rd cases: The phenotype will dependent only on the functioning of the unmodified allele. Thus the
modified allele becomes recessive.

OTHER PATTERNS OF INHERITANCE (NON-MENDELIAN INHERITANCE)

1. Incomplete Dominance
It is an inheritance in which heterozygous offspring shows intermediate
character b/w two parental characteristics.
E.g. Flower colour in snapdragon (dog flower or Antirrhinum sp.) and
Mirabilis jalapa (4’O clock plant).

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Here, cross between homozygous red & white produces pink flowered plant.
Thus phenotypic & genotypic ratios are same. Phenotypic ratio= 1 Red: 2 Pink:
1 White Genotypic ratio= 1 (RR): 2 (Rr): 1(rr) This means that R was not
completely dominant over r.
Pea plants also show incomplete dominance in other traits.

2. Co-dominance
It is the inheritance in which both alleles of a gene are expressed in a hybrid. E.g. ABO blood grouping
inhuman.
ABO blood groups are controlled by the gene I.
This gene controls the production of sugar polymers (antigens) that protrude from plasma membrane
of RBC.
The gene I has three alleles IA, IB &i
IA and IB produce a slightly different form of the sugar while allele i doesn’t produce any sugar

Alleles from Alleles from Genotype of Blood types

parent 1 parent 2 offspring (phenotype)

IA IA IA IA A

IA IB IA IB AB

IA i IA i A
IB IA IA IB AB
IB IB IB IB B
IB i IB i B
i i ii O

When IA and IB are present together, they both express their own types of sugars. This is due to co-
dominance.
 3. MULTIPLE ALLELISM
It is the presence of more than two alleles of a gene to govern same character
E.g. ABO blood grouping (3 alleles: IA, IB &i).
In an individual, only two alleles are present. Multiple alleles can be found only in a population.

4. Polygenic inheritance
It is the inheritance in which some traits are controlled by several genes (multiple genes).
E.g. human skin colour, human height etc.
It considers the influence of environment.
In a polygenic trait, the phenotype reflects the contribution of each allele, i.e., the effect of each allele is
additive.

Human skin colour:

Assume that 3 genes A, B, C control human skin colour. The dominant forms A, B & C responsible for dark
skin colour and recessive forms a, b & c for light skin colour.
Genotype with all the dominant alleles (AABBCC) gives darkest skin colour. Genotype with all the recessive
alleles (aabbcc) gives lightest skin colour.
Therefore, genotype with 3 dominant alleles and 3 recessive alleles gives an intermediate skin colour.
Thus, number of each type of alleles determines the darkness or lightness of the skin.

5. Pleiotropy
Here, a single gene exhibits multiple phenotypic expressions. Such a gene is called pleiotropic gene.
In most cases, the mechanism of pleiotropy is the effect of a gene on metabolic pathways which
contributes towards different phenotypes.

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E.g. Starch synthesis in pea, sickle cell anaemia, phenylketonuria etc.
- In Phenylketonuria & sickle cell anaemia, the mutant gene has many phenotypic effects. E.g.
Phenylketonuria causes mental retardation, reduction in hair and skinpigmentation.

Starch synthesis in pea plant:

Starch is synthesized effectively by BB gene. Therefore, large starch grains are produced. bb have lesser
efficiency in starch synthesis and produce smaller starch grains.
- Starch grain size also shows incomplete dominance.

CHROMOSOMAL THEORY OF INHERITANCE

Mendel’s work remained unrecognized till 1900 because,
Communication was not easy.
His mathematical approach was new and unacceptable.
The concept of genes (factors) as stable and discrete units could not explain the continuous variation
seen in nature.
He could not give physical proof for the existence of factors. In 1900, de Vries, Correns & von Tschermak
independently rediscovered Mendel’s results.
CHROMOSOMAL THEORY OF INHERITANCE (1902):
Proposed by Walter Sutton & Theodore Boveri.
They said that pairing & separation of a pair of chromosomes lead to segregation of a pair of factors
they carried.
Sutton united chromosomal segregation with Mendelian principles and called it the chromosomal theory
of inheritance. It states that,
Chromosomes are vehicles of heredity.
Two identical chromosomes form a homologous pair.
Homologous pair segregates during gamete formation.
Independent pairs segregate independently of each other.
Genes (factors) are present on chromosomes. Hence genes and chromosomes show similar behaviours.

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Thomas Hunt Morgan proved chromosomal theory of inheritance using fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster).
It is the suitable material for genetic study because,
They can grow on simple synthetic medium.
Short generation time (life cycle: 12-14 days).
Breeding can be done throughout the year.
Hundreds of progenies per mating.
Male and female flies are easily distinguishable. E.g. Male is smaller than female.
It has many types of hereditary variations that can be seen with low power microscopes.

LINKAGE AND RECOMBINATION

Linkage is the physical association of two or more genes on a chromosome. They do not show independent
assortment
Recombination is the generation of non-parental gene combinations. It occurs due to independent
assortment or crossing over.
Morgan carried outseveral dihybrid crossesin Drosophila to study sex-linked genes. E.g.
Cross 1: Yellow-bodied, white-eyed females
X
Brown-bodied, red-eyed males (wild type)

Cross 2: White-eyed, miniature winged

X

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Red eyed, large winged (wild type)
Morgan intercrossed their F1 progeny. He found that
The two genes did not segregate independently and the F2 ratio deviated from the 9:3:3:1 ratio.
Genes were located on the X chromosome.
When two genes were situated on the same chromosome, the proportion of parental gene combinations
was much higher than the non-parental type. This is due to linkage.
Genes of white eye & yellow body were very tightly linked and showed only 1.3%recombination.
Genes of white eye & miniature wing were loosely linked and showed 37.2% recombination.
Tightly linked genes show low recombination. Loosely linked genes show high recombination.
Alfred Sturtevant used the recombination frequency between gene pairs for measuring the distance between
genes and ‘mapped’ their position on the chromosome.
Genetic maps are used as a starting point in the sequencing of genomes. E.g. Human Genome Project.

SEX DETERMINATION

The chromosomes that are involved in sex determination are called sex chromosomes (allosomes). They
include X & Y chromosomes.
Autosomes are chromosomes other than sex chromosomes. Number of autosomes is same in males and
females.
Henking (1891) studied spermatogenesis in some insects and observed that 50 % of sperm received a
nuclear structure after spermatogenesis, and other 50 % sperm did not receive it. Henking called this
structure as the X body (now it is called as X-chromosome).

MECHANISM OF SEX DETERMINATION

XX-XO mechanism: Here, male is heterogametic, i.e. XO (Gametes with X and gametes without X) and
female is homogametic, i.e. XX (all gametes are with Xchromosomes). E.g. Many insects such as
grasshopper.
XX-XY mechanism: Male is heterogametic (X & Y) and female is homogametic (X only). E.g. Human &
Drosophila.
ZZ-ZW mechanism: Male is homogametic (ZZ) and female is heterogametic (Z & W). E.g. Birds. XX-XO &
XX-XY mechanisms show male heterogamety. ZZ-ZW mechanism shows female heterogamety.

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Sex Determination in Humans (XX-XY type)
Human has 23 pairs of chromosomes (22 pairs of autosomes and 1 pair of sex chromosomes).
A pair of X-chromosomes (XX) is present in the female, whereas X and Y chromosomes are present in
male.
During spermatogenesis, males produce 2 types of gametes: 50 % with X-chromosome and 50 % withY-
chromosome.
Females produce only ovum with an X-chromosome.
There is an equal probability of fertilization of the ovum with the sperm carrying either X or Y
chromosome.

The sperm determines whether the offspring male or female.

 SEX DETERMINATION IN HONEYBEE
It is based on the number of sets of chromosomes an individual receives.
Fertilised egg develops as a female (queen or worker).
An unfertilised egg develops as a male (drone). It is called parthenogenesis.
Therefore, the females are diploid (32 chromosomes) and males are haploid (16 chromosomes). This is
called as haplodiploid sex determination system.
In this system, the males produce sperms by mitosis. They do not have father and thus cannot have sons,
but have a grandfather and can have grandsons.

MUTATION, PEDIGREE ANALYSIS AND GENETIC DISORDERS

MUTATION

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It is a sudden heritable change in DNA sequences resulting in changes in the genotype and the phenotype of an
organism. Mutation is 2 types:
1. Point mutation: The mutation due to change (substitution) in a single base pair of DNA. E.g. sickle cell anaemia.
2. Frame-shift mutation: It is the deletion or insertion of base pairs resulting in the shifting of DNA sequences.
Loss (deletion) or gain (insertion/ duplication) of DNA segment cause Chromosomal abnormalities
(aberrations).
Chromosomal aberrations are seen in cancer cells.
The agents which induce mutation are called mutagens.
They include
- Physical mutagens: UV radiation, α, β, γ rays, X-ray etc.
- Chemical mutagens: Mustard gas, phenol, formalin etc.

Haemophilia (Royal disease):

It is a sex linked (X-linked) recessive disease
In this, a protein involved in the blood clotting is affected.
A simple cut results in non-stop bleeding.
The disease is controlled by 2 alleles, H & h. H is normal allele and h is responsible for haemophilia.

XHXH Normal female

Heterozygous female (carrier). She may transmit the
XHXh
disease to sons

XhXh Hemophilic female

XHY Normal male
Xh Y Hemophilic male

In females, haemophilia is very rare because it happens only when mother is at least carrier and father
haemophilic (unviable in the later stage of life).
Queen Victoria was a carrier of hemophilia. So her family pedigree shows many haemophilic descendants.
COLOUR BLINDNESS:
It is a sex-linked (X-linked) recessive disorder due to defect in either red or green cone of eye. It results in
failure to discriminate between red and green colour
It is due to mutation in some genes in X chromosome.
It occurs in 8% of males and only about 0.4% of females. This is because the genes are X-linked.
Normal allele is dominant (C). Recessive allele (c) causes colour blindness.
The son of a heterozygous woman (carrier, XCXc ) has a 50% chance of being colour blind.
A daughter will be colour blind only when her mother is at least a carrier and her father is colour blind (Xc
Y).

Sickle-cell anaemia:
This is an autosome linked recessive disease.
It can be transmitted from parentsto the offspring when both the partners are carrier (heterozygous) for
the gene.
The disease is controlled by a pair of allele, HbA and HbS.
Homozygous dominant (HbAHbA): normal
Heterozygous (HbAHbS ): carrier; sickle cell trait
Homozygous recessive (HbS HbS ): affected
The defect is caused by the substitution of Glutamic acid (Glu) by Valine (Val) at the sixth position of the
β-globin chain of the haemoglobin (Hb).

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This is due to the single base substitution at the sixth codon of the β-globin gene from GAG to GUG.
The mutant Hb molecule undergoes polymerization under low oxygen tension causing the change in
shape of the RBC from biconcave disc to elongated sickle like structure.

PEDIGREE ANALYSIS
In human, control crosses are not possible. So the study of family history about inheritance is used.
Such an analysis of genetic traits in several generations of a family is called pedigree analysis
The representation or chart showing family history is called family tree (pedigree).
In human genetics, pedigree study is utilized to trace the inheritance of a specific trait, abnormality or
disease.

Symbols used in pedigree analysis

 GENETIC DISORDERS
The disorders due to change in genes or chromosomes.
2 types: Mendelian disorders & Chromosomal disorders.

1. Mendelian Disorders
It is caused by alteration or mutation in the single gene.
E.g. Haemophilia, Colour blindness, Sickle-cell anaemia, Phenylketonuria, Thalassemia, Cystic fibrosis etc.
The pattern of inheritance of Mendelian disorders can be traced in a family by the pedigree analysis.
Mendelian disorders may be dominant or recessive
Pedigree analysis helps to understand whether the trait is dominant or recessive.

Pedigree analysis of
(A) Autosomal dominant trait (E.g. Myotonic dystrophy)
(B) Autosomal recessive trait (E.g. Sickle-cell anaemia)

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Phenylketonuria:
An inborn error of metabolism.
Autosomal recessive disease
It is due to mutation of a gene that codes for the enzyme phenyl alanine hydroxylase. This enzyme
converts an amino acid phenylalanine into tyrosine.
The affected individual lacks this enzyme. As a result, phenylalanine accumulates and converts into
phenyl pyruvic acid and other derivatives.
They accumulate in brain resulting in mental retardation. These are also excreted through urine because
of poor absorption by kidney

Thalassemia:
An autosome-linked recessive blood disease.
It is transmitted from unaffected carrier (heterozygous) parents to offspring.
It is due to mutation or deletion.
It results in reduced synthesis of a or b globin chains of haemoglobin. It forms abnormal haemoglobin and
causes anaemia.
Based on the chain affected, thalassemia is 2 types:
a Thalassemia: Here, production of a globin chain is affected. It is controlled by two closely linked
genes HBA1 & HBA2 on chromosome 16 of each parent. Mutation or deletion of one or more of the four
genes causes the disease. The more genes affected, the less a globin molecules produced.
b Thalassemia: Here, production of b globin chain is affected. It is controlled by a single gene HBB on
chromosome 11 of each parent. Mutation of one or both the genes causes the disease.
Thalassemia is a quantitative problem (synthesise very less globin molecules). Sickle-cell anaemia is a
qualitative problem (synthesise incorrectly functioning globin).

2. Chromosomal disorders
They are caused due to absence or excess or abnormal arrangement of one or more chromosomes. 2
types:
a. Aneuploidy: The gain or loss of chromosomes due to failure of segregation of chromatids during cell
division.
b. Polyploidy (Euploidy): It is an increase in a whole set of chromosomes due to failure of cytokinesis after
telophase stage of cell division. This is very rare in human but often seen in plants.
 EXAMPLES FOR CHROMOSOMAL DISORDERS
Down’s syndrome: It is the presence of an additional copy of chromosome number 21 (trisomy of 21). Genetic
constitution: 45 A + XX or 45 A + XY (i.e. 47 chromosomes).

Features:
They are short statured with small round head.
Broad flat face.
Furrowed big tongue and partially open mouth.
Many “loops” on finger tips.
Broad palm with characteristic palm simian crease.
Retarded physical, psychomotor & mental development.
Congenital heart disease.

Klinefelter’s Syndrome: It is the presence of an additional copy of X-chromosome in male (trisomy).

Genetic constitution: 44 A + XXY (i.e. 47 chromosomes).

Features:
Overall masculine development. However, the feminine development is also expressed. E.g.
Development of breast (Gynaecomastia).
Sterile.
Mentally retarded

Turner’s syndrome: This is the absence of one X chromosome in female (monosomy). Genetic constitution:

NEET WIZZ
44 A + X0 (i.e. 45 chromosomes).

Features:
Sterile, Ovaries are rudimentary
Lack of other secondary sexual characters
Dwarf.
Mentally retarded.
 EVOLUTION
Evolution is an orderly change from one form to another.
Evolutionary Biology is the study of evolutionary history of life forms.

ORIGIN OF LIFE
Big Bang Theory states that universe originated about 20 billion years ago by a singular huge explosion.
The earth was formed about 4.5 billion years ago.
There was no atmosphere on early earth. Water vapour, CH4,CO2 & NH3 released from molten mass
covered the surface.
The UV rays from the sun broke up water into H2 and O2
Oxygen combined with NH3 & CH4 to form water,CO2 etc.
The ozone layer was formed. As it cooled, the water vapour fell as rain to form oceans.
Life appeared almost four billion years ago

THEORIES OF ORIGIN OF LIFE

1. Theory of spontaneous generation (Abiogenesis):states that, life came out of decaying and rotting
matter like straw, mud etc.Louis Pasteur disproved this theory. He demonstrated that life comes only
from pre-existing life.He showed that life did not come from killed yeast in a closed pre-sterilized flask.
But in an opened flask, life (microbes) appeared.
2. Biogenesis: Proposed by Francisco Redi, Spallanzani & Louis Pasteur. It states that, life originates from
existing life. But it does not explain origin of first life.
3. Cosmic theory (Theory of Panspermia): It states that,the units of life (spores) were transferred to
different sugars planets including earth.

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4. Theory of special creation: It states that, living things were created by some supernatural power (God).
5. Theory of chemical evolution: Proposed by Oparin & Haldane. It states that, the first form of life was
originated from non-living inorganic & organic molecules such as CH4, NH3, H2O, sugars, proteins, nucleic
acids etc. i.e.“Abiogenesis first, but biogenesis ever since”

Urey-Miller experiment
Harold Urey & Stanley Miller experimentally proved theory of chemical It evolution. They created a
condition like that of primitive earth (i.e. high temperature, volcanic storms,reducing atmosphere with
CH4, NH3, H2O, H2 etc).
They made electric discharge in a closed flask containing CH4, NH3, H2 and water vapour at 800o C. As a
result, some amino acids are formed. In similar experiments, others observed formation of nitrogen
bases, pigment and fats. First non-cellular forms of life originated 3 billion years ago.They were self-
replicating metabolic capsule containing RNA, proteins, Polysaccharides etc.
 EVIDENCES FOR EVOLUTION
1. Paleontological evidences
1. Paleontology is the study of fossils.
2. Fossils are remnants of life forms found in rocks (earth crust). They are written documents of evolution.

Significance of fossils:
a. To study phylogeny (evolutionary history or race history). E.g. Horse evolution.
b. To study the connecting link between two groups of organisms. E.g. Archaeopteryx.
c. To study about extinct animals. E.g. Dinosaurs.
d. To study about geological period by analysing fossils in different sedimentary rock layers. The study
showed that life forms varied over time and certain life forms are restricted to certain geological time spans.

2. Morphological & Anatomical evidences

Comparative anatomy and morphology shows that different forms of animals have some common structural
features. This can be explained as follows:

a. Homologous organs
Homologous organs are the organs having fundamentally similar structure and origin but different
functions. This phenomenon is called Homology.
E.g. Human hand, Whale’s flippers, Bat’s wing & Cheetah’s foot. These forelimbs have different functions
but similar anatomical structures such as bones (e.g. humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals &
phalanges).
Homology is also seen in heart, brain etc.

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Homology in plants: E.g. Thorns of Bougainvillea and tendrils of Cucurbita.
The origin of homologous organs is due to Divergent evolution. It is the evolution by which related species
become less similar to survive and adapt in different environmental condition.
Homology indicates common ancestry.

b. Analogous organs
Wings of insects (formed of a thin flap of chitin) and wings of birds (modified forelimbs).
Eyes of Octopus (retina from skin) and mammals (retina from embryonic brain).
Flipper of Penguins and Dolphins.
Sweet potato (modified root) & Potato (modified stem).
Trachea of insects (from ectoderm) and lungs of vertebrates (from endoderm).

Origin of analogous organs is due to Convergent evolution. It is the evolution by which unrelated species
become more similar to survive and adapt in similar environmental condition.

3. Adaptive radiation (Biogeographical evidences)

Adaptive radiation (evolution by adaptation) is the evolution of different species from an ancestor in a
geographical area starting from a point. It is a type of divergent evolution. E.g.
Darwin’s favourable & heritable variation are survived and reproduced. finches in Galapagos Islands.
Australian marsupials (Marsupial radiation).
Placental mammals in Australia.
When more than one adaptive radiation is appeared in an isolated geographical area, it results in convergent
evolution. Placental mammals Australian Marsupials
E.g. Australian Marsupials and Mole Marsupial mole
Placental mammals.
Ant eater Numbat (Ant eater)
Mouse Marsupial mouse
Lemur Spotted cuscus
Flying squirrel Flying phalanger
Bobcat Tasmanian tiger cat
Wolf Tasmanian wolf
 4. BIOCHEMICAL EVIDENCES
Organisms show similarities in proteins, genes, other biomolecules & metabolism. It indicates common
ancestry.

5. Embryological evidences
Proposed by Ernst Haeckel
He observed that all vertebrate embryos have some common features that are absent in adult.
E.g. all vertebrate embryos (including human) develop vestigial gill slits just behind the head. But it is
functional only in fish and not found in other adult vertebrates.
However, Karl Ernst von Baer rejected this proposal. He noted that embryos never pass through the adult
stages of other animals.

6. Evidences for evolution by natural selection

Natural selection is the process in which organisms with better o Darwin’s favourable & heritable variation
are survived and reproduced.
Some evidences are given below:
Industrial melanism: In England, before industrialization (1850s), there were more white-winged moths
(Biston betularia) on trees than dark winged or melanised moths (Biston carbonaria). After
industrialization (1920), more dark-winged moths and less white winged moths were developed.
Reason:
Before industrialization: There was white lichens covered the trees. In that background, white winged moths
survived but dark winged moths were picked out by predators.
After industrialization: The tree trunks became dark due to industrial smoke and soot. No growth of lichens.

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So white winged moths did not survive because the predators identified them easily. Dark winged moth
survived because of suitable dark background.
Development of resistant varieties in organisms against herbicides, pesticides, antibiotics or drugs etc.

These are the examples for natural selection by anthropogenic action (evolution due to human activities).

THEORIES OF BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION

Lamarckism (Theory of Inheritance of Acquired characters)
It is proposed by Lamarck. It statesthat evolution of life forms occurred by the inheritance of acquired
characters.
Acquired characters are developed by use & disuse of organs.
Evolution by use of organs: E.g. Long neck of giraffe is due to continuous elongation to forage leaves on
trees. This acquired character was inherited to succeeding generations.
Evolution by disuse: E.g. Disappearance of limbs in snakes. This theory was eliminated out because it is
proved that the characters are inherited only through genes.

Darwinism (Theory of Natural selection)

Proposed by Charles Darwin.
It was based on observations during a sea voyage in a sail ship called H.M.S. Beagle.
Alfred Wallace (a naturalist worked in Malay Archepelago) had also come to similar conclusions.
Work of Thomas Malthus on populations influenced Darwin. Darwinism is based on 2 key concepts:
Branching descent: It explains that all organisms are modified descendants of previous life forms.
Natural selection: Consider a bacterial colony A growing on a given medium. If the medium composition is
changed, only a part of the population can survive under new condition. This variant population (B)
outgrows the others and appears as new species, i.e. B is better than A under new condition. Thus, nature
selects for fitness.
Natural selection is based on the following facts:
Heritable minor variations: It is either beneficial or harmful to the organisms.
Overproduction: Population size grows exponentially due to maximum reproduction (E.g. bacterial
population).
Limited natural resources: Resources are not increased in accordance with the population size.
 Struggle for existence: It is the competition among organisms for resources so that population size is
limited.
Survival of the fittest: In struggle for existence, organisms with beneficial variations can utilize resources
better. Hence, they survive and reproduce. This is called Survival of the fittest. It leads to a change in
population characteristics and new forms appear.
Darwin ignored about origin of variation and mechanism of evolution or speciation.

MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION
Hugo de Vries proposed Mutation Theory of evolution.
He conducted experiments on Oenothera lamarckiana (evening primrose) and believed that evolution
takes place through mutation and not by minor variation
Darwinian variation is minor, slow and directional. It results in gradual evolution.
Mutational variation is sudden, random & directionless. Here, speciation is by saltation (single step, large
mutation)
Mutation is the origin of variation for evolution.

HARDY-WEINBERG PRINCIPLE
It states that allele frequencies in a population are stable and is constant from generation to generation
in the absence of disturbing factors.
The gene pool (total genes and their alleles in a population) remains a constant. This is called genetic
equilibrium (Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium).
Sum total of all the allelic frequencies = 1
E.g. Consider, in a diploid, p & q are the frequencies of alleles A & a respectively.

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Frequency of AA = p2
Frequency of aa = q2
Frequency of Aa = 2pq
Hence p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 [binomial expansion of (p+q)2 ]
Change of frequency of alleles in a population disturbs HardyWeinberg equilibrium. This change is due to
evolution.

Factors affecting Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

a. Gene migration: Gene flow from one population to another. Here gene frequencies change in both
populations. Gene flow occurs if migration happens multiple times.
b. Genetic drift: The gene flow by chance causing change in frequency. Sometimes, the change in
frequency is so different in the new sample of population that they become a different species. The
original drifted population becomes founders and the effect is called founder effect.
c. Mutation: It resultsin formation of new phenotypes. Over few generations, this leads to speciation.
d. Genetic recombination: Reshuffling of genecombinations during crossing over resulting in genetic
variation.
e. Natural selection: It is 3 types.
Stabilizing selection: Here, more individuals acquire mean character value and variation is reduced.
Directional selection: Individuals of one extreme (value other than mean character value) are more
favoured.
Disruptive selection: Individuals of both extremes (peripheral character value at both ends of the
distribution curve) are more favoured.
 A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF EVOLUTION
The geological time scale includes 4 eras: Proterozoic, Palaeozoic, Mesozoic & Cenozoic.

1. Proterozoic era: 2500 - 541 million yrs ago(mya) -

- 2000 mya: First cellular forms of life appeared.
Some of the cells had the ability to release O2 as the light reaction in photosynthesis.
Single celled organisms became multicellular organisms.

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2. Palaeozoic era (540 - 252 mya)
It has 6 periods: Cambrian (540 - 490 mya), Ordovician (490 - 443 mya), Silurian (425 mya), Devonian
(405 mya), Carboniferous (360 mya) & Permian (285 mya).
500 mya: Invertebrates were formed.
450 mya: First land organisms (plants) appeared.
400 mya: Arthropods invaded the land.
350 mya: Jawless fishes were evolved.

Lobefins (stout & strong finned fishes) could move on land and go back to water. They evolved to first
amphibians (ancestors of modern day frogs & salamanders).
In 1938, a lobe-fin called coelacanth fish was caught in South Africa which was thought to be extinct.
320 mya: Sea weeds and few plants were existed.
Amphibians evolved to reptiles. They lay thick-shelled eggs (do not dry up in sun).
Giant ferns (Pteridophytes) were present but they all fell to form coal deposits slowly

3. Mesozoic era (252 - 66 mya)

Age of reptiles and gymnosperms.
It has 3 periods: Triassic (230 mya), Jurassic (208 mya) & Cretaceous (144 mya).
200 mya: Some of the land reptiles went back into water to evolve into fish-like reptiles (E.g.
Ichthyosaurs).
The land reptiles were dinosaurs (Tyrannosaurus rex, Triceratops, Stegosaurus, Brachiosaurus etc.) T. rex
was the largest dinosaur (20 feet in height, huge fearsome dagger-like teeth).
Toothed birds were emerged.
 4. Cenozoic era (66 - 0 mya)
Age of Mammals & Angiosperms.
It has 2 periods: Tertiary (66 mya) & Quaternary (2 mya - Age of man)
65 mya: Dinosaurs suddenly disappeared. Some say climatic changes killed them. Some say most of them
evolved into birds.
First mammals were shrew-like. Their fossils are small sized.
In South America, there were mammals resembling horse, hippopotamus, bear, rabbit etc. Due to
continental drift, when South America joined North America, these animals were overridden by North
American fauna.
Due to continental drift, Australian marsupials survived because of lack of competition from any other
mammals.

ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF MAN

15 mya: Dryopithecus & Ramapithecus. Hairy. Walked like gorillas & chimpanzee. Dryopithecus: ape-like.
Ramapithecus: man-like.
3-4 mya: Man-like primates walked up right in eastern Africa. Height up to 4 feet. This belief is based on
fossils of man-like bones found in Ethiopia & Tanzania.
2 mya: Australopithecus. Lived in East African grass lands. Hunted with stone weapons. Ate fruits.Homo
habilis: First human-like being (hominid). Brain capacity: 650-800 cc. Did not eat meat
1.5 mya: Homo erectus (Java man). Large brain (900cc).Ate meat.
1 lakh - 40,000 yrs ago: Homo neanderthalensis (Neanderthal man).
Brain capacity: 1400 cc. Lived in East & Central Asia. Used hides to protect their body. Buried their dead

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75,000 - 10,000 yrs ago (ice age): Homo sapiens (Modern man).
Pre-historic cave art developed about 18,000 years ago. E.g. Cave paintings at Bhimbetka rock shelter in
Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh.
Agriculture & settlements: 10,000 years ago.

Sequence of Human evolution:

Dryopithecus → Ramapithecus → Australopithecus → Homo habilis → H. erectus → H. neanderthalensis → H.
sapiens
 MICROBES IN HUMAN WELFARE
Several microbes such as bacteria, viruses, fungi etc. are useful to man in many ways. Some of them are
given below:

1. MICROBES IN HOUSEHOLD PRODUCTS

Lactobacillus or Lactic acid bacteria (LAB):
It converts milk to curd by producing acids that coagulate and partially digest the milk proteins.
Fresh milk can be converted to curd by adding some curd containing LAB. It also increases vitamin B12
in curd.
In stomach, LAB helps to check pathogens.
Bacterial fermentation (anaerobic respiration) in dough is used to make foods such as dosa, idli etc. The
puffed-up appearance of dough is due to the production of CO2.
Baker’s Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae): It is used to make bread by fermenting dough.
Toddy is made by fermenting sap from palms.
Microbes are used to ferment fish, soya bean & bambooshoots and to produce cheeses.
Swiss cheese has large holes due to production of CO2 by Propionibacterium sharmanii (a bacterium).
Roquefort cheese is ripened by growing a fungus (Penicillium roqueforti) on them.

2. MICROBES IN INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS

Production of beverages, antibiotics etc. on an industrial scale,requires growing microbes in very large vessels
(fermentors).

Fermented beverages

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Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Brewer’s yeast) is used in the production of beverages by fermenting malted
cereals and fruit juices to produce ethanol.
Wine & Beer are produced without distillation.
Whisky, Brandy, Rum, Gin, Arrack etc. are produced by distillation of fermented broth.

Antibiotics
Chemical substances produced by some microbes and can kill or retard the growth of pathogens.
They are used to treat plague, whooping cough, diphtheria,leprosy etc.
Penicillin: First antibiotic discovered by Alexander Fleming. He observed that Staphylococci could not grow
around a mould (Penicillium notatum) growing in unwashed culture plates. He extracted penicillin from it.
Earnest Chain and Howard Florey established its full potential as an effective antibiotic.
Fleming, Chain &Florey were awarded Nobel Prize (1945).

Chemicals, enzymes & other bioactive molecules

1. Organic acids: Acid producer microbes include
Aspergillus niger (a fungus) : Citric acid
Clostridium butylicum (a bacterium) : Butyric acid
Lactobacillus (a bacterium) : Lactic acid
2. Alcohol: Yeast (S. cerevisiae) is used to produceethanol.
3. Enzymes:
Lipases: Used in detergent formulations. Help to remove oily stains from the laundry.
Pectinases & Proteases: To clarify bottled juices.
Streptokinase: Produced by Streptococcus. Used as a ‘clot buster’ to remove clots from the blood
vessels of patients who have myocardial infarction.
4. Cyclosporine A: Produced by Trichoderma polysporum (fungus). Used as an immunosuppressive agent in
organ transplant patients.
5. Statins: Produced by Monascus purpureus (a yeast).
Used as blood-cholesterol lowering agents. It inhibits the enzymes responsible for synthesis of cholesterol.
 3. MICROBES IN SEWAGE TREATMENT
Sewage (municipal waste-water) contains large amount of organic matter and microbes.
Sewage is treated in Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs) to make it less polluting. It includes 2 stages.

1. Primary treatment
It is the physical removal of particles. It includes
a. Removal of floating debris by sequential filtration.
b. Removal of the grit (soil & pebbles) by sedimentation.
The settled solids form the primary sludge and the supernatant form the primary effluent.

2. Secondary treatment (Biological treatment)

Primary effluent is passed into large aeration tanks and constantly agitated. This allows vigorous growth of
useful aerobic microbes into flocs (bacteria associated with fungal filaments to form mesh-like structures).
These microbes consume the organic matter in the effluent. This reduces the BOD (Biochemical Oxygen
Demand) of the effluent.
BOD: Amount of O2 consumed by bacteria to oxidize all organic matter in one litre of water. It is a measure of
organic matter present in the water. The greater the BOD more is its polluting potential.
The effluent is then passed into a settling tank where the bacterial ‘flocs’ are sediment. This sediment is
called ‘activated sludge’.
A small part of the activated sludge is pumped back into the aeration tank to serve as the inoculum.
The remaining sludge is pumped into large tanks called anaerobic sludge digesters. Here, some anaerobic
bacteria digest the bacteria and fungi in the sludge by producing gases like CH4, H2S and CO2. These gases
form the biogas. The effluent is released into natural water bodies like rivers and streams.
The Ministry of Environment & Forests initiated Ganga Action Plan & Yamuna Action Plan to save from water

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pollution.

4. MICROBES IN THE PRODUCTION OF BIOGAS

Biogas is a mixture of gases (mainly CH4) produced bythe microbial activity. It is used for cooking &
lighting.
Methanogens grow anaerobically on cellulosic material and produce CH4. E.g. Methanobacterium.
Methanobacterium is found in the anaerobic sludge and rumen of cattle (for cellulose digestion).
The cattle dung (gobar) is rich in these bacteria. Dung can be used for generation of biogas (Gobar gas).
The Biogas plant consists of A concrete tank (10-15 feet deep) to collect bio-wastes and slurry of dung. A
floating cover is placed over the slurry, which keeps on rising as the biogas is produced.
An outlet which is connected to a pipe to supply biogas.
An outlet to remove spent slurry (used asfertilizer).
Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) and Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC): Developed
technology of biogas production in India.

5. MICROBES AS BIOCONTROL AGENTS

Biocontrol is the use of biological methods for controlling plant diseases and pests. E.g. Lady bird (beetle)
controls aphids. Dragon flies control mosquitoes.
Chemical pesticides and insecticides kill both useful and harmful organisms and cause pollution.
Biocontrol method has no such problems.

Microbial biocontrol agents

Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt): To control butterfly caterpillar. The dried spores of Bt (available in sachets) are
mixed with water and sprayed on to vulnerable plants such as brassicas nd fruit trees. These are eaten by
the caterpillar. In their gut, the toxin is released and the larvae get killed. The scientists have introduced
B. thuringiensis toxin genes into plants. E.g. Bt cotton
Trichoderma sp (fungus): These are free livings present in the root ecosystems. They control several
plant pathogens.
Baculoviruses (Especially genus Nucleopolyhedro-virus): Attacks insects and other arthropods.
It is suitable for species-specific, narrow spectrum insecticidal applications and desirable in IPM (Integrated Pest
Management) program to conserve beneficial insects.
 6. MICROBES AS BIOFERTILISERS
Biofertilisers are organisms that enrich nutrient quality of the soil. E.g. Bacteria, fungi, cyanobacteria etc.
Rhizobium (symbiotic bacteria in root nodules of leguminous plants) fix atmospheric N2. • Free-living
bacteria in the soil (E.g. Azospirillum and Azotobacter) enrich the nitrogen content of the soil.
Mycorrhiza: Symbiotic association of fungi (E.g. genus of Glomus) with plants. The fungus gets food from
plant. The fungal symbiont performs the following:
Absorb phosphorous from soil and passes it to the plant.
Give resistance to root-borne pathogens and tolerance to salinity and draught.
Give overall increase in plant growth and development
Cyanobacteria (Blue green algae): Autotrophic microbes. They fix atmospheric nitrogen. E.g. Anabaena,
Nostoc, Oscillatoria etc. In paddy fields, Cyanobacteria serve as an important biofertilisers. It also adds
organic matter to the soil and increases its fertility.

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 STRATEGIES FOR ENHANCEMENT IN FOOD
PRODUCTION
I. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
It is the scientific agricultural practice of breeding and raising livestock.
It deals with the care & breeding of livestock (buffaloes, cows, pigs, horses, cattle, sheep, camels, goats
etc.), poultry farming and fisheries.
More than 70% of the world livestock population is in India & China. However, the contribution to the world
farm produce is only 25%, i.e., the productivity per unit is very low. Hence new technologies should be
applied to achieve improvement in quality and productivity.

Management of Farms & Farm Animals

1. Dairy Farm Management (Dairying)
It is the management of animals for increasing yield and quality of milk and its products.
Milk yield depends on the quality of breeds in the farm.
It is important to select good breeds having high yielding potential and resistance to diseases.
Ways for the yield potential:
Look after the cattle (housing well, give adequate water and maintain disease free).
Feeding of cattle in a scientific manner – emphasis on the quality and quantity of fodder.
Stringent cleanliness and hygiene of cattle & handlers while milking, storage and transport of the
milk.
Nowadays, these processes have mechanized. It reduces chance of direct contact of the produce with the
handler

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To ensure these stringent measures there should be
Regular inspections to identify and rectify problems.
Regular visits by a veterinary doctor.

2. Poultry Farm Management

Poultry is the domesticated birds used for food or eggs. E.g. chicken, ducks, turkey and geese.
Components of poultry farm management:
Selection of disease free and suitable breeds
Proper and safe farm conditions.
Proper feed and water.
Hygiene and health care.

Animal Breeding
A breed is a group of organisms related by descent and similar general appearance, features, size etc.
Breeding is the modification of genotype of an organism to make that organism more useful to humans.
E.g. Jersey (improved cattle breed), Leghorn (improved chickenbreed).
Animal breeding aims at increasing the yield of animals and improving the desirable qualities of the
produce.
Breeding is 2 types: Inbreeding and out-breeding.

a. Inbreeding
It is the mating of more closely related individuals within the same breed for 4-6 generations. This strategy is
as follows:
Identify and mate superior males & females of same breed.
Evaluate the progeny obtained and identify superior males and females among them for further mating.
In cattle, a superior female produces more milk per lactation. A superior male (bull) gives rise to superior
progeny.
Advantages of Inbreeding:
It increases homozygosity to evolve a pure line animal.
It exposes harmful recessive genes that are eliminated by selection.
It helps in accumulation of superior genes and elimination of less desirable genes. This increases the
productivity of inbred population.
Continued inbreeding, especially close inbreeding, may reduce fertility and productivity. This is called
inbreeding depression. To solve this problem, selected animals should be mated with unrelated superior
animals of the same breed.

b. Out-breeding
It is the breeding of the unrelated animals. It includes outcrossing, cross-breeding and inter-specific
hybridization.

i) Out-crossing:
It is the mating of animals within the same breed, but having no common ancestors on either side of their
pedigree up to 4-6 generations
The offspring of such a mating is known as out-cross.
It is the best method for animals having low milk productivity, growth rate in beef cattle, etc.
It helps to overcome inbreeding depression.

ii) Cross-breeding:
It is the mating of superior males of one breed with superior females of another breed.
The desirable qualities of 2 different breeds are combined.

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The progeny hybrid animals may be used for commercial production or may be subjected to inbreeding
and selection to develop new stable superior breeds.
E.g. Hisardale (sheep) developed in Punjab by crossing Bikaneri ewes and Merino rams.

iii) Interspecific hybridization:

It is the mating of male and female of two different species.
In some cases, the progeny may combine desirable features of both the parents, and may be of
considerable economic value. E.g. Mule (male ass X female horse).

Controlled breeding experiments

1. Artificial insemination
The semen collected from male parent is injected into the reproductive tract of selected female by the
breeder.
Semen is used immediately or is frozen and used later. Frozen semen can also be transported.
Success rate of crossing mature male & female is low even though artificial insemination is carried out.

2. Multiple Ovulation Embryo Transfer Technology (MOET)

It is a programme for herd improvement. It improves chances of successful production of hybrids.
In this, a cow is administered hormones such as FSH to induce follicular maturation & super ovulation
(production of 6-8 eggs per cycle instead of one egg).
The animal is either mated with an elite bull or artificially inseminated. Fertilised eggs at 8–32 cells stage
are recovered non-surgically and transferred to surrogate mothers.
MOET has been demonstrated for cattle, sheep, rabbits, buffaloes, mares, etc.
High milk yielding breeds of females and high quality (lean meat with less lipid) meat-yielding bulls have
been bred successfully to increase herd size in a short time.
 Bee-keeping (apiculture)
It is the maintenance of hives of honeybees to produce honey and beeswax.
Most common species that can be reared is Apis indica.
Honey is a food of high nutritive and medicinal value.
Beeswax is used in preparation of cosmetics, polishes etc.
Apiculture can be practiced in an area having bee pastures of some wild shrubs, fruit orchards and
cultivated crops.
Important points for successful bee-keeping:
1. Knowledge of the nature and habits of bees.
2. Selection of suitable location for keeping beehives.
3. Catching and hiving of swarms (group of bees).
4. Management of beehives during different seasons.
5. Handling and collection of honey and beeswax.
Bees are the pollinators of crop species such as sunflower, Brassica, apple and pear.
Keeping beehives in crop fields during flowering period increases pollination. It improves crop and honey
yield.

Fisheries
Fishery is an industry of catching, processing or selling of fish, shellfish or other aquatic animals (prawn,
crab, lobster, edible oyster etc.).
Freshwater fishes: Catla, Rohu, common carp etc. Marine fishes: Hilsa, Sardines, Mackerel, Pomfrets etc.
Fisheries provide income and employment to millions of fishermen and farmers.

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Aquaculture (farming of aquatic organisms) & pisciculture (farming of fishes) are the techniques to
increase the production of aquatic plants and animals.
Blue Revolution: The development and flourishing of the fishery industry.

II. PLANT BREEDING

It is the manipulation of plant species to create desired plant types suitable for better cultivation, better
yields and disease resistance.
Green Revolution: The development and flourishing of the agriculture. It was dependent on plant
breeding.
Classical plant breeding involves hybridization of pure lines and artificial selection to produce desirable
traits.
Now molecular genetic tools are used for plant breeding.

Desirable traits for plant breeding:

Increased crop yield and quality.
Increased tolerance to environmental stresses (salinity, extreme temperatures & drought).
Increased resistance to insect pests and pathogens.

Steps of Plant breeding

(i) Collection of genetic variability
In wild relatives of many crops, pre-existing genetic variability is available.
Collection and preservation of wild varieties, species and relatives of the cultivated species is a pre-
requisite for effective exploitation of natural genes.
The entire collection of plants/seeds having all the alleles for all genes in a given crop is called
germplasmcollection.

(ii) Evaluation and selection of parents.

The germplasm is evaluated for identifying plants with desirable characters.
Selected plants are multiplied and used for hybridisation.
Pure lines are created wherever desirable and possible.
 (iii) Cross hybridisation of the selected parents
In this, desired characters are genetically combined from 2 different parents to produce hybrid plant.
E.g. high protein quality of one parent is combined with disease resistance from another parent.

Limitations:
Very time-consuming and tedious process.
Hybrids may not combine the desirable characters. Usually only hundreds to a thousand crosses show
the desirable combination.

(iv) Selection & testing of superior recombinants

It is crucial to the success of the breeding objective and requires careful scientific evaluation of the
progeny.
It yields plants that are superior to both parents.
These are self-pollinated for several generations till they reach a state of uniformity (homozygosity), so
that the characters will not segregate in the progeny.

(v) Testing, release & commercialization

The newly selected lines are evaluated for their yield and other agronomic traits of quality, disease
resistance, etc.
This is done by growing them in research fields and recording their performance under ideal fertiliser
application irrigation and other crop management practices.
The evaluation is followed by testing the materials in farmers’ fields, for at least 3 growing seasons at
several locations in the country, representing all the agro-climatic zones. The material is evaluated in

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comparison to the best available local crop cultivar (a check or reference cultivar).

Wheat and Rice:

In India, food production hasincreased by the development of high yielding varieties of wheat and rice in
the mid1960s (Green Revolution).
During 1960-2000, wheat production increased from 11 million tons to 75 million tons. The rice production
increased from 35 million tons to 89.5 million tons.
Nobel laureate Norman E. Borlaug (International Centre for Wheat & Maize Improvement, Mexico)
developed semi-dwarf wheat.
In 1963, high yielding and disease resistant wheat varieties like Sonalika & Kalyan Sona were introduced in
India.
Semi-dwarf rice varieties were derived from IR-8, (developed at International Rice Research Institute
(IRRI), Philippines) and Taichung Native-1 (from Taiwan).Later better-yielding semi dwarf varieties Jaya
and Ratna were developed in India.
Sugar cane: Saccharum barberi (grown in north India, but poor sugar content & yield) was crossed with
Saccharum officinarum (tropical canes in south India, thicker stems and higher sugar content but do not
grow well in north India) and got a hybrid sugar cane having desirable qualities like high yield, thick stems,
high sugar and ability to grow in north India.
Millets: Hybrid maize, jowar & bajra developed in India.
It includes high yielding varieties resistant to water stress.

Plant Breeding for Disease Resistance

Plant diseases cause crop losses up to 20-30% or even total.
Disease-resistant cultivars enhance food production and helps to reduce the use of fungicides and
bactericides.
Resistance of the host plant is the genetic ability to prevent the pathogens from disease.
Some plant diseases:
Fungal: Rusts. E.g. brown rust of wheat, red rot of sugarcane and late blight of potato.
Bacterial: Black rot of crucifers.
Viral: Tobacco mosaic, turnip mosaic, etc
 Methods of breeding for disease resistance
1. Conventional breeding: The steps are:
Screening germplasm for resistance sources.
Hybridisation of selected parents.
Selection and evaluation of the hybrids.
Testing and release of new varieties.

Some crop varieties bred by Conventional method:

Crop Variety Resistance to

Wheat Himgiri Leaf & stripe rust, hill bunt

Brassica Pusa swarnim (Karan rai) White rust

Pusa Shubhra, Black rot and curl blight

Cauliflower
Pusa Snowball K-1 black rot
Cowpea Pusa Komal Bacterial blight
Chilly mosaic virus, Tobacco
Chilli Pusa Sadabahar
mosaic virus and leaf curl.

Conventional breeding is constrained by the availability of limited number of disease resistance genes.
Inducing mutations in plants and screening them for resistance help to identify desirable genes. Such
plants can be multiplied directly or can be used in breeding.

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Other breeding methods are selection amongst somaclonal variants and genetic engineering.

2. Mutation breeding:
Mutation (sudden genetic change) can create new desirable characters not found in the parental type.
Mutation breeding is the breeding by mutation using chemicals or radiations (e.g. gamma rays) to produce
plants with desirable characters. Such plants are selected and multiplied directly or used as a source in
breeding.
E.g. In mung bean, resistance to yellow mosaic virus and powdery mildew were induced by mutations.
Resistant genesfrom wild species have introduced into the high-yielding cultivated varieties. E.g. In bhindi
(Abelmoschus esculentus), resistance to yellow mosaic virus was transferred from a wild species. It
resulted in a new variety of A. esculentus called Parbhani kranti.
Resistance genes can be transferred by sexual hybridisation between the target and the source plant.

Plant Breeding for Developing Resistance to Insect Pests

Morphological, biochemical or physiological characteristics give insect resistance in host crop plants. E.g.
Hairy leaves: E.g. resistance to jassids in cotton and cereal leaf beetle in wheat.
Solid stemsin wheat lead to non-preference by the stem sawfly.
Smooth leaved and Nectar-less cotton varieties do not attract bollworms.
High aspartic acid, low nitrogen and sugar content in maize leads to resistance to maize stem borers.
Sources of resistance genes for breeding are cultivated varieties, germplasm collections of crop or wild
relatives.
Some crop varieties bred for insect pest resistance:

Crop Variety Insect pests

Brassica (rapeseed mustard) Pusa Gaurav Aphids

Flat bean Pusa Sem 2, Pusa Sem 3 Jassids, aphids & fruit borer

Okra (Bhindi) Pusa Sawani, Pusa A-4 Shoot and Fruit borer
 Plant Breeding for Improved Food Quality
More than 840 million people in the world do not have adequate food. 3 billion people suffer from
micronutrient, protein and vitamin deficiencies (‘hidden hunger’).
Breeding crops with higher levels of nutrients is called Biofortification. It helps to improve public health.

Objectives of breeding for improved nutritional quality:

To improve Protein content and quality.
To improve Oil content and quality.
To improve Vitamin content.
To improve Micronutrient and mineral content
Examples for hybrids with improved nutritional quality:
Maize hybrids having twice the amount of amino acids, lysine & tryptophan compared to existing
maize hybrids.
Wheat variety, Atlas 66, having high protein content
Iron-fortified rice variety containing over five times as much iron as in common varieties.
Vitamins & mineral rich vegetable crops: Released by Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi.
Vitamin A enriched carrots, spinach, pumpkin
Vitamin C enriched bitter gourd, bathua, mustard,tomato.
Iron & calcium enriched spinach & bathua.
Proteinenrichedbeans(broad,lablab,French&gardenpeas)

III. SINGLE CELL PROTEIN (SCP)

It is the protein derived from single-celled organisms

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It is an alternate source of proteins for animal and human nutrition. E.g. Spirulina (a blue green alga),
Methylophilus methylotrophus (a bacterium).
Spirulina is rich in protein, minerals, fats, carbohydrate & vitamins. It is grown on materials like waste
water from potato processing plants, straw, molasses, animal manure & sewage. This also reduces
environmental pollution.
A 250 Kg cow produces only 200 g protein/day. But 250 g Methylophilus methylotrophus produces 25
tonnes protein. It is due to high rate of biomass production and growth.

IV. TISSUE CULTURE

The ability to generate a whole plant from any cell/explant is called totipotency. An explant is any part of
a plant that is grown in a test tube under sterile nutrient media.
The ability to generate a whole plant from any cell/explant is called totipotency. An explant is any part of
a plant that is grown in a test tube under sterile nutrient media.
The nutrient medium must provide a carbon source (such as sucrose), inorganic salts, vitamins, amino
acids and growth regulators like auxins, cytokinins etc.
The method of producing thousands of plants in very short time through tissue culture is called
micropropagation.
These plants will be genetically identical to original plant, i.e., they are somaclones.
Tomato, banana, apple etc. are produced by this method.
Tissue culture is also used to recover healthy plants from diseased plants. The meristem (it will be virus-
free) from infected plant is removed and grown in vitro to obtain virus-free plants. Scientists have
cultured meristems of banana, sugarcane, potato, etc.
Somatic hybridization: It is the fusion of protoplasts from two different varieties of plants (with desirable
characters) to get hybrid protoplasts. It can be grown to form a new plant called somatic hybrids.
Protoplasts can be isolated after digesting the cell walls of plant cells.
E.g. Protoplast of tomato + protoplast of potato → pomato. This hybrid plant has the characteristics of
tomato & potato. But it has no all desired characteristics for its commercial utilization.
 HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES
Health is a state of complete physical, mental & social well being. It is affected by genetic disorders,
infections, change in life style (food, water, rest, exercise, habits etc).
Mind influences immune system (through neural and endocrine systems) and thereby health.
When the functioning of organs or systems of the body is adversely affected, it is called a disease.
Diseases may be infectious (transmits from oneperson to another) or non-infectious (do not transmit.E.g.
cancer)
Disease causing organisms are called Pathogens. Parasites are pathogens as they harm the host.
Good humour hypothesis (by Hippocrates & Indian Ayurveda system):It states that health is a state of body&
mind where there is a balance of certain humours. Persons with ‘black bile’ belong to hot personality and would
havefevers.
William Harvey disproved this hypothesis. He discovered blood circulation and demonstrated normal body
temperature in persons with black bile using thermometer.

COMMON INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN MAN

1. BACTERIAL DISEASES
a. Typhoid: Pathogen is Salmonella typhi.
Mode of transmission: It enters small intestine through food & water and migrates to other organs via
blood.
Symptoms: Sustained high fever (39o -40o C), headache, weakness, stomach pain, constipation & loss of
appetite. Intestinal perforation and death may occur. Widal test is used for confirmation of the disease.
Mary Mallon (Typhoid Mary) was a professional cook. She was a typhoid carrier who spread typhoid for several

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years through the food she prepared.
It infects lung alveoli. The alveoli get filled with fluid leading to respiratory problems.
Mode of transmission: Inhaling the droplets/aerosols released by an infected person. Sharing glasses and
utensils with an infected person.
Symptoms: Respiratory problems, fever, chills, cough, headache. In severe cases, lips and finger nails turn
grey to bluish colour.
Other bacterial diseases: Dysentery, plague, diphtheria, etc

2. VIRAL DISEASES
a. Common cold: Pathogen is Rhinoviruses
It infects nose & respiratory passage but not lungs.
Mode of transmission: Inhaling dropletsresulting from cough or sneezes. Through contaminated objects
(pens, books, cups, doorknobs, computer accessories) etc
Symptoms: Nasal congestion & discharge, fever, headache, sore throat, cough, hoarseness, tiredness etc.
Common cold lasts for 3-7 days.

3. PROTOZOAN DISEASES
a. Malaria: Pathogen is Plasmodium sp. (P. vivax, P.malariae & P. falciparum).
Most serious (malignant) malaria is caused by P. falciparum.
Mode of transmission: By female Anopheles mosquito.
Symptoms: Haemozoin (toxin released by Plasmodium) causes chill and high fever recurring every 3-4
days.
b. Amoebiasis (Amoebic dysentery): Pathogen is Entamoeba histolytica.
Mode of transmission: Houseflies (mechanical carriers) transmit parasites from faeces to food &water.
Symptoms: Constipation, abdominal pain and cramps, stools with excess mucus and blood clots.

4. HELMINTH DISEASES
a. Ascariasis: Pathogen is Ascaris (Intestinal parasite).
Mode of transmission: Soil, water, vegetables, fruits etc. contaminated with faeces containing eggs of
parasites.
Symptoms: Internal bleeding, muscular pain, fever, anaemia and blockage of intestinal passage.
b. Filariasis (Elephantiasis): Pathogen is Filarial worms or Wuchereria (W. bancrofti & W. malayi).
Mode of transmission: Bite of female Culex mosquito.
Symptoms: Filarial worms live in lymphatic vessels (usually of lower limbs). It causes chronic inflammation
of the organs in which they live for many years. Limbs and genital organs may be deformed.

5. FUNGAL DISEASES
a. Ring worms: Pathogens are Microsporum, Trichophyton & Epidermophyton. They are seen in groin, b/w
toes etc.
Mode of transmission: From soil or by using towels, cloths, comb etc. Heat and moisture help fungi
togrow.
Symptoms: Dry, scaly lesions on skin, nails, scalp etc. Intense itching.

PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF DISEASES

Personal hygiene

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Keep the body clean. Use clean drinking water, food etc.
Public hygiene
a. Proper disposal of wastes and excreta.
b. Periodic cleaning and disinfection of water reservoirs, pools, cesspools and tanks.
c. Avoid contact with infected persons or their belongings(to control air-borne diseases).
d. Standard practices of hygiene in public catering.
e. Control and eliminate the vectors (e.g. mosquitoes).
Avoid stagnation of water.
Regular cleaning of household coolers.
Use of mosquito nets.
Introduce larvivorous fishes like Gambusia in ponds.
Spraying insecticides in ditches, drainage and swamps.
Provide doors and windows with wire mesh.
These precautions can avoid vector-borne diseases like Malaria, Filariasis, Dengue & Chikun gunya.
Vaccines & immunisation helped to control diseases like smallpox, polio, diphtheria, pneumonia & tetanus.
Drugs like antibiotics also helped to treat infectious diseases.
 LYMPHOID ORGANS
These are the organs where origin/maturation & proliferation of lymphocytes occur. 2 types: Primary &
Secondary
a. Primary lymphoid organs
The organs where lymphocytes are matured & differentiated to antigen-sensitive lymphocytes. It is 2 types:
1. Bone marrow: The site of formation of all blood cells including B & T-lymphocytes
2. Thymus: A bilobed organ seen near the heart and beneath the breastbone. It is large during birth but
gradually reduces in size and becomes very small size in puberty. Immature T-lymphocytes from bone
marrow is migrated to thymus and matured.

b. Secondary lymphoid organs

The organs, to which matured lymphocytes migrate from primary lymphoid organs, interact with
antigens and then proliferate to become effector cells.
E.g. Spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, Peyer’s patches, Mucosaassociated lymphoid tissue (MALT) & appendix.
Spleen: Bean-shaped organ. Contains lymphocytes and phagocytes. It removes worn-out RBCs &
microorganisms from blood. It is a reservoir of erythrocytes in foetus.
Lymph nodes: Found in lymphatic system. They trap microorganisms or other antigens. Trapped antigens
activate lymphocytes and cause immune response.
MALT: Located within the lining of respiratory, digestive & urinogenital tracts. It constitutes 50% of
lymphoid tissue.

IMMUNITY
It is the ability of the immune system to fight the pathogens.

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It is 2 types: Innate and Acquired.

1. Innate (inborn) immunity

It is the non-specific immunity present at the time of birth.
It includes 4 types of Barriers:
a. Physical barriers: Prevents entry of microbes. E.g. Skin, Mucus coating of the respiratory, gastro-intestinal
and urino-genital tracts. Mucus traps microbes.
b. Physiological barriers: They prevent microbial growth. E.g. gastric HCl, saliva, tear etc.
c. Cellular barriers: Phagocytes like WBC [Polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNL) or neutrophils, monocytes
and natural killer lymphocytes], macrophages etc.
d. Cytokine barriers: Virus infected cells secrete a cytokine protein called interferon. It protects non-infected
cells from further viral infection.

2. Acquired (adaptive) immunity

It is pathogen specific immunity developed during lifetime.
It is characterized by memory, i.e. during first encounter of a pathogen, body produces primary response
in low intensity. Second encounter of the same pathogen causes a secondary (anamnestic) response in
high intensity.
Primary and secondary immune responses are carried out with B-lymphocytes (B-cells) and T-
lymphocytes(T-cells).
a. B-lymphocytes: Produce antibodies. These are the proteins to fight the pathogens.
b. T-lymphocytes: Help B-cells to produce antibodies.
 Types of Acquired immune response
1. Humoral immune response/ Antibody mediated immunity (AMI): It is the immune response mediated by
antibodies. Antibodies are found in blood plasma. So called as Humoral immune response.
2. Cell-mediated response / cell-mediated immunity (CMI): It is the immune response mediated by T-
lymphocytes (Tcells). The body can differentiate ‘self’ and ‘non-self’ and the CMI causes Graft rejection.
Tissue matching & blood group matching are essential before undertaking any graft/ transplant. After
this, the patient should take immuno-suppressants all his life.

Types of Acquired immunity

Acquired immunity is 2 types: Active and passive.
1. Active immunity: It is the immunity in which antibodies are produced in a host body when the host is
exposed to antigens (e.g. living or dead microbes or other proteins). It is a slow process. It is produced by
2 ways:
a. Natural Active Immunity: It is developed during natural infection by microbes.
b. Artificial Active Immunity: It is developed by injecting the microbes deliberately during immunization.
2. Passive immunity: Here, readymade antibodies are directly given to the body. It is 2 types:
a. Natural Passive Immunity: E.g.
→
i. Antibodies (IgG) from mother →
Placenta Foetus
→
ii. Antibodies (IgA) in colostrum infants
b. Artificial Passive Immunity: E.g.
i. Anti-tetanus serum (ATS)

Immunization

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This is based on ‘memory’ of the immune system. 2 types:
1. Active Immunization (Vaccination)
In this, a preparation of vaccine (antigenic proteins of pathogen or inactivated pathogen) is introduced
into the body. It results in the development of antibodies.
During actual infection, the antibodies neutralize antigens.
The vaccines also generate memory B and T-cells. They recognize the pathogen quickly.
E.g. Polio vaccine, Hepatitis B vaccine, DPT vaccine etc.
Vaccines are produced using DNA recombinant technology (E.g. Hepatitis B vaccine produced from Yeast).

2. Passive Immunization
It is the direct injection of pre-formed antibodies or antitoxin. It is required for quick immune response.
E.g. Immunization against Tetanus, snake venom etc.

Allergies
It is the exaggerated response of the immune system to certain antigens present in the environment.
Allergens: Substances causing allergy. E.g. mites in dust, pollens, animal dander, fur etc.
Antibodies produced against the allergens are IgE type.
IgE binds on mast cells to release chemicals like histamine and serotonin from them. It results in allergic
reactions.
Symptoms: Sneezing, watery eyes, running nose, difficulty in breathing, wheezing, skin rashes etc.
Determination of cause of allergy: The patient is exposed to or injected with very small doses of possible
allergens, and the reactions studied.
Treatment: Drugs like anti-histamine, adrenaline and steroids quickly reduce the symptoms of allergy.
Asthma is a respiratory disease due to allergy.
Modern-day life style and protected environment provided early in life result in low immunity and more
sensitivity to allergens. So, many children in metro cities suffer from allergies and asthma.

Autoimmunity
In higher vertebrates, memory-based acquired immunity evolved based on the ability to differentiate
foreign organisms from self-cells.
Sometimes, due to genetic and other unknown reasons, the body attacks self-cells resulting in damage to
the body. It is called auto-immune disease. E.g. Rheumatoid arthritis.
 AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome)
It is the deficiency of immune system.
Syndrome means a group of symptoms.
It is caused by HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus), a retrovirus having RNA genome.
AIDS was first reported in America (1981).
In the last 25 years, it killed over 25 million persons
Transmission:
Sexual contact with infected person.
Transfusion of contaminated blood & blood products.
Sharing of infected needles.
From infected mother to her child through placenta.
High risk people of getting HIV:
Individuals with multiple sexual partners.
Drug addicts who take drugs intravenously.
Individuals who require repeated blood transfusion.
Children born to an HIV infected mother.

HIV does not spread by touch or physical contact. It spreads only through body fluids. There is a time-lag (from
few months to 5-10 years) between the infection and appearance of symptoms.
Replication of retrovirus:

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Life cycle of HIV:
HIV enters body → To macrophages (acts as HIV factory) → RNA genome replicates in presence of Reverse
transcriptase to form viral DNA → Viral DNA incorporates into host DNA→ Infected cells produce virus particles
→ HIV enters into helper T-cells (TH lymphocytes) → Replicates & produce progeny viruses → Attack other TH
cells → TH cells decrease → Weaken immunity.
During this period, the person suffers from fever, diarrhoea and weight loss.
Due to deficiency of TH cells, he may be infected with Mycobacterium, viruses, fungi & parasites like
Toxoplasma.
Diagnosis: ELISAtest(Enzyme-linkedimmuno-sorbentAssay).
Treatment: Anti-retroviral drugs are partially effective. They can only prolong the life of the patient.
Prevention of AIDS:
Educate people about AIDS through organisations like National AIDS Control Organisation (NACO),
nongovernmental organisations (NGOs), WHO etc.
Make blood (from blood banks) safe from HIV.
Use disposable needles and syringes.
Advocate safe sex and free distribution of condoms.
Control drug abuse.
Regular check-ups for HIV in susceptible population.
 CANCER
Cancer is an abnormal and uncontrolled multiplication of cells resulting in the formation of tumour
(masses of cells).
Normal cells show a contact inhibition (contact with the other cells inhibits their uncontrolled growth).
Cancer cells do not have this property

Types of Tumours
Benign tumours: Confined to the place of its origin. They do not spread to other parts. Cause little
damage.
Malignant tumours: Mass of proliferating cells (neoplastic or tumour cells) that grow rapidly, invade
and damage the surrounding normal tissues. Due to active division and growth, they starve normal
cells by competing for nutrients. Cells sloughed from tumours reach other sites via blood where they
form a new tumour. This is called metastasis.

Causes of cancer (Carcinogens)

Physical agents: E.g. Ionizing radiations like X-rays and gamma rays and non-ionizing radiations like UV.
Chemical agents: Tobacco smoke (major cause of lung cancer), vinyl chloride, caffeine, nicotine, mustard
gas etc.
Biological agents: E.g. oncogenic viruses, c-onc (cellular oncogenes or proto oncogenes) etc. When C-onc
in normal cells is activated, the cells become oncogenic.

Cancer detection and diagnosis

Biopsy: A thin piece of the suspected tissue is stained and examined under microscope (histopathological

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studies).
In case of leukemia: Biopsy & histopathological studies. Blood & bone marrow tests for increased cell
counts.
Imaging techniques:
Radiography: Use of X-rays.
CT (Computerized tomography) scan: Uses X-rays to generate a 3D image of the internals of an
object.
MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging): Uses magnetic fields and non-ionising radiations to detect
pathological and physiological changes in the living tissue.
Use of Antibodies against cancer-specific antigens.
Molecular biology technique: To detect cancer related genes. Such individuals should avoid carcinogens
(e.g. tobacco smoke).

Treatment of cancer
Radiotherapy: Tumour cells are irradiated lethally, without damaging surrounding normal tissues.
Chemotherapy: Use of chemotherapeutic drugs. Many drugs have side effects like hair loss, anaemia etc.
Immunotherapy: The patients are given biological response modifiers (e.g. α- interferon) which activates
their immune system and helps in destroying the tumour.
Surgery.Most cancers are treated by combination of surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy.

DRUGS, SMOKING AND ALCOHOL ABUSE

DRUGS
1. Opioids:
They bind to specific opioid receptors in CNS and gastrointestinal tract. E.g. morphine, heroin, brown
sugar.
 Morphine is extracted from latex of Papaver somniferum (poppy plant). It is a sedative & painkiller. Used
in surgery.
Heroin (smack or diacetylmorphine) is a white, odourless,bitter crystalline compound. It is obtained by
acetylation of morphine. It is taken by snorting and injection. Heroin is a depressant and slows down body
functions.
2. Cannabinoids:
They interact with cannabinoid receptors in the brain.
Generally taken by inhalation and oral ingestion.
Natural cannabinoids are obtained from inflorescences of Cannabis sativa (Hemp plant). Its flower tops,
leaves & resin are used to make marijuana, hashish, charas & ganja.
They affect cardiovascular system.
Cannabinoids are abused by some sportspersons.

3. Coca alkaloid or cocaine (coke or crack):

It is obtained from coca plant Erythroxylum coca.

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It interferes with transport of neurotransmitter dopamine.
Cocaine is usually snorted.
It stimulates CNS producing euphoria & increased energy.
Excessive dosage of cocaine causes hallucinations.
Atropa belladona & Datura are also hallucinogenic plants
Drugs like barbiturates, amphetamines, benzodiazepines, etc. are used as medicines to treat mental illnesses
like depression & insomnia. But their abuse causes impairment of physical, physiological or psychological
functions.

SMOKING
Tobacco has been used by human beingsfor over 400 years.
It is smoked, chewed or used as a snuff.
It contains many chemical substances like nicotine (an alkaloid). It stimulates adrenal gland to release
adrenaline and nor-adrenaline, causing high BP and heart rate.
Smoking causes cancers of lung, urinary bladder and throat, bronchitis, emphysema, coronary heart
disease, gastric ulcer etc. Tobacco chewing causes oral cancer.
Smoking increases CO content in blood and reduces oxyhaemoglobin. This causes O2 deficiency in the
body.

ADOLESCENCE & DRUG/ALCOHOL ABUSE

Adolescence is ‘a period’ and ‘a process’ during which a child becomes mature in terms of his/her
attitudes and beliefs for effective participation in society.
Adolescence is a bridge linking childhood and adulthood (period of 12-18 years of age). It is very
vulnerable phase of mental and psychological development.

Causes of drug/alcohol use in Adolescence

Curiosity and Experimentation.
Need for adventure and excitement.
To escape facing problems.
Stress from pressure to excel in academics or examination.
Television, movies, newspapers, internet etc.
Unstable or unsupportive family structures & peer pressure.
 Addiction and Dependence
Addiction: It is a psychological attachment (euphoria and a temporary feeling of wellbeing) with drugs
and alcohol. With repeated use of drugs, the tolerance level of the receptors increases. Thus the
receptors respond only to higher doses leading to greater intake and addiction.
Dependence: It is the tendency of the body to manifest a characteristic and unpleasant withdrawal
syndrome if regular dose of drugs/alcohol is abruptly discontinued. This results in anxiety, shakiness,
nausea and sweating. Dependence leads to social adjustment problems.

Effects of Drug/alcohol abuse

Reckless behaviour, vandalism and violence.
Coma and death due to respiratory failure, heart failure or cerebral haemorrhage.
Drugs mixed with alcohol may cause death.
Damage of nervous system and liver cirrhosis.
Mental and social distress to family and friends.
Social problems like stealing and spread of infectious diseases (e.g. AIDS, hepatitis B).
Use of drugs and alcohol by pregnant woman affect the foetus (Foetal alcohol syndrome or FAS).
Loss of sexual drive and necrospermia.
Misuse of drugs by athletes (e.g. narcotic analgesics, anabolic steroids, diuretics & certain hormones to
increase muscle strength and bulk and to promote aggressiveness).

Warning signs of drug/alcohol abuse in Adolescence period

Drop in academic performance and absence from school.
Lack of interest in personal hygiene.

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Withdrawal and isolation.
Depression, fatigue, aggressive and rebellious behaviour.
Change in sleeping and eating habits.
Fluctuations in weight, appetite etc.
Loss of interest in hobbies.
Deteriorating relationships with family and friends.

Side effects of anabolic steroid abuse

In males:
Acne.
Increased aggressiveness.
Decreased sperm.
Breast enlargement.
Enlargement of prostate gland.
Mood swings & depression.
Kidney & liver dysfunction.
Premature baldness
In females:
Masculinisation
Increased aggressiveness
Abnormal menstrual cycle
Enlargement of clitoris
Mood swings & depression
Excessive hair growth
Deepening of voice
In adolescent male & female:Severe facial and body acne, premature closure of the growth centres of the
long bones resulting in stunted growth.
Prevention and control
1. Avoid undue peer pressure.
2. Education and counselling.
3. Seeking help from parents and peers.
4. Looking for danger signs.
5. Seeking professional and medical help.
a. Psychologists and psychiatrists.
b. De-addiction and rehabilitation programs.

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 BIOTECHNOLOGY: PRINCPLES & PROCESSES
Biotechnology is the technique of using live organisms or their enzymes for products & processes useful
to humans.
The European Federation of Biotechnology (EFB) defines Biotechnology as ‘the integration of natural
science and organisms, cells, parts thereof, and molecular analogues for products and services’.
Biotechnology deals with:
Microbe-mediated processes (making curd, bread, wine etc).
In vitro fertilization (test-tube baby programme).
Synthesis and using of a gene.
Preparation of DNA vaccine.
Correcting a defective gene.

PRINCIPLES OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
Core techniques of modern biotechnology
Genetic engineering: The technique in which genetic material (DNA & RNA) is chemically altered and
introduced into host organisms to change the phenotype.
Bioprocess engineering: Maintenance of sterile ambience in chemical engineering processes for growing
desired microbe/eukaryotic cell for the manufacture of antibiotics, vaccines, enzymes etc.

Basic steps in genetically modifying an organism

a. Identification of DNA with desirable genes: Traditional hybridisation leads to inclusion and
multiplication of undesirable genes along with desired genes. In genetic engineering, only desirable
genes are introduced.

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b. Introduction of the identified DNA into the host: A vector DNA such as plasmid is used to deliver an
alien piece of DNA into the host organism.
c. Maintenance of introduced DNA in the host and transfer of the DNA to its progeny: A piece of alien
DNA has no the sequence called Origin of replication (ori) needed for starting replication. So, it cannot
multiply itself in the progeny cells of the organism. Hence alien DNA is integrated into the recipient
genome (it has ori). It multiplies & inherits along with host DNA.
The process of joining and inserting a foreign piece of DNA into a host organism to produce new genetic
combinations is called recombinant DNA technology.
First recombinant DNA (rDNA) was produced by Stanley Cohen & Herbert Boyer (1972).
They isolated an antibiotic resistance gene (piece of DNA) from a plasmid of Salmonella typhimurium. It
was linked with a plasmid vector and transferred into E. coli. As a result, the gene was expressed &
multiplied in E. coli.

TOOLS OF RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY

1. Restriction Enzymes (‘molecular scissors’)
The enzymes that cut DNA at specific sites into fragments
They belong to a class of enzymes called nucleases.
In 1963, two enzymes responsible for restricting growth of bacteriophage in E. coli were isolated. One
enzyme added methyl groups to DNA. The other (restriction endonuclease) cut DNA.
More than 900 restriction enzymes have been isolated from over 230 strains of bacteria.
Naming of the restriction enzymes:
First letter indicates genus. The second two letters indicate species of prokaryotic cell from which they
were isolated. E.g. EcoRI comes from E. coli RY 13 (R = the strain. Roman numbers = the order in which the
enzymes were isolated from that strain of bacteria).
Types of Restriction enzymes:
Exonucleases: They remove nucleotides from the ends of the DNA.
Endonucleases: They cut at specific positions within the DNA. E.g. EcoRI.
They bind to specific recognition sequence of the DNA and cut the two strands at specific points.
The first restriction endonuclease is Hind II. It cuts DNA molecules by recognizing a specific sequence of 6
base pairs. This is called the recognition sequence for Hind II.
 Restriction endonuclease recognizes a specific palindromic nucleotide sequences in the DNA. It is a
sequence of base pairs that read the same on the two strands in 5' → →
3' direction and in 3' 5' direction.
E.g. Palindromic nucleotide sequence for EcoRI is
5' —— GAATTC —— 3'
3' —— CTTAAG —— 5'

Restriction enzymes cut the strand a little away from the centre of the palindrome sites, but between the
same two bases on the opposite strands. This leaves single stranded overhanging stretches at the ends.
They are called sticky ends. They form H-bonds with their complementary cut counterparts. This
stickiness facilitates action of the enzyme DNA ligase.

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When cut by the same restriction enzyme, the resultant DNA fragments have the same kind of sticky-
ends and these are joined together by DNA ligases.

2. Cloning Vector
It is a DNA molecule that can carry a foreign DNA segment and replicate inside the host cells.
E.g. Plasmids, bacteriophages etc.
Plasmids are autonomously replicating circular extrachromosomal DNA of bacteria. Some plasmids have
only 1-2 copies per cell. Others have 15-100 copies per cell.
Bacteriophages (high number per cell) have very high copy numbers of their genome within the bacterial
cells.
When the cloning vectors are multiplied in the host, the linked piece of DNA is also multiplied to the
numbers equal to the copy number of the vectors.

Features required for cloning into a vector

a. Origin of replication (ori)
This is a sequence where replication starts.
 A piece of DNA linked to ori can replicate within the host cells. This also controls the copy number of
linked DNA. So, for getting many copies of the target DNA, it should be cloned in a vector whose origin
support high copy number.
b.Selectable marker (marker gene)
It is a gene that helps to select the transformants and eliminate the non-transformants.
If a piece of DNA is introduced in a host bacterium, it is called transformation. Such bacterium is
transformant. If transformation does not take place, it is non-transformant.
Selectable markers of E. coli include the genes encoding resistance to antibiotics like ampicillin,
chloramphenicol, tetracycline, kanamycin etc. Normal E. coli cells have no resistance against these
antibiotics.

c. Cloning sites
These are the recognition sites for restriction enzymes.
To link the alien DNA, the vector needs a single or very few recognition sites.
More than one recognition sites generate several fragments. It complicates the gene cloning.
Ligation of alien DNA is carried out at a restriction site present in one of the two antibiotic resistance
genes. E.g. In vector pBR322, foreign DNA is ligated at Bam H I site of tetracycline resistance gene. As a
result, recombinant plasmid is formed. If ligation does not occur, it is called non-recombinant plasmid.
Restriction sites: Hind III, EcoR I, BamH I, Sal I, Pvu II, Pst I, Cla I.
ori
Antibiotic resistance genes: ampR and tetR
Rop: codes for the proteins involved in the replication of
plasmid.

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When a foreign DNA is inserted within a gene of bacteria, that
gene is inactivated. It is called insertional inactivation. Here, the
recombinant plasmids lose tetracycline resistance due to
insertion of foreign DNA.
When the plasmids are introduced into E. coli cells, 3 types of
cells are obtained:
Non-transformants: They have no plasmid. So they are not
resistant to either tetracycline or ampicillin.
Transformants with non-recombinant plasmid: They are resistant to both tetracycline & ampicillin.
Transformants with recombinant plasmid: They are resistant only to ampicillin.
Recombinant plasmids can be selected out from nonrecombinant ones by plating transformants on
ampicillin medium. Then the transformants are transferred on tetracycline medium.
The recombinants grow in ampicillin medium but not on tetracycline medium. But, non-recombinants
grow on the medium containing both the antibiotics.
Thus, one antibiotic resistance gene helps to select the transformants. The inactivated antibiotic
resistance gene helps to select recombinants.
But this type of selection of recombinants is a difficult procedure because it needs simultaneous plating
on 2 plates having different antibiotics. So, alternative selectable markers have developed based on their
ability to produce colour in presence of a chromogenic substrate.
In this, a recombinant DNA is inserted into the coding sequence (gene) of an enzyme, b-galactosidase. So,
the gene is inactivated (insertional inactivation). Such colonies do not produce any colour. These are
identified as recombinant colonies.
If the plasmid in bacteria have no an insert, it gives blue coloured colonies in presence of chromogenic
substrate.

d.Vectors for cloning genes in plants & animals

Genetic tools of some pathogens can be transformed into useful vectors for delivering genes to plants &
animals. E.g.
Agrobacterium tumefaciens (a pathogen of many dicot plants) can deliver a piece of DNA (T-DNA) to
transform normal plant cells into a tumor. These tumor cells produce the chemicals required by the
pathogen.
The tumor inducing (Ti) plasmid of A. tumefaciens is modified into a cloning vector which is not pathogenic
but can use mechanismsto deliver genes of interest into plants.
Retroviruses in animals can transform normal cells into cancerous cells. So, they are used to deliver
desirable genes into animal cells.

3. Competent Host (For Transformation with Recombinant DNA)

Since DNA is a hydrophilic molecule, it cannot pass through cell membranes. So bacterial cells are made
‘competent’ to take up alien DNA or plasmid asfollows:
→
Treat bacterial cells with a specific concentration of a divalent cation (e.g. calcium) DNA entersthe
bacterium through pores in cell wall → Incubate the cells with recombinant DNA on ice→ Place them
briefly at 420 C (heat shock)→ →
Put them back on ice Bacteria take up recombinant DNA.
Other methods to introduce alien DNA into host cells
Micro-injection: In this, recombinant DNA is directly injected into the nucleus of an animal cell.
Biolistics (gene gun): In this, cells are bombarded with high velocity micro-particles of gold or tungsten
coated with DNA. This method is suitable for plants.
‘Disarmed pathogen’ vectors: They infect the cell and transfer the recombinant DNA into the host. E.g. A.
tumefaciens.

PROCESSES OF RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY

1. Isolation of the Genetic Material (DNA)
Treat the bacterial cells/plant or animal tissue with enzymes like lysozyme (bacteria), cellulase (plants),
chitinase (fungus) etc. The cell is broken releasing DNA & other macromolecules (RNA, proteins,
polysaccharides & lipids).

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RNA is removed by treating with ribonuclease. Proteins are removed by treatment with protease. Other
molecules are removed by appropriate treatments.
When chilled ethanol is added, purified DNA precipitates out as a collection of fine threads in the
suspension.

2. Cutting of DNA at Specific Locations

Purified DNA is incubated with the restriction enzyme. As a result, DNA digests. These DNA fragments are
separated by a technique called gel electrophoresis.

Agarose gel electrophoresis is employed to check the progression of a restriction enzyme digestion. DNA
is negatively charged. So it moves towards the anode. DNA fragments are separated according to their
size through sieving effect of the agarose gel (a polymer extracted from sea weeds). The smaller sized
fragment moves farther.
The process is repeated with the vector DNA also.
DNA fragments can be seen as bright orange coloured bands when they are stained with ethidium
bromide and exposed to UV radiation.
DNA bands are cut out from agarose gel. It is called elution. The cut-out gene of interest and cut vector
are mixed and ligase is added. It creates recombinant DNA.

3. Amplification of Gene of Interest usingPCR

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is the synthesis of multiple copies of the gene of interest in vitro using 2
sets of primers & the enzyme DNA polymerase.
Primers are small chemically synthesized oligonucleotides that are complementary to the regions of DNA.
Steps of PCR:
Denaturation: It is the heating of target DNA (gene of interest) at high temperature (940C) to separate
the strands. Each strands act as template for DNA synthesis.
Annealing: It is the joining of the two primers (at 520 C) at the 3’ end of the DNA templates.
Extension: It is the addition of nucleotides to the primer using a thermostable DNA polymerase called Taq
polymerase. It is isolated from a bacterium, Thermus aquaticus. It remains active in high temperature
during the denaturation of double stranded DNA.
Through continuous replication, the DNA segment is amplified up to 1 billion copies. The amplified fragment
can be used to ligate with a vector for further cloning.

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4. Insertion of Recombinant DNA into Host Cell
Using any methods, the ligated DNA is introduced into recipient (host) cell / organism. They take up DNA
from its surrounding.
If a recombinant DNA bearing ampicillin resistant gene is transferred into E. coli cells, the host cells
become ampicillin-resistant cells.
If the transformed cells are spread on agar plates containing ampicillin, only transformants will grow.
Untransformed recipient cells will die.

5. Obtaining the Foreign Gene Product

The aim of recombinant DNA technology is to produce a desirable protein
If a protein encoding foreign gene is expressed in a heterologous host, it is called a recombinant protein.
The cells with foreign genes can be grown in laboratory. The cultures are used to extract the desired
protein and purify it by using separation techniques.
The cells can also be multiplied in a continuous culture system. Here, the used medium is drained out from
one side while fresh medium is added from the other. It maintains the cells more physiologically active
and so produces a larger biomass. It yields more desired protein.
Bioreactors
These are the vessels in which raw materials are biologically converted to specific products, enzymes etc.,
using microbial, plant, animal or human cells.
Bioreactors are used to produce large quantities of products. They can process 100-1000 litres of culture.
A bioreactor provides the optimal growth conditions (pH, temperature, substrate, salts, vitamins, oxygen)
to get desired product.
The most commonly used bioreactors are of stirring type (stirred-tank bioreactor).
It is usually cylindrical or with a curved base to facilitate the mixing of the reactor contents. The stirrer
facilitates even mixing and oxygen availability. Alternatively, air can be bubbled through the reactor.
The bioreactor has
An agitator system
An oxygen delivery system
A foam control system
A temperature control system
pH control system
Sampling ports (for periodic withdrawal of the culture).
 6. Downstream Processing
It is a series of processes such as separation and purification of products after the biosynthetic stage.
The product is formulated with suitable preservatives. Such formulation undergoes thorough clinical trials
and strict quality control testing.

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 BIOTECHNOLOGY AND ITS APPLICATION
Biotechnology has many applications such as biopharmaceuticals, therapeutics, diagnostics, genetically
modified crops, processed food, bioremediation, waste treatment and energy production.
Biotechnology has 3 critical research areas:
a. Providing the best catalyst in the form of improved organism usually a microbe or enzyme.
b. Creating optimal conditions through engineering for a catalyst to act.
c. Downstream processing technologies to purify the protein/organic compound.

APPLICATIONS IN AGRICULTURE
3 options for increasing food production:
a. Agro-chemical based agriculture: It uses fertilizers & pesticides. Expensive. Causes environmental
pollution.
b. Organic agriculture: Expensive.
c. Genetically engineered crop-based agriculture: It uses genetically modified crops. Genetically Modified
Organisms (GMO) are the plants, bacteria, fungi & animals whose genes are altered by manipulation.
Advantages of genetic modification in plants:
It makes crops more tolerant to abiotic stresses (cold, drought, salt, heat etc.).
Pest-resistant crops reduce the use of chemical pesticides.
It reduces post-harvest losses.
It increases efficiency of mineral usage by plants (it prevents early exhaustion of soil fertility).
It enhances nutritional value of food. E.g. Golden rice (Vitamin A enriched rice).
To create tailor-made plantsto supply alternative resources (starches, fuels, pharmaceuticals etc.) to
industries.

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Pest Resistant Plants
They act as bio-pesticide.
It reduces the need for insecticides.
E.g. Bt cotton, Bt corn, rice, tomato, potato, soyabean etc.
Bt Cotton:
Some strains of Bacillus thuringiensis have proteins that kill insects like coleopterans (beetles),
lepidopterans (tobacco budworm, armyworm) & dipterans (flies, mosquitoes).
B. thuringiensis forms an insecticidal protein (Bt toxin) crystal during a phase of their growth. It does not
kill the Bacillus as it exists as inactive protoxins.
When an insect ingests the toxin, it becomes active due to alkaline pH of the gut which solubilise the
crystals. Toxin binds to surface of mid-gut epithelial cells creating pores. It causes cell swelling and lysis
and death of the insect.
Bt toxin genes were isolated from B. thuringiensis and incorporated into crop plants such as cotton.
Most Bt toxins are insect-group specific. They are coded by cry genes. E.g. proteins encoded by cryIAc &
cryIIAb genes control cotton bollworms. Protein of cryIAb gene controls corn borer.
Nematode resistance in tobacco plants:
A nematode Meloidogyne incognita infects the roots of tobacco plants causing a reduction in yield.
It can be prevented by RNA interference (RNAi) strategy.
RNAi is a method of cellular defense in all eukaryotic organisms. It prevents translation of a specific
mRNA (silencing) due to a complementary dsRNA molecule.
The source of this complementary RNA is from an infection by RNA viruses or mobile genetic elements
(transposons) that replicate via an RNA intermediate.
Isolate Nematode-specific genes (DNA). It is introduced into host plant using Agrobacterium vectors. It
produces both sense & anti-sense RNA in host cells. These RNAs are complementary. So they form double
stranded (ds) RNA. It initiates RNAi and silences the specific mRNA of nematode. Thus the parasite cannot
survive in a transgenic host expressing specific interfering RNA.
APPLICATIONS IN MEDICINE
Recombinant DNA technology helps for mass production of safe and more effective therapeutic drugs.
Products from non-human sources cause unwanted immunological responses. But recombinant
therapeutics does not have such problems.
 At present, about 30 recombinant therapeutics have been approved. Of these, 12 are being marketed in
India.
1. Genetically Engineered Insulin
Insulin is used to manage adult-onset diabetes.
Insulin from the pancreas of animals (cattle & pigs) causes allergy or other types of reactions to the
foreign protein.
Now, it is possible to produce human insulin using bacteria.
Insulin consists of two short polypeptide chains (chainA & chain B) that are linked by disulphide bridges.
In mammals, insulin is synthesized as a pro-hormone (pro-insulin). It is processed to become mature and
functional hormone.
The pro-hormone contains an extra stretch called C peptide. Thisis removed during maturation into insulin
In 1983, Eli Lilly (an American company) prepared two DNA sequences corresponding to A & B chains of
human insulin and introduced them in plasmids of E. coli to produce insulin chains. Chains A & B were
combined by creating disulfide bondsto form human insulin (Humulin).

NEET WIZZ 2. Gene Therapy

It is a method to correct a gene defect in a child/embryo.
Here, genes are inserted into a person’s cells and tissues to treat a hereditary disease. It compensates for
the nonfunctional gene.
First clinical gene therapy (1990) was given to a 4-year old girl with adenosine deaminase (ADA)
deficiency.
This is caused due to the deletion of a gene of adenosine deaminase (an enzyme for the functioning of
immune system). It can be cured by bone marrow transplantation or by enzyme replacement therapy
(injection of ADA). But these are not completely curative
Gene therapy for ADA deficiency: Collect lymphocytes from the patient’s blood and grow in a culture →
Introduce a functional ADA cDNA into lymphocytes (using a retroviral vector) → They are returned to the
patient. This should be periodically repeated as lymphocytes are not immortal.
If the ADA gene from marrow cells is introduced into cells at early embryonic stages, it could be a
permanent cure.
3. Molecular Diagnosis
Conventional methods (serum & urine analysis) are not suitable for early diagnosis of diseases.
It is possible by techniques such as Recombinant DNA technology, PCR & ELISA.
PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction):
Presence of a pathogen is normally suspected only based on symptoms. By this time, the concentration
of pathogen is already very high in the body.
However, very low concentration of a bacteria or virus can be detected by amplification of their nucleic
acid by PCR.
Uses of PCR:
To detect HIV in suspected patients
To detect gene mutations in suspected cancer patients.
To identify many other genetic disorders.
 A single stranded DNA or RNA, tagged with a radioactive molecule (probe) is hybridized to its
complementary DNA in a clone of cells. It is detected by autoradiography. The clone having mutated gene
will not appear on photographic film, because the probe will not have complementarity with mutated
gene.
ELISA (Enzyme Linked Immuno-Sorbent Assay):
It is based on antigen-antibody interaction.
Infection by pathogen can be detected by the presence of antigens (proteins, glycoproteins, etc.) or by
detecting the antibodies synthesized against the pathogen.

TRANSGENIC ANIMALS
These are the animals whose genome has been altered by introduction of a foreign gene by
manipulation.
E.g. Transgenic rats, rabbits, pigs, sheep, cows and fish.
Over 95% of the transgenic animals are mice.
Benefits of transgenic animals
To study regulation of genes and their action on normal physiology & development: E.g. Study of insulin-
like growth factor. Genes (from other species) that alter formation of this factor are introduced and the
biological effects are studied. This gives information about biological role of the factor.
To study the contribution of genes in the development of a disease and thereby new treatments: E.g.
transgenic models for human diseases such as cancer, cystic fibrosis, rheumatoid arthritis & Alzheimer’s.
Biological products: Some medicines contain expensive biological products. Transgenic animals can be
used to produce biological products by introducing genes which codes for a particular product.
They are used to treat diseases such as emphysema, phenylketonuria (PKU), cystic fibrosis etc. E.g. human

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protein (a-1-antitrypsin) used to treat emphysema.
In 1997, Rosie (first transgenic cow) produced human protein-enriched milk (2.4 gm per litre). It contains
human a-lactalbumin. It is nutritionally more balanced product for human babies than natural cow-milk.
Vaccine safety testing: Transgenic mice are used to test the safety of the polio vaccine. If it is reliable,
they can replace the use of monkeys to test the safety of vaccines.
Chemical safety testing (toxicity testing): Some transgenic animals carry genes which make them more
sensitive to toxic substances than non-transgenic animals. They are exposed to the toxic substances and
the effects studied. It gives immediate results.

ETHICAL ISSUES
Problem of unpredictable results: Genetic modification may cause unpredictable results. Indian
Government has set up organizations like GEAC (Genetic Engineering Approval Committee) to make
decisions about the validity of GM research and the safety of GM-organisms for public services.
Bio-piracy: It is the use of bio-resources by multinational companies and other organizations without
proper authorization from the countries and people concerned. Certain companies have got patents for
products and technologies that make use of the genetic materials, plants etc. that have been identified,
developed and used by farmers and indigenous people of a country. E.g. Basmati rice, herbal medicines
(turmeric, neem etc.).
Basmati rice has unique aroma & flavour. India has 27 varieties of Basmati. In 1997, an American company got
patent rights on Basmati rice through the US Patent and Trademark Office. This allowed the company to sell
a ‘new’ variety of Basmati. This was actually derived from Indian farmer’s varieties. Indian Basmati was
crossed with semi-dwarf varieties and claimed as a novelty. Other people selling Basmati rice could be
restricted by patent.
Generally, industrialized nations are poor in biodiversity and traditional knowledge. The developing and
underdeveloped world have rich biodiversity and traditional knowledge related to bio-resources. It has to
develop laws to prevent unauthorized exploitation of bio-resources and traditional knowledge
Indian Parliament has cleared the second amendment of the Indian Patents Bill that has considered patent
terms emergency provisions and research and development initiative.
 ORGANISMS AND POPULATION
Ecology is the study of interactions among organisms and between the organism and its physical (abiotic)
environment.
Ecology is concerned with 4 levels of biological organization: Organisms, Populations, Communities & Biomes.

ORGANISM AND ITS ENVIRONMENT

Physiological ecology (Ecology at the organismic level) is the study of adaptation of an organism to
environments in terms of survival and reproduction.
The rotation of earth and the tilt of its axis cause annual variations in temperature & seasons. Major
biomes (desert, rain forest, tundra etc.) are formed due to these variations & precipitation (rain & snow).

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Regional and local variations within a biome lead to the formation of different habitats.
Life exists even in extreme & harsh habitats. E.g. Rajasthan desert, rain-soaked Meghalaya forests, deep
ocean trenches, torrential streams, permafrost (snow laden) polar regions, high mountain tops, thermal
springs & compost pits. Our intestine is a habitat for many microbes.
The physico-chemical (abiotic) components (water, light, temperature, soil etc.) & biotic components
(pathogens, parasites, predators, competitors etc.) lead to variation of different habitats.
The distinct role and position of an organism in its environment is called its niche. By this, each organism
tolerates various conditions, utilises various resources etc.
Abiotic Factors
a. Temperature
The most ecologically relevant environmental factor.
Temperature on land varies seasonally. It gradually decreases from equator to the poles and from plains
to mountain tops. It ranges from subzero levels (in polar areas & high altitudes) to >500 C (in tropical
deserts).
Average temperature in thermal springs & deep-sea hydrothermal vents is above 1000 C.
Mango trees cannot grow in temperate countries (Canada, Germany etc.). There is no Snow leopard in
Kerala forests. Tuna fishes are rare beyond tropical latitudes in the ocean.
Temperature affects kinetics of enzymes, basal metabolism and other physiological functions of the
organism.
Based on range of thermal tolerance, organisms are 2 types:
Eurythermal: They can tolerate a wide range of temperatures.
Stenothermal: They can tolerate only a narrow range of temperatures.

b. Water
It is the second most important factor.
Desert organisms have special adaptationsto limited water.
Productivity & distribution of plants is dependent on water.
For aquatic organisms, water quality (pH, chemical composition) is important. The salt concentration
(salinity in parts per thousand) is less than 5 in inland waters, 30-35 in the sea and > 100 in some
hypersaline lagoons.
 Based on the tolerance to salinity, organisms are 2 types:
Euryhaline: Tolerate a wide range of salinities.
Stenohaline: Tolerate only a narrow range of salinity.
Many freshwater animals cannot live for long in sea water and vice versa because of the osmotic problems.

c. Light
Plants need sunlight for photosynthesis.
Small forest plants (herbs & shrubs) are adapted to photosynthesize optimally under very low light
because they are overshadowed by tall, canopied trees.
Many plants depend on sunlight for photoperiodism (e.g. flowering).
Many animals use diurnal and seasonal variations in light intensity and photoperiod for timing their
foraging, reproductive & migratory activities.
Sun is the ultimate source for light & temperature on land. Deep (> 500m) in the oceans, the environment
is dark and there is no energy available from sun.
The spectral quality of solar radiation is also important for life. The UV spectrum is harmful to many
organisms. Not all the colour components of the visible spectrum are available for marine plants.

d. Soil
Nature & properties of soil is differed due to climate, weathering, sedimentation, method of soil
development etc
Soil composition, grain size & aggregation determine the percolation and water holding capacity of the
soils.

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These characteristics and parameters like pH, mineral composition & topography determine the
vegetation and animals in an area.
In aquatic environment, the sediment-characteristics determine the type of benthic animals.

Responses to Abiotic Factors

Organisms maintain a stable internal environment (homeostasis) despite varying external environmental
conditions. This is possible by following processes.
a. Regulate
It is the maintenance of homeostasis by physiological & behavioural means. It ensures constant body
temperature ORGANISM AND ITS ENVIRONMENT 2 (thermoregulation), constant osmotic concentration
(osmoregulation) etc. E.g. All birds & mammals, very few lower vertebrates and invertebrates.
Thermoregulation in mammals: The success of mammals is mainly due to their ability to maintain a
constant body temperature. In summer, when outside temperature is more than body temperature (370
C), sweating occurs. This results in evaporative cooling and brings down body temperature. In winter,
when the temperature is below 370 C, shivering occurs. It produces heat and raises the body temperature.
Most of the organisms are not regulators or are partial regulators because thermoregulation is
energetically expensive especially for small animals (shrews, humming birds etc.). They have a larger
surface area relative to their volume. So they lose body heat very fast when it is cold outside. Then they
have to expend much energy to generate body heat. So, very small animals are rare in Polar Regions.
b. Conform
99% of animals and nearly all plants cannot maintain a constant internal environment. Their body
temperature or osmotic concentration change with the surrounding conditions. They are called
conformers.
 c. Migrate
Many animals like birds move away temporarily from stressful habitat to a more hospitable area and
return when stressful period is over.
E.g. During winter, Keolado National Park (Bhartpur, Rajasthan) hosts migratory birds coming from
Siberia and other extremely cold northern regions.
d. Suspend
In bacteria, fungi & lower plants, thick walled spores help to survive unfavourable conditions. Under
suitable conditions, they germinate.
In higher plants, seeds and some vegetative reproductive structures serve to tide over periods of stress
by reducing their metabolic activity. They germinate under favourable moisture and temperature.
In animals: Examples are
Hibernation of bears during winter
Aestivation of some snails and fishes during summer.
Diapause (a stage of suspended development) of many zooplanktons in lakes & ponds.

Adaptations
Adaptation is the morphological, physiological & behavioural attribute that enables an organism to
survive and reproduce in its habitat.
Many adaptations have evolved over a long evolutionary time and are genetically fixed.
Adaptations of kangaroo rat in North American deserts:
Internal fat oxidation gives water as byproduct if there is no external source of water.
Ability to concentrate urine so that minimal volume of water is used to remove excretory products.
daptations of desert plants:

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Presence of thick cuticle on leaf surfaces.
Sunken stomata minimise water loss due to transpiration.
CAM photosynthetic pathway enables their stomata to remain closed during day time.
Desert plants like Opuntia have no leaves (they are reduced to spines). Photosynthesis is done by stems.
Adaptations of mammals:
Mammals from colder climates have shorter ears and limbs to reduce heat loss. This is called Allen’s Rule.
Aquatic mammals like seals have a thick layer of fat (blubber) below their skin that acts as an insulator
and reduces loss of body heat.
Physiological and biochemical adaptations:
Archaebacteria are found in hot springs & deep-sea hydrothermal vents where temperature is >1000 C.
Many fish thrive in Antarctic waters (temperature is below 00 C).
Many marine invertebrates & fishes live at great depths in the ocean where the pressure is >100 times the
normal atmospheric pressure.
At a high-altitude place (>3,500 m) we feel altitude sickness. Its symptoms are nausea, heart palpitations
& fatigue. This is due to low atmospheric pressure. So the body does not get enough O2. Gradually, we
acclimatize the situation and the body compensates low O2 availability by increasing RBC & breathing
rate and decreasing the binding capacity of hemoglobin.
Behavioural adaptations:
Desert lizards bask in the sun and absorb heat when their body temperature is low, but move into shade
when the ambient temperature starts increasing.
Some species burrow into the soil to hide and escape from the above-ground heat.

POPULATIONS
A population is a group of individuals of same species that live in a given geographical area, share or
compete for similar resources and potentially reproduce.
E.g. All the cormorants in a wetland, rats in an abandoned dwelling, teakwood trees in a forest tract,
bacteria in a culture plate and lotus plants in a pond etc.
Population ecology is an important area of ecology as it links ecology to population genetics & evolution.

Population Attributes
Birth rates: Refer to per capita births. E.g. In a pond, there are 20 lotus plants last year and through
reproduction 8 new plants are added.
Hence, the current population = 28
The birth rate = 8/20 = 0.4 offspring per lotus per year.
Death rates: Refer to per capita deaths. E.g. 4 individualsin a laboratory population of 40 fruit flies died
during a week.
Hence, the death rate = 4/40 = 0.1 individuals per fruit fly per week.
Sex ratio: A population has a sex ratio.
E.g. 60% of the population is females and 40% males.
Age pyramid: It is the structure obtained when the age distribution (% individuals of a given age or age
group) is plotted for the population.
For human population, age pyramids generally show age distribution of males and females in a combined
diagram

Representation of age pyramids for human population

Population size or population density (N): It is the number of individuals of a species per unit area or
volume. E.g. population density of Siberian cranes at Bharatpur wetlands in any year is <10. It is millions

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for Chlamydomonas in a pond.
Population size is also measured in % cover or biomass. E.g. In an area, 200 Parthenium plants and a huge
banyan tree are seen. In such cases, measuring % cover or biomass is meaningful to show importance of
banyan tree. Total number is a difficult measure for a huge population. In such cases, relative population
density (without knowing absolute population density) is used. E.g. Number of fish caught per trap indicates
its total population density in the lake.
In some cases, indirect estimation of population sizes is performed. E.g. Tiger census in national parks &
tiger reserves based on pug marks & fecal pellets.

POPULATION GROWTH
The population size changes depending on factors like food availability, predation pressure & weather.
Changes in population density give some idea about the population – whether it is flourishing or
declining.
4 basic processes that fluctuate the population density:
a. Natality (B): It is the number of births in a population during a given period.
b. Mortality (D): It is the number of deaths in a population during a given period.
c. Immigration (I): It is the number of individuals of the same species that have come into the habitat
from elsewhere during a given time period.
d. Emigration (E): It is the number of individuals of the population who left the habitat and gone
elsewhere during a given time period.
Natality & immigration increase the population density and mortality & emigration decrease the population
density.
If N is the population density at time t, then its density at time t +1 is
Nt+1 = Nt + [(B + I) – (D + E)]
Population density increases if B+I is more than D+E. Otherwise it will decrease.
Under normal conditions, births & deaths are important factors influencing population density. Other 2
factors have importance only under special conditions. E.g. for a new colonizing habitat, immigration may
be more significant to population growth than birth rates.

Growth Models
a. Exponential growth
Resources (food & space) are essential for the unimpeded population growth.
If resources are unlimited, each species shows its full innate potential to grow in number. Then the
population grows in an exponential or geometric fashion.
If population size = N, birth rates (per capita births) = b and death rates (per capita deaths) = d, then the
increase or decrease in N during a unit time period t (dN/dt) will be
dN/dt = (b – d) × N
Let (b–d) = r, then
dN/dt = rN
The r (‘intrinsic rate of natural increase’) is an important parameter for assessing impacts of any biotic or
abiotic factor on population growth.
r value for the Norway rat = 0.015
r value for the flour beetle = 0.12
r value for human population in India (1981) = 0.0205
The integral form of the exponential growth equation is

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Nt = N0 ert
Where
Nt = Population density after time t
N0 = Population density at time zero
r = intrinsic rate of natural increase
e = the base of natural logarithms (2.71828)

Population growth curves

a = exponential growth (J-shaped curve)

b = logistic growth (Sigmoid curve)

b. Logistic growth
There is no population in nature having unlimited resources for exponential growth. This leads to
competition among individuals for limited resources.
Eventually, the ‘fittest’ individuals survive and reproduce.
In nature, a given habitat has enough resources to support a maximum possible number, beyond which
no further growth is possible. It is called carrying capacity (K).
A population with limited resources shows initially a lag phase, phases of acceleration & deceleration and
finally an asymptote. This type of population growth is called Verhulst-Pearl Logistic Growth. It is
described by following equation:

Where N = Population density at time t

 r = Intrinsic rate of natural increase
K = Carrying capacity
Since resources for growth for most animal populations are limited, the logistic growth model is more
realistic.

Life History Variation

Populations evolve to maximise their reproductive fitness or Darwinian fitness (high r value). Under a
particular set of selection pressures, organisms evolve towards the most efficient reproductive strategy.
Some organisms breed only once in their lifetime (Pacific salmon fish, bamboo) while others breed many
times (most birds and mammals).
Some produce a large number of small-sized offspring (Oysters, pelagic fishes) while others produce a
small number of large-sized offspring (birds, mammals).
These facts indicate that life history traits of organisms have evolved due to limited abiotic and biotic
components of the habitat.

Population Interactions
Organisms interact in various ways to form a biological community.
Interaction between two species is called Interspecific interactions. They include

Name of interaction Species A Species B

Mutualism: Both species are benefitted (+) + +

Competition: Both species are harmed (-) - -

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Predation: One (predator) is benefitted. Other
+ -
(prey) is harmed
Parasitism: One (parasite) is benefitted. Other
+ -
(host) is harmed
Commensalism: One is benefitted. Other is
+ 0
unaffected (0)
Amensalism: One is harmed. Other is
- 0
unaffected

In predation, parasitism & commensalisms, theinteracting species live closely together.

a. Predation
In a broad ecological context, all carnivores, herbivores etc. are predators. About 25 % insects are
phytophagous.
If a predator overexploits its prey, then the prey might become extinct. It results in the extinction of
predator. Therefore, predators in nature are ‘prudent’.
Importance of predators:
Predators control prey populations.
When certain exotic species are introduced into a geographical area, they spread fast due to the absence
its natural predators. E.g. Prickly pear cactus introduced into Australia (1920’s) caused havoc by
spreading. Later, it was controlled by introducing a cactus-feeding predator moth.
Predators are used in Biological control methods.
Predators maintain species diversity in a community by reducing competition among prey species.
E.g. the predator starfish Pisaster in the rocky intertidal communities of American Pacific Coast. In an
experiment, all these starfishes were removed from an enclosed intertidal area. It caused extinction of over
10 invertebrate species within a year, due to interspecific competition.
Defenses of prey species to lessen impact of predation:
Camouflage (cryptic colouration) of some insects & frogs.
Some are poisonous and so avoided by the predators.
Monarch butterfly is highly distasteful to its predator bird. It is due to a special chemical in its body. It is
acquired during its caterpillar stage by feeding on a poisonousweed.
 Thorns (Acacia, Cactus etc.) are the most common morphological means of defense of plants.
Many plants produce chemicals that make the herbivore sick, inhibit feeding or digestion, disrupt its
reproduction or kill it. E.g. Calotropis produce highly poisonous cardiac glycosides. Therefore cattle or
goats do not eat it.
Nicotine, caffeine, quinine, strychnine, opium, etc. are defenses against grazers and browsers.
b. Competition
It is a process in which fitness of one species (‘r’ value) is significantly lower in presence of another
species.
Interspecific competition is a potent force in organic evolution.
Competition occurs when closely related species compete for the same limited resources.
Unrelated species can also compete for the resource. E.g. Flamingoes & fishes in some shallow South
American lakes compete for zooplankton.
Competition occurs in abundant resources also. E.g. In interference competition, the feeding efficiency of
one species is reduced due to the interfering and inhibitory presence of other species, even if resources
are abundant.
Evidences for competition:
The Abingdon tortoise in Galapagos Islands became extinct within a decade after goats were introduced
on the island, due to greater browsing efficiency of the goats.
Competitive release: It is the expansion of distributional range of a species when the competing species is
removed.
Connell’s field experiments: On the rocky sea coasts of Scotland, there are 2 barnacle species: Balanus
(larger & competitively superior) & Chthamalus (smaller). Balanus dominates intertidal area and excludes
Chthamalus. When Connell experimentally removed Balanus, Chthamalus colonized the intertidal zone.

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Gause’s ‘Competitive Exclusion Principle’:
It states that two closely related species competing for the same resources cannot co-exist indefinitely
and the competitively inferior one will be eliminated eventually. This may be true in limited resources, but
not otherwise.
Species facing competition may evolve mechanisms for co-existence rather than exclusion. E.g. resource
partitioning.
Resource partitioning: It is the division of limited resources by species to avoid competition. For this, they
choose different feeding times or different foraging patterns. E.g. MacArthur showed that five closely
related species of warblers living on a tree could avoid competition and co-exist due to behavioural
differences in their foraging activities.
c. Parasitism
Many parasites are host-specific (they can parasitize only a single host species). They tend to co-evolve.
i.e., if the host evolves special mechanisms against the parasite, the parasite also evolves mechanisms to
counteract them to remain with the same host species.
Adaptations of parasites: Loss of sense organs, presence of adhesive organs or suckers to cling on to the
host, loss of digestive system, high reproductive capacity etc.
Life cycles of parasites are often complex. E.g.
Human liver fluke depends on 2 intermediate hosts (a snail & a fish) to complete its life cycle.
Malarial parasite needs mosquito to spread to other hosts.
Parasites harm the host. They may reduce the survival, population density, growth and reproduction of
the host. They may make the host physically weak and more vulnerable to predation.
Types of parasites:
1. Ectoparasites
Parasites that feed on the external surface of host. E.g.
Lice on humans.
Ticks on dogs.
Ectoparasitic Copepods on many marine fishes.
Cuscuta plant on hedge plants.
Cuscuta has no chlorophyll and leaves. It derives its nutrition from the host plant.
Female mosquito is not considered a parasite, because it needs our blood only for reproduction, not as
food.
 2. Endoparasites
Parasites that live inside the host body at different sites (liver, kidney, lungs, RBC etc).
The life cycles of endoparasites are more complex.
They have simple morphological & anatomical features and high reproductive potential.
Brood parasitism in birds:
Here, the parasitic birds lay eggs in the nest of its host and lets the host incubate them.
During evolution, eggs of the parasitic bird have evolved to resemble the host’s egg in size and colour. So
the host bird cannot detect and eject the foreign eggs easily.
E.g. Brood parasitism between cuckoo and crow.
d. Commensalism
Examples:
Orchid (+) growing as epiphyte on a mango branch (0).
Barnacles (+) growing on the back of a whale (0).
Cattle egret (+) & grazing cattle (0). The egrets forage close to where the cattle are grazing. As the cattle
move, the vegetation insects come out. Otherwise it is difficult for the egrets to find and catch the
insects.
Sea anemone (0) & clown fish (+). Stinging tentacles of sea anemone gives protection to fish
frompredators.
e. Mutualism
Examples:
Lichen: It is a mutualistic relationship between a fungus & photosynthesizing algae or cyanobacteria.
Mycorrhizae: Associations between fungi & the roots of higher plants. The fungi help the plant in the
absorption of essential nutrients from the soil while the plant provides the fungi with carbohydrates.

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Mutualism b/w plant & animal through pollination and seed dispersion:
Examples:
1. Fig trees & wasps. The fig species is pollinated only by its ‘partner’ wasp species. Female wasp pollinates
the fig inflorescence while searching for suitable egglaying sites in fruits. The fig offers the wasp some
developing seeds, as food for the wasp larvae.
2. Orchids show diversity of floral patterns. They can attract the right pollinator insect (bees & bumblebees)
to ensure pollination. Not all orchids offer rewards.
3. Sexual deceit’ of Ophrys (Mediterranean orchid). One petal of its flower resembles female bee in size,
colour & markings. So male bee ‘pseudocopulates’ with the flower and is dusted with pollen. When this
bee ‘pseudocopulates’ with another flower, it transfers pollen to it.
If the female bee’s colour patterns change slightly during evolution, pollination success will be reduced
unless the orchid flower co-evolves to maintain the resemblance of its petal to the female bee.
 ECOSYSTEM
An ecosystem is a functional unit of nature, where living organisms interact each other and with the physical
environment.
ECOSYSTEM – STRUCTURE & FUNCTION
Types of ecosystems
Terrestrial ecosystem: Forest, grassland, desert etc.
Aquatic ecosystem: Pond, lake, wetland, river & estuary.
Man-made ecosystem: Crop fields and aquarium.
Entire biosphere is regarded as global ecosystem.
In an ecosystem, biotic and abiotic components interact and function as a unit.
Vertical distribution of different species occupying different levels is called stratification. E.g. in a forest,
trees occupy top strata (layer), shrubs the second and herbs & grasses the bottom layers.
Pond (Aquatic ecosystem)
A pond is a shallow, simple, self-sustainable water body that exhibits all basic components of an ecosystem.
Abiotic components: Water and soil deposit.
Climatic conditions: Solar input, cycle of temperature, day-length etc.
Autotrophic components: Phytoplankton, some algae and the floating, submerged and marginal plants.
Consumers (heterotrophs): Zooplankton, free swimming and bottom dwelling forms.
Decomposers: Fungi, bacteria and flagellates.
Pond performs all the functions of an ecosystem. E.g.
Autotrophs convert inorganic into organic material using solar radiant energy.
Heterotrophs consume the autotrophs.

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Decomposition and mineralization of the dead matter to release them back for reuse by the
autotrophs.
4 basic components of functioning of an ecosystem:
1. Productivity
2. Energy flow
3. Decomposition
4. Nutrient cycling
1. PRODUCTIVITY
Solar energy is the basic requirement for an ecosystem to function and sustain.
Amount of biomass(organic matter) produced per unit area over a time period by plants during
photosynthesis is called primary production. It is expressed in weight (g–2 ) or energy (kcal m–2 ).
The rate of biomass production is called productivity. It is expressed in g–2 yr–1 or (kcal m–2 )yr–1 .
It is divided into gross primary productivity (GPP) and net primary productivity (NPP).
Gross primary productivity (GPP): It is the rate of production of organic matter during photosynthesis. A
considerable amount of GPP is used by plants in respiration.
Net primary productivity (NPP): It is the available biomassfor the consumption to
heterotrophs(herbivores & decomposers). i.e., NPP is the Gross primary productivity minus respiration
losses (R).
NPP = GPP – R
Secondary productivity: It is the rate of formation of new organic matter by consumers.
Primary productivity varies in different ecosystems because it depends on
The plant species inhabiting an area.
Environmental factors.
Availability of nutrients.
Photosynthetic capacity of plants.
Annual net primary productivity of whole biosphere is about 170 billion tons (dry weight) of organic
matter. Of this, despite occupying about 70 % of the surface, the productivity of the oceans is only 55
billion tons.
2. DECOMPOSITION
It is the breakdown of complex organic matter by decomposersinto inorganic substances like CO2, water
and nutrients. It is largely an oxygen-requiring process.
 Raw material for decomposition is called Detritus. E.g. dead plant remains (leaves, bark, flowers etc.),
dead remains of animals, fecal matter etc.
Steps of decomposition
a. Fragmentation: It is the breakdown of detritus into smaller particles by detritivores (e.g. earthworm).
b. Leaching: Water soluble inorganic nutrients go down into soil horizon and precipitate as unavailable
salts.
c. Catabolism: Degradation of detritus into simpler inorganic substances by bacterial and fungal
enzymes. The above three processes occur simultaneously.
d. Humification: Accumulation of humus (dark amorphous substance) in soil. Humus is resistant to
microbial action and so decomposes very slowly. Being colloidal, it serves as a reservoir of nutrients.
e. Mineralization: It is the release of inorganic nutrients due to the degradation of humus by some
microbes.
Factors influencing decomposition
Chemical composition of detritus:
Decomposition is slow in detritus rich in lignin & chitin.
It is quicker in detritusrich in nitrogen and water-soluble substances like sugars.
Climatic factors (temperature & soil moisture):
Warm and moist environment favour decomposition.
Low temperature & anaerobiosis inhibit decomposition resulting in buildup of organic materials.

3. ENERGY FLOW
Sun is the only source of energy for all ecosystems (except deep sea hydro-thermal ecosystem).
Of the incident solar radiation, less than 50% is photosynthetically active radiation (PAR).

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Plants and photosynthetic bacteria (autotrophs), fix solar radiant energy to make food.
Plants capture only 2-10% of the PAR. This energy sustains the entire living world.
Ecosystems obey 2nd Law of thermodynamics. They need a constant supply of energy to synthesize the
molecules. It helps to counteract the entropy.
Producers (Autotrophs):
These are organisms that synthesize food.
In a terrestrial ecosystem, major producers are herbaceous and woody plants. Primary producers in an
aquatic ecosystem are phytoplankton, algae and higher plants.
The energy trapped by the producer is passed on to a consumer or the organism dies.
Consumers (heterotrophs):
These are animals that directly or indirectly depend on plants for food. They include:
Primary consumers (herbivores): Feed on plants. E.g. insects, birds, mammals, molluscs etc.
Secondary consumers (primary carnivores): Feed on herbivores. E.g. frog, fox, man etc.
Tertiary consumers (secondary carnivores): Feed on primary carnivores. E.g. tiger, lion etc.
The chain of feeding relationship between different organisms is called a food chain. It is 2 types:
Grazing Food Chain (GFC): Here, primary consumer feeds on living plants (producer). E.g.

Detritus Food Chain (DFC): Here, primary consumer feeds on dead organic matter (detritus). Death of
organism is the beginning of the DFC.
Detritus is made up of decomposers (saprotrophs) such as fungi & bacteria. They secrete digestive
enzymes that breakdown detritus into simple, inorganic materials, which are absorbed by them. Thus,
they get energy & nutrients.
In an aquatic ecosystem, GFC is the major conduit for energy flow.
In a terrestrial ecosystem, a much amount of energy flows through the DFC than through the GFC.
DFC may be connected with GFC at some levels. Some organisms of DFC are prey to the GFC animals.
Some animals (cockroaches, crows, human etc.) are omnivores. Such interconnections of food chains are
called food web.
A specific place of organisms in the food chain is known as their trophic level.
 The amount of energy decreases at successive trophic levels. When an organism dies it becomes dead
biomass (detritus). It is an energy source for decomposers.
Organisms at each trophic level depend on those at the lower trophic level for their energy.
The amount of living material in a trophic level at a given time is called standing crop. It is measured as
the biomass (mass of living organisms) or the number in a unit area.
Biomass of a species is measured in terms of fresh or dry weight. Dry weight is more accurate because it
is the exact mass of body which remains constant.
Number of trophic levels in GFC is restricted as it follows 10% law (only 10% of energy istransferred to
each trophic level from the lower trophic level).

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
The representation of a food chain in the form of a pyramid is called ecological pyramid.
The base of a pyramid represents producers (first trophic level). The apex represents tertiary or top-level
consumer.
Ecological pyramids are 3 types: Pyramid of number, Pyramid of biomass and Pyramid of energy.
a. Pyramid of number: E.g. grassland ecosystem.

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b. Pyramid of biomass: It shows a sharp decrease in biomass at higher trophic levels.

c) Pyramid of energy: Primary producers convert only 1% of the energy in the sunlight available to
them into NPP.

Any calculations of energy content, biomass, or numbers has to include all organisms at that trophic
level.
A trophic level represents a functional level, not a species as such. A species may occupy more than one
trophic level in the same ecosystem at the same time. E.g. A sparrow is a primary consumer when it eats
seeds, fruits, peas. It is a secondary consumer when it eats insects & worms.
A trophic level represents a functional level, not a species as such. A species may occupy more than one
trophic level in the same ecosystem at the same time. E.g. A sparrow is a primary consumer when it eats
seeds, fruits, peas. It is a secondary consumer when it eats insects & worms.
In most ecosystems, all the pyramids are upright, i.e., producers are higher in number, biomass and
energy than the herbivores, and herbivores are higher in number, biomass and energy than the
carnivores.
But in some cases, inverted pyramids for number and biomass are present.
Inverted pyramid of number: E.g. Insectsfeeding on a tree.
Inverted pyramid of biomass: E.g.
Small standing crop of phytoplankton supports large standing crop of zooplankton.
Pyramid of biomass in sea is inverted because the biomass of fishes far exceeds that of
phytoplankton.

Pyramid of energy is always upright because some energy is always lost as heat at each trophic level. So
energy at a lower trophic level is always more than at a higher level.
Limitations of ecological pyramids
t does not consider the same species belonging to twoor more trophic levels.
It assumes a simple food chain that never exists in nature. It does not accommodate a food web.
Saprophytes are not included.

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

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It is a gradual, slow and predictable change in the species composition of an area leading to a climax
community (community that is in equilibrium with the environment).
In this, some species colonize an area and increase in number, whereas other species decline and
disappear.
The entire sequences of communities that successively change in an area are called sere. Individual
transitional communities are termed seral stages (seral communities).
The species invading a bare area are called pioneer species.
During succession, there is a change in species diversity, increase in number of species and organisms and
an increase in total biomass.
Present-day communities are due to succession of millions of years. Succession and evolution were
parallel processes.
Succession is 2 types:
Primary: The succession taking place in areas where no living organisms ever existed. E.g. newly
cooled lava, bare rock, newly created pond or reservoir. To establish a biotic community, fertile soil
must be formed. So primary succession is a very slow process.
Secondary: The succession taking place in an area after the existed organisms are lost. E.g.
abandoned farm lands, burned or cut forests, lands that are flooded. Since some soil or sediment is
present, succession is faster than primary succession. The species that invade depend on the nature
of the soil, availability of water etc.
In succession, changes in vegetation affect food & shelter of animals. Thus, succession leads to change in
number and types of animals & decomposers.
Natural or human induced disturbances (deforestation, fire etc.) convert a particular seral stage to an
earlier stage. They create new conditions that encourage some species and discourage or eliminate other
species.
Succession of Plants
Based on the nature of the habitat, succession of plants is 2 types: hydrarch and xerarch.
Hydrarch succession: It takes place in wetter areas. It progresses from hydric to mesic conditions.
Xerarch succession: It takes place in dry areas. It progresses from xeric to mesic conditions.
Hence, both hydrarch & xerarch successions lead to medium water conditions (mesic, the climax
community).
Primary succession on rocks (xerophytic habitat): Lichens (pioneer species. They secrete acids to dissolve
rock, helping in weathering & soil formation) →small plants like bryophytes (they need only small
amount of soil) →
bigger plants → forest (mesophytic). The climax community (forest) remains stable if
the environment remains unchanged.
Primary succession in water: Phytoplankton (pioneers) →
rooted-submerged plants →
rooted-floating
angiosperms → free-floating plants → reed-swamp →marsh-meadow →
scrub →
trees (climax
community is a forest). With time, the water body is converted into land.

4. NUTRIENT CYCLING
Amount of nutrients (C, N, P, Ca etc.) present in the soil in a given time is called the standing state. It
variesin different kinds of ecosystems and also on a seasonalbasis.
Nutrients are never lost from the ecosystems. They are recycled again and again.
The movement of nutrient elements through various components of an ecosystem is called nutrient
cycling (biogeochemical cycles).
Nutrient cycles are 2 types:
a. Gaseous cycle: For this, the reservoir exists in the atmosphere. E.g. Nitrogen & Carbon cycles.
b. Sedimentary cycle: For this, the reservoir is located in Earth’s crust. E.g. Sulphur & Phosphorus cycles.
Environmental factors (soil, moisture, pH, temperature, etc.) regulate the rate of release of nutrients into
the atmosphere. The reservoir meets with the deficit of nutrients due to imbalance in the rate of influx
and efflux.
Carbon Cycle

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Reservoir of carbon: Atmosphere (about 1%), organisms (49% of dry weight), oceans (71% dissolved
carbon. It regulates the amount of atmospheric CO2), fossil fuel etc.
Carbon cycling occurs through atmosphere, ocean and through living and dead organisms.
4×1013 kg of carbon is fixed in the biosphere through photosynthesis annually.
A major amount of carbon returns to the atmosphere as CO2 through respiration.
Processing of wastes & dead organic matter by decomposers also release CO2.
Some amount of the fixed carbon is lost to sediments and removed from circulation.
Burning of wood, forest fire and combustion of organic matter, fossil fuel and volcanic activity are other
sources for releasing CO2 in the atmosphere.
Role of human activities in carbon cycle: Deforestation, burning of fossil fuel etc. has increased the rate
of release of CO2 into the atmosphere.
Phosphorus Cycle
Phosphorus is a constituent of biological membranes, nucleic acids & cellular energy transfer systems.
Many animals use phosphorus to make shells, bones and teeth.
The natural reservoir of phosphorus is rock (in the form of phosphates).
When rocks are weathered, minute amounts of phosphates dissolve in soil solution and are absorbed by
the plants. Herbivores and other animals obtain this from plants. The waste products and the dead
organisms are decomposed by phosphate-solubilising bacteria releasing phosphorus.
 Differences between carbon & phosphorous cycles

Carbon cycle Phosphorous cycle

Atmospheric input is higher Much smaller

There is gaseous exchange b/w organism &

Gaseous exchange is negligible
environment

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ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
The products of ecosystem processes are called ecosystem services.
E.g. forest ecosystems purify air and water, mitigate droughts and floods, cycle nutrients, generate
fertile soils, provide wildlife habitat, maintain biodiversity, pollinate crops, provide storage site for carbon
and provide aesthetic, cultural & spiritual values.
Robert Costanza and his colleagues have tried to put price tags on nature’s life-support services.
Researchers have put an average price tag of US $ 33 trillion a year on fundamental ecosystems services.
This is nearly twice the value of the global gross national product GNP (US $ 18 trillion).
Out of thistotal cost, soil formation accountsfor about 50%.
Contributions of other services like recreation & nutrient cycling are less than 10% each.
The cost of climate regulation and habitat for wildlife are about 6 % each.
 BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
Biodiversity is the diversity of biological organisation ranging from cellular macromolecules to biomes.
Edward Wilson popularized the term ‘biodiversity’.
LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY
Genetic diversity: Diversity shown by a single species at genetic level. E.g. Rauwolfia vomitoria (Himalaya)
shows genetic variation in the potency & concentration of the chemical reserpine. India has more than
50,000 different strains of rice and 1000 varieties of mango.
Species diversity: Diversity at species level. E.g. Western Ghats have greater amphibian species than
Eastern Ghats.
Ecological diversity: Diversity at ecosystem level.
E.g. In India, deserts, rain forests, mangroves, coral reefs, wet lands, estuaries & alpine meadows are seen.

NUMBER OF SPECIES ON EARTH (GLOBAL SPECIES DIVERSITY)

According to IUCN (2004), more than 1.5 million species described so far.
According to Robert May’s Global estimate, about 7 million species would have on earth. (He considered
the species to be discovered in the tropics. i.e. only 22% of the total species have been recorded so far).
Animals are more diverse (above 70%) than plants including Plantae and Fungi (22%).
Among animals, insects are most species rich group (70%, i.e. out of every 10 animals, 7 are insects).
Number of fungi species is more than the combined total of the species of fishes, amphibians, reptiles &
mammals.

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India has only 2.4% of world’s land area, but has 8.1% of the species diversity. India is one of the 12 mega
diversity countries of the world. Nearly 45,000 plant species and twice as many of animals have been
recorded from India.
Applying May’s global estimates, India would have more than 1 lakh plant species and 3 lakh animal
species.
Biologists are not sure about total number of prokaryotic species because
Conventional taxonomic methods are not suitable for identifying microbial species.
In laboratory, many species cannot be cultured.
PATTERNS OF BIODIVERSITY
i. Latitudinal gradients
Species diversity decreases from the equator to the poles.
Tropics (latitudinal range of 23.5o N to 23.5o S) have more species than temperate or polar areas.
E.g. Number of bird species in different latitudes:
Colombia (near equator): about 1400species.
India (in tropics): > 1200 species.
New York (41o N): 105species.
Greenland (71o N): 56 species.
 Tropical forest region like Equador has up to 10 times of vascular plant species as compared to a
temperate forest region like the Midwest of USA.
Tropical Amazonian rain forest (South America) is the greatest biodiversity on earth. It contains
> 40000 species of plants
3000 species of fishes
1300 species of birds
427 species of mammals
427 species of amphibians
378 species of reptiles
> 1,25,000 species of invertebrates
Biodiversity (species richness) is highest in tropicsbecause
Tropics had more evolutionary time.
Relatively constant environment (less seasonal).
They receive more solar energy which contributes to greater productivity.
ii. Species- Area relationship
According to the study of Alexander von Humboldt in South American jungles, within a region, species
richness increases with increasing explored area, but only up to a limit.
Relation between species richness and area gives a rectangular hyperbola.

S= CAz
Where,
S= Species richness

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A= Area
C= Y-intercept
Z= slope of the line
(regression coefficient)

On a logarithmic scale, the relationship is a straight line described the equation Log S = log C + Z log A
Generally, for small areas, the Z value is 0.1 to 0.2
But for large areas (e.g. entire continents), slope of the line is steeper (Z value: 0.6 to 1.2).
E.g. for frugivorous birds and mammals in the tropical forests of different continents, the Z value is 1.15.

IMPORTANCE OF SPECIES DIVERSITY

According to David Tilman, plots with more species shows less year-to-year variation in total biomass.
Increased diversity contributes to higher productivity. It is essential for ecosystem health and survival of
human race.
‘Rivet popper hypothesis’: It is an analogy used to understand the importance of biodiversity.
It is proposed by Stanford ecologist Paul Ehrlich.
In an airplane (ecosystem), all parts are joined with many rivets (species). If passengers pop a rivet
(extinction of a species), it may not affect flight safety (functioning of the ecosystem). But as more and more
rivets are removed, the plane becomes dangerously weak. Loss of rivets on the wings (key species that drive
major ecosystem functions) is more dangerous than loss of a few rivets on the seats or windows.
LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY
IUCN Red List (2004) says that 784 species (338 vertebrates, 359 invertebrates & 87 plants) were extinct in
the last 500 years. E.g. Dodo (Mauritius), Quagga (Africa), Thylacine (Australia), Stellar’s sea cow (Russia)
and 3 subspecies (Bali, Javan, Caspian) of tiger.
27 species have been disappeared in the last 20 years.
More than 15,500 species are facing threat of extinction.
12% birds, 23% mammals, 32% amphibians, 31% gymnosperm species face the threat of extinction.
The current extinction rate is 100 - 1000 times faster than in the pre-human times. If this trend continues,
nearly 50% species might be extinct within next 100 years.
Impacts of Loss of biodiversity
Decline in plant production.
 Environmental perturbations such as drought.
Increased variability in ecosystem processes such as plant productivity, water use and pest & disease
cycles.

Causes of Biodiversity losses (‘The Evil Quartet’)

1. Habitat loss and fragmentation: Most important cause.
E.g. Tropical rain forests (loss from 14% to 6%).
Thousands of hectares of rain forests are being lost within hours.
The Amazon rain forest is being cut for cultivating soya beans or for conversion of grass lands for
cattle.
Fragmentation badly affects animals requiring large territories and migratory animals.
2. Over-exploitation: Stellar’s sea cow, Passenger pigeon etc. extinct due to over exploitation.
3. Alien species invasions: Alien species cause decline or extinction of indigenous species. E.g.
Nile Perch introduced in Lake Victoria (East Africa) caused extinction of more than 200 species of
cichlid fish.
Invasive weed species like Parthenium (carrot grass), Lantana and Eicchornia (water hyacinth) caused
damage to our native species.
Illegal introduction of the African Catfish (Clarias gariepinus) for aquaculture is a threat to the
indigenous catfishes in our rivers.
4. Co-extinction: When a species becomes extinct, the species associated with it also extinct.E.g.
Extinction of the parasites when the host is extinct.
In co-evolved plant-pollinator mutualism, extinction of one causes the extinction of the other.

BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION

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There are 3 categories of reasons for conservation
a. Narrowly utilitarian arguments
i. Human derive economic benefits from nature such as food, firewood, fibre, construction material,
industrial products (tannins, lubricants, dyes, resins, perfumes) and medicines.
ii. More than 25% of the drugs are derived from plants.
iii. 25,000 species of plants have medicinal value.
b. . Broadly utilitarian arguments
Biodiversity has many ecosystem services. E.g
Amazon forest (‘lung of the planet’) produces 20% of total O2 in the earth’satmosphere.
Pollination through bees, bumblebees, birds and bats.
Aesthetic pleasures.
c.Ethical arguments
Every species has an intrinsic value. We have a moral duty to care for their well-being.
Biodiversity conservation is 2 types: In situ (on site) conservation and Ex situ (off site) conservation.
a. In situ conservation (on site)
It is the conservation of genetic resources within natural or human-made ecosystems in which they occur. E.g.
Protected areas such as National Parks, Sanctuaries, Biosphere reserves, cultural landscapes, natural
monuments etc.
National Park: Strictly reserved for the welfare of the wildlife where private ownership, cultivation,
grazing etc. are prohibited. E.g. Eravikulam National Park inKerala.
Sanctuary: Here, protection is given only to the animals. Collection of timbers, minor forest products and
private ownership are allowed so long as they do not harm the animals. E.g. Periyar wildlife sanctuary in
Kerala.
Biosphere Reserves: Areas of land or coastal ecosystems for conservation and sustainable use.
Sacred forests (Sacred groves): Forest fragments which are communally protected based on religious
beliefs. E.g.
Sacred groves in Khasi & Jaintia Hills in Meghalaya.
Aravalli Hills of Rajasthan.
Western Ghat regions of Karnataka & Maharashtra.
Sarguja, Chanda & Bastar areas (Madhya Pradesh).
India has 14 Biosphere Reserves, 90 National Parks and 448 wildlife sanctuaries.
 b. Ex situ conservation (off site)
It is the conservation of organisms outside their habitats. E.g. genetic resource centres, zoological parks,
wildlife safari parks, botanical gardens, gene banks, cryopreservation etc.

Hotspots
These are the regions with very high species richness, high degree of endemism (species confined only to
a specific region) but most threatened.
There are 34 hotspots in the world.
3 hotspots cover India’s biodiversity regions- Western Ghats & Sri Lanka, Indo-Burma and Himalaya.
All hotspots together cover only < 2% of the earth’s land area. But the species richness is extremely high.
Protection of hotspots reduced the ongoing extinctions by 30%.

International Efforts for conserving biodiversity

The Earth Summit or Convention on Biological Diversity (Rio de Jeneiro, 1992) - 3 objectives:
a. Conservation of biodiversity.
b. Sustainable use of biodiversity.
c. Sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources.
The World Summit on Sustainable Development (Johannesburg, South Africa, 2002): 190 countries
pledged to reduce the current rate of biodiversity loss.

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