Lectures

on
MATH 123
Vectors and Geometry

Module 1
(Vector Algebra)
Dr. Thomas Katsekpor

January 18, 2021

Department of Mathematics, University of Ghana, Legon
T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 1 / 29
Module 1 (Vector Algebra)
Topics to be treated under Vector Algebra

Definition of a vector, zero or null vector, unit vector.

Addition and subtraction of vectors, parallel vectors, and scalar

multiplication of vectors.

The Ratio Theorem: The position vector of a point that divides a

given straight line in a given ratio.

The centroid and its uniqueness.

Linear dependence and independence of vectors (i.e., collinear and

noncollinear vectors; coplanar and noncoplanar vectors).

The condition for four points to lie on a plane.

Rectangular components of a vector in a plane and in a space; vector

equations in terms of components.
T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 2 / 29
Definition: Vectors

Definition
A vector is a physical quantity that has both magnitude and direction.

The magnitude or the length of a vector is a non-negative real

number.
The direction of a vector is the measure of the angle it makes with a
horizontal line. More specifically, the direction may be expressed as
an anticlockwise angle of rotation of the vector about its “tail” from
due East.

Definition
A scalar is a physical quantity that is completely specified by a single real
number called its magnitude and an appropriate choice of unit.

T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 3 / 29
Definition: Vectors (Cont.)
y North

x East
O

−→
Figure: A vector OA

T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 4 / 29
Definition: Vectors (Cont.)

Examples of scalars are

the distance between two points measured in say meters,
the mass of a body measured in say kilograms,
the time taken to travel from one point to another measured in say
seconds, etc.
Examples of vectors are
the displacement of a body relative to a specific position,
the velocity of a body,
the force acting on a body, etc.

Remark
This means that a vector may be referred to a physical quantity that is
uniquely or completely specified by a scalar and a direction in space.

T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 5 / 29
Geometric Representation of a Vector
Geometrically, a vector is represented by a directed line-segment. E.g the
−→
directed line segment AB is a vector.

B
B

A
A

Figure: A directed line segment and a line segment

−→
Here A is the initial point of the vector AB and B is the terminal or the
−→
endpoint of AB. But AB is simply a line segment and does not represent a
vector.
T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 6 / 29
Geometric Representation of a Vector (Cont.)

−→
Reversing the arrow, yields a vector BA whose initial point is B and
terminal point A.
−→ −→
We denote the vector AB by AB and its magnitude or length by |AB| or
−→ −→
|AB| or AB. That is AB = AB, and |AB| = |AB| = AB.
Clearly, the magnitudes of the vectors AB and BA are the same but the
vectors are in opposite directions.
We may also denote vectors by a single small letters with arrows above or
with tildes underneath or a bold typeface one.
So we may denote the vector AB by AB = a = ~a = a.
e
Its magnitude by |AB| = AB = |a| = |~a| = |a| = a.
e
Note: AB 6= BA but |AB| = |BA|.

T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 7 / 29
Zero Vector and a Free Vector

Definition
A vector whose magnitude is zero is called a zero or null vector and is
written as 0. Such a vector has an indeterminate direction. Geometrically,
e
it can be regarded as a directed line-segment that begins and ends at the
same point.
−→ −→
That is 0 = AA = BB.
e
Definition
A vector that can be moved from one place to the other with its direction
and length remaining unchanged is called a free vector. Such a vector has
no a particular location in space.

Note:
Unless otherwise stated, all vectors in this course will be considered as free
vectors.
T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 8 / 29
Zero Vector and a Free Vector (Cont.)

B
A

A B

Figure: A free vector and the zero vector

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Equality of Vectors
−→ −→
Two vectors, say, AB and CD are said to be equal or equivalent if
−→ −→
|AB| = |CD|,
−→ −→
Direction of AB=Direction of CD.
B
D

A
C

Figure: Equality of Vectors

−→ −→ −→ −→ −→ −→
So we write AB = CD or AB ≡ CD if and only if |AB| = |CD| and
−→ −→
Direction of AB=Direction of CD.
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Vector Addition
The Triangle Law of Vector Addition

Consider △PQR whose two sides are represented by the directed line
−→ −→ −→ −→
segments PQ and QR such that PQ = a and QR = b .
e e
R

P Q

Figure: Triangle law of vector addition

T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 11 / 29
Vector Addition
The Triangle Law of Vector Addition (Cont.)

The vector sum or the resultant of a and b is denoted by

e e
a+b
e e
−→
and is defined as PR which is the directed line segment joining the initial
point P of a and the terminal point R of b .
e e
That is
−→
a + b = PR.
e e
Thus
−→ −→ −→
PQ + QR = PR,
where P, Q and R are the vertices of △PQR.

T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 12 / 29
Vector Addition
The Triangle Law of Vector Addition—Deductions

We deduce the following results from the triangle law of vector addition
−→ −→ −→
PQ + QR = PR.

Triangle Inequality: Geometrically,

−→ −→ −→
|PR| ≤ |PQ| + |QR| and so |a + b | ≤ |a| + |b |.
e e e e
The Additive Identity for Vectors: When R coincides with Q,
−→ −→ −→ −→ −→ −→
PQ + QR = PR becomes PQ + QQ = PQ
−→
and since, in this case, b = QQ = 0, we have a + 0 = a.
e e e e e
Similarly, if P and Q coincide, we have
−→ −→ −→ −→ −→ −→
PQ + QR = PR becomes QQ + QR = QR.
Therefore 0 + b = b .
e e e
T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 13 / 29
Vector Addition
The Triangle Law of Vector Addition—Deductions (Cont.)

The Additive Inverse of Vectors:

If P and R coincide then
−→ −→ −→ −→ −→ −→
PQ + QR = PR becomes PQ + QP = PP = 0.
e
Therefore
−→ −→
QP = −PQ = −a.
e
Hence
a + (−a) = 0.
e e e
This means that −a is the additive inverse of a.
e e

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Vector Addition
The Parallelogram Law (Commutative Law) of Vector Addition
−→ −→
Let PQRS be a parallelogram and let PQ and PS represent the two non
−→ −→
parallel sides such that a = PQ and b = PS.
e e S

P
R

Q
Figure: Parallelogram law of vector addition
−→ −→ −→
Then, from △PQR, PR = PQ + QR = a + b and from △PSR,
−→ −→ −→ e e
PR = PS + SR = b + a. Therefore, from these two equations,
e shows
a + b = b + a. This e that vector addition is commutative.
e e T. e e
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Vector Addition
Associative Law of Vector Addition

Suppose a, b and c are three vectors, not all lying in the same plane, such
e−→e e−→ −→
that a = AB, b = BC and c = CD.
e e e
D

A B

Figure: Associative law of vector addition

−→ −→ −→
Then, from △ABC , AC = AB + BC = a + b .
T. Katsekpor
e e
Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 16 / 29
Vector Addition
Associative law of vector addition (Cont.)

Therefore, from △ACD,

−→ −→ −→
AD = AC + CD = (a + b ) + c . (1)
e e e
−→ −→ −→
Also, from △BCD, BD = BC + CD = b + c , and so from △ABD,
e e
−→ −→ −→
AD = AB + BD = a + (b + c ). (2)
e e e
Thus, using (1) and (2),

(a + b ) + c = a + (b + c ).
e e e e e e
Hence vector addition is associative.

T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 17 / 29
Vector Subtraction

Definition
The subtraction of a vector b from a vector a is defined as the addition of
the additive inverse of b , −be, to a. That is, ea − b = a + (−b ).
e e e e e e e

Figure: Subtraction of vectors

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Vector Multiplication by a Scalar

Given a non-zero vector a and a real number λ, the scalar multiple of a by

e e
λ is denoted by λa and is defined as the vector that is
e
in the same direction as a if λ is positive and is of magnitude
|λa| = |λ||a| = λ|a|. e
e e e
in direction opposite to that of a if λ is negative and is of magnitude
e
|λa| = |λ||a| = −λ|a| since, by definition,
e e e

 λ if λ > 0,
|λ| = 0 if λ = 0,

−λ if λ < 0.

the zero vector 0 and is of magnitude 0 if λ = 0.

e

T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 19 / 29
Vector Multiplication by a Scalar (Cont.)

O
C

B’
A’
C’

Figure: Vector multiplication by a scalar

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The Laws of Scalar Multiplication of Vectors

If λ, µ are scalars and a, b are vectors then

e e
(λµ)a = λ(µa) (associative law w.r.t. ordinary multiplication of
e
scalars), e

λ(µa) = µ(λa) (commutative law w.r.t. ordinary multiplication of

e
scalars), e

(λ + µ)a = λa + µa (distributive law w.r.t. addition of scalars),

e e e
λ(a + b ) = λa + λb (distributive law w.r.t. addition of vectors).
e e e e

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Example 1
Example
−→ −→ −→
In a quadrilateral ABCD, AB, BC and DC represent the vectors a, b and
−→e −→
e
c respectively. Find the vectors represented by the line segments AC , BD
e −→
and AD.
Solution
C

A B

Figure: Quadrilateral ABCD

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Example 1 (Cont.)

−→ −→ −→
AC = AB + BC = a + b .
e e
−→ −→ −→ −→ −→
BD = BC + CD = BC − DC = b − c .
e e
−→ −→ −→
AD = AB + BD = a + (b − c ) = a + b − c .
e e e e e e

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Example 2

Example
−→ −→
ABCD is a parallelogram. E is a point on AB such that AB = λAE and F
−→ −→ −→ −→
is a point on ED such that FD = λEF . Prove that AC = (λ + 1)AF .

Solution
D C

A E B

Figure: Parallelogram ABCD

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Example 2 (Cont.)
−→ −→ −→ −→
Now, since AB = λAE and FD = λEF , we have
−→ −→ −→ −→
AB + FD = λ(AE + EF ).

But
−→ −→ −→
AE + EF = AF .
Therefore
−→ −→ −→
AB + FD = λAF .
−→ −→
But, since ABCD is a parallelogram, AB = DC and so
−→ −→ −→ −→ −→ −→
λAF = FD + DC = FC = AC − AF .

Hence
−→ −→
AC = (λ + 1)AF .

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Unit Vector
Definition
A unit vector is a vector of unit length. Thus if â is a unit vector then
|â| = 1 and if |â| = 1 then â is a unit vector. e
e e e
Every non-zero vector a can be expressed as the scalar multiple of a unit
vector. e
Thus if a is a non-zero vector then
e
a
â = e ⇔ a = |a|â,
e |a| e ee
e
where â is the unit vector in the direction of a and |a| is the magnitude or
e of a.
the length e e
e
This means that unit vectors may be used to indicate the directions of
vectors. E.g. If â is the unit vector in the same direction as the
e −→
displacement vector AB then
−→ −→
AB = |AB|â.
e
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Parallel Vectors

Definition
The vectors a and b are said to be parallel if there exists a scalar λ such
that b = λa.eThe vectors
e a and b are said to be in
e e e e
the same direction if λ > 0,
opposite directions if λ < 0, in this case, they are referred to as
anti-parallel.

This means that

every non-zero vector a is parallel to itself (i.e., a = 1 · a)
e e e
there are two unit vectors parallel to every non-zero vector a, namely,
e
a a
â = e and â2 = − e .
e1 |a| e |a|
e e
the zero vector is parallel to every vector
(i.e., 0 = 0 · a for any vector a.)
e e e
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Position Vector
Let O be a fixed point in space. Such a point is called the origin or the
reference point of a given coordinate system. Let A and B be any other
points in space.
B

O A

Figure: Position vectors of A and B

−→
Then OA is the position vector of A relative to O.
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Position Vector (Cont.)
−→
If there is no ambiguity about the origin O, OA is simply referred to as the
−→
position vector of A, and we denote OA by a.
e
−→
Similarly, we refer to OB as the position vector of B and denote it by b ,
etc. e

We denote the point A, whose position vector relative to O is a, by A(a).

e e
−→
The position vector of B relative to A is the displacement vector AB
and by the triangle law of addition of vectors,
−→ −→ −→
OA + AB = OB

and so
−→ −→ −→
AB = OB − OA = b − a.
e e

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