1. Cross-cultural communication as a field of study.

The world today is characterized by an ever-growing number of contacts

resulting in communication between people of different linguistic and cultural
backgrounds. This communication takes place not only because of contacts within
the areas of business, military cooperation, science, education, mass media,
entertainment, tourism but also because of immigration brought about by labor
shortage or political conflicts. In all these contacts, there is communication, which
needs to be as constructive as possible, without misunderstandings and
breakdowns.
Effective communication with people of different cultures is especially
challenging because the number of barriers to communication is so numerous.
Cultures provide people with ways of thinking, ways of seeing, hearing, and
interpreting the world. Thus the same words can mean different things to people
from different cultures, even when they talk the “same” language. When the
languages are different, and translation has to be used to communicate, the
potential for misunderstandings increases. There are three ways in which culture
interferes with effective cross-cultural understanding:
 First of the most common barriers to communication are “cognitive
constraints.” Cognitive constraints are the ways people view the world based
on their culture. For example, people in the United States might be inclined to
feel superior to many cultures because of the power and prevalence of U.S.
culture since World War II. This might lead people to become angry if
somebody questions this superiority. However, cognitive constraints can also
be based on religion, the area in which you live, the school you went to, or even
the books you have read. Basically, cognitive constraints are created by the
way people’s minds give meaning to the world around them based on the
knowledge and perceptions they have obtained. Cognitive constraints differ
from culture to culture.
 Second are “behavior constraints.” Each culture has its own rules about
proper behavior which affect verbal and non-verbal communication. Whether
one looks the other person in the eye or not; whether one says what one means
overtly or talks around the issue; how close people stand to each other when
they are talking – all of these and many more are rules of politeness which
differ from culture to culture. In the United States, eye contact should be
sporadic and people should stand at least three feet apart. In Europe, eye
contact is considered “close to staring,” and closeness can be defined by inches.
It can also be as complex as how much information one gives another while
talking. In the United States, politeness and restraint is practiced, while in Arab
cultures, people often say what they mean.
 Third are “emotional constraints.” Different cultures regulate the display of
emotion differently. Some cultures get very emotional when they are debating
an issue. They yell, they cry, they exhibit their anger, fear, frustration, and
other feelings openly. Other cultures try to keep their emotions hidden,
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 exhibiting or sharing only the “rational” or factual aspects of the situation. Each
culture has rules that tell us how emotional we can be in a situation. The
Italians are generally open about their emotions, with hugs and kisses
alternating between angry shouting and gesturing. British people, however, are
more reserved and keep their emotions close at hand. This can cause problems
when these approaches meet. The British may think that the Italians are rude in
their emotional wildness, while the Italians may see the British as uptight. This
varies in approach between each culture.
All of these differences tend to lead to communication problems. If the people
involved are not aware of the potential for such problems, they are even more
likely to fall victim to them, although it takes more than awareness to overcome
these problems and communicate effectively across cultures. Cultural approach to
foreign language teaching gives an interpreter or translator knowledge and skills of
foreseeing and overcoming these cultural barriers.
People from different cultures encode and decode messages differently,
increasing the chances of misunderstanding, so the safety-first approach to
recognizing cultural differences should be to assume that everyone’s thoughts and
actions are different to ours. Even when two people think they can speak each
other’s language, the chance of error is high. Usages and contextual inferences
may be completely different between cultures. Some cultural characteristics will be
easy to identify, e.g. whether people are conscious of status or make displays of
material wealth. But many rights are assumed, values are implied, and needs are
unspoken. No matter who you are or where you live, no matter what nation or
culture you come from, you will need to recognize one very important truth when
you communicate with people in other countries. They – although they may dress
like you, speak your language, or even work for the same company – are not “just
like you.” You will deal with people that have very different histories, languages,
and behaviors. They will have a different sense of time, and a different sense of
humor. In a word, they will have different cultures!
Cross-cultural communication (also frequently referred to as intercultural
communication) is a field of study that looks at how people from different cultural
backgrounds endeavor to communicate. In many contexts these terms are used
synonymously. In the context of communication they are synonyms. But they are
different in the field of research: cross-cultural research means that two or more
cultures are involved, intercultural research operates with just two cultures. Cross-
cultural communication is the mechanism by which human beings relate ways of
living, economic order, social order, and values from other cultures. These ideas
are compared between, within and among cultural groups. Its purpose is also to
produce some guidelines with which people from different cultures can better
communicate with each other. Cross-cultural communication, as many scholarly
fields, is a combination of many other areas. These include cultural anthropology,
cultural studies, psychology and communication.

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 As a science, cross-cultural communication was born and developed in the
1950s when a famous American cultural anthropologist, Edward T. Hall, the
founding father of cross-cultural communication, who taught inter-cultural
communication skills to American diplomats and businessmen for use in other
countries. As a scientific discipline, intercultural communication is in a stage of
formation and differs by the two features: applied character (the purpose being to
simplify communication between representatives of various cultures and to
decrease the possibility of misinterpretation) and interdisciplinary character.
Cultural approach to foreign language learning is very topical at the moment.
It is very important alongside with a foreign language learning to study the culture
and cultural behavior of another cultural group, its vision of the world, the habits,
customs, peculiarities of verbal and non-verbal communication, how and why
these people identify themselves, their religious views, etc. Research in the field
of intercultural communications has recently become increasingly important in
connection with the processes of globalization and intensive migration.
From the economic point of view, globalization is the process whereby the
world economies are becoming increasingly integrated and interdependent. From
the cultural point of view, globalization is the process of increasing homogeneity
of lifestyles and aspirations via media, TV, films, tourism, etc. Some people
believe that the phenomenon of globalization has reduced cultural diversity and so
reduced the opportunity for misunderstandings, but characterizing people as a
homogeneous market is simplistic.
Working with people from a different culture without understanding the likely
points of contention across cultures, and why they tend to occur, is a sure recipe
for problems. The bad news is that crossing cultural boundaries often produces its
share of stress and anxiety. The good news is that overcoming such obstacles
makes one wiser and more knowledgeable.
One of your main jobs while working with a person from a different
culture is to figure the new culture out: what those differences are, where they
come from, what they mean and how you are going to respond when conflict or
misunderstandings arise. These simple rules will lead to cultural synergy.

2. Stages in cross-cultural communication development.

Successful intercultural communication is very difficult to achieve, as it

involves a great number of factors, e.g. language (verbal communication), body
gesture (non-verbal communication), knowledge of values, traditions, patterns of
social behavior, ways of living, the use of time, space and silence, etc., which
differ from culture to culture.
We all would like to find a magic pill for crossing cultures easily, the “right”
answer, a simple list of do’s and don’ts. But crossing cultures is a dynamic,
complex process, where context is everything. A list of behaviors can only take
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you so far, for what is a “do” in one set of circumstances might very well be a
“don’t” in another. Cross-cultural communication training will help you to
understand the values and beliefs behind behavior, and, ultimately, how people
from other cultures think. Cross-cultural training involves not only learning about
the new culture, but comparing it to your own and understanding your own culture
deeper. In cross-cultural training, the goal is learning about yourself and others.
Just as you want to learn another language so that you can communicate with
people from other cultures and understand their world, you also will want to learn
the silent language of cultures – your own and that of other cultures. The goal in
cross-cultural training is to increase your understanding, to give you a powerful set
of skills, a framework to make sense of whatever you do and experience.
When you are learning another culture, the awareness of it tends to progress
through a series of levels. At the beginning of your familiarization with another
culture you are in the state of unconscious incompetence. This has also been called
the state of blissful ignorance. At this stage, you are unaware of cultural
differences. It does not occur to you that you may be making cultural mistakes or
that you may be misinterpreting much of the behavior. Progress in your learning
puts you to the next stage which is called conscious incompetence. You now
realize that differences exist between the way you and people from other cultures
behave, though you understand very little about what these differences are, how
numerous they might be, or how deep they might go. You know there’s a problem
here, but you’re not sure about its size. When you are at the stage of conscious
competence you know that cultural differences exist, you know what some of these
differences are and you try to adjust your own behavior accordingly. And the final
stage is unconscious competence. You no longer have to think about what you’re
doing in order to do the right thing. Culturally appropriate behavior is now second
nature for you; you can trust your instincts because they have been reconditioned
by the new culture. It takes little effort now for you to be culturally sensitive.
These are the levels of professional development that an expert must undergo
in intercultural communication:
“Cross-cultural Sensitivity” simply refers to the basic ability of people to
recognize incidences or situations that are open to misunderstanding due to cultural
differences. This stage is equivalent to conscious incompetence.
“Cross-cultural Awareness” refers to a surface level familiarization with
cultural characteristics, values, beliefs and behaviors.
“Cross-cultural Understanding” develops from cross-cultural awareness as the
learner understands and appreciates a culture deeply. This may also be
accompanied by changes within the learner’s behavior and attitudes such as a
greater flexibility and openness.
“Cross-cultural Knowledge” is a natural by-product of understanding and
refers to an ability to read into situations, contexts and behaviors that are culturally
rooted and be able to react to them appropriately on the base of your knowledge.
That stage may be called conscious competence.
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 “Cross-cultural Competence” is and should be the aim of all those dealing
with multicultural clients, customers or colleagues. Competence is the final stage
of cross-cultural development and signifies the person’s ability to work effectively
across cultures. Cross-cultural competence is more than knowledge. It is the
awareness and sensitivity that comes from the assimilation, integration and
transformation of all the skills and information acquired through the studies and
applying them to create cultural synergy. Cultural competence comprises four
components: (a) awareness of one’s own cultural identity, (b) attitude towards
cultural differences, (c) knowledge of different cultural practices and world views,
and (d) cross-cultural skills. Developing cultural competence results in an ability to
understand, communicate with, and effectively interact with people across cultures.
This stage of professional development corresponds to unconscious competence.

3. Culture and its reference to aspects of life. The model of culture. Types
and characteristics of culture.

Anthropologists and other social scientists define human culture as learned

behavior acquired by individuals as members of a social group. The concept of
culture was first explicitly defined in 1871 by the British anthropologist Edward B.
Tylor. He used the term to refer to “that complex whole which includes
knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits
acquired by man as a member of society.” Since then, anthropologists have offered
numerous refinements and variations on this definition, but all have agreed that
culture is learned behavior in contrast to genetically endowed behavior.
Each human society has a body of norms governing behavior and other
knowledge to which an individual is socialized, or acculturated, beginning at birth.
Culture in this sense is different from the concept of culture used to describe a
highly cultured person who is versed in music, literature, philosophy, and other
intellectual pursuits associated with civilized life.
Culture refers to:
1. Human environment. Culture has been created by humans; it is part of a
human-made environment that holds human groups together.
2. Social heritage and traditions. Culture refers to the history of a nation,
region, or group of people, and its traditions, customs, art crafts, architecture,
music, and painting.
3. Way of life. Culture is a way of life of a group of people or an entire society;
it shows how to live and what standards and criteria to use to decide what to do in
life and how to do things.
4. Behavior. Culture is about human behavior; it influences human behavior
and shows how people should behave. It determines the patterns of behavior
associated with particular groups of people, and the conditions and circumstances
under which various behaviors occur. Culture also helps to interpret, understand,

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and predict others’ behavior. People’s behavior depends upon the culture in which
they have been raised. Culture is the foundation of human behavior.
5. Rules of social life. Culture represents a set of rules that gives direction
concerning how human beings should behave in their lives. These rules also allow
for a better understanding of others’ behavior and predicting how others will
behave and why. These rules need to be followed to maintain harmony and order in
a society.
6. Dress and appearance. Culture dictates how people should dress. It
determines what clothing people wear for a business or casual meeting, as well as
at home. To be socially accepted, people dress appropriately for the occasion.
Cultural customs and traditions determine the dress code and color, the length of
hair, the jewelry to be worn, and the amount of makeup to be used. Some cultures
accept jeans by youth and elders (e.g. the United States), others favor traditional
dress (e.g. Japanese kimono or the sarong in Southeast Asia). Culture determines a
sense of aesthetics.
7. Food and eating habits. Culture determines how food is prepared, cooked,
presented, and consumed. For example, in some cultures people eat beef (e.g. in
the United States), while in others beef is forbidden (e.g. India). In some cultures
people use forks and knifes to eat (e.g. Europeans), while in others, people use
chopsticks (e.g. Chinese), or their hands (e.g. Indians). Culture determines table
manners. For example, one can distinguish between the Europeans and the
Americans by observing how they hold forks and knives at the dinner table.
8. Sense of self. Culture gives people a sense of identity and self-esteem.
Culture provides meanings and directions, and shows people where they belong.
Culture also provides answers to those who feel lost due to globalization,
industrialization, urbanization, new technology, and rapid economic development.
9. Relationships. Culture impacts personal relationships, businesses,
corporations, and government. Culture indicates how people should behave in a
group, relate to each other, and treat others, for example, friends, elders, teachers,
supervisors, minorities, and special-needs groups. For example, in some cultures,
elders are honored, respected, and allocated the best rooms in the house (e.g.
Korea). In other cultures, it is common to send elders to special-care facilities (e.g.
the United States). Culture influences attitudes towards genders, gender roles and
responsibilities, marriage, social relationships, and work. The concept of culture
can explain various systems of a society, such as social, political, economic,
financial, educational, kinship, religious, health, and recreational systems.
10. Values and norms. Culture dictates the priorities people should attach to
certain values; it indicates what should be the most important and least important
value. In some cultures, individuals are concerned with work, personal
achievement, and material things (e.g. the United States), whereas in other
cultures, people are expected to share, obey, and be concerned about others (e.g.
Asia). Culture helps to reaffirm values, cope with difficulties, and find solutions to
problems. Culture includes systems of values, and values create culture.
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 11. Beliefs and attitudes. Culture defines people’s beliefs, views, opinions,
perceptions, and attitudes towards themselves, others, and the world. Culture
determines religious practices, beliefs in life and death, and the difference between
good and bad.
12. Ways of thinking and doing things. Culture is a socially acquired way of
thinking, feeling, and doing things. Culture is the means through which human
beings communicate their thoughts and values and fulfill their needs.
13. Work and leisure habits. Culture determines attitude towards work, work
habits and practices, accomplishments, assessments, promotions, incentives,
responsibilities, work ethic, worthiness of activity, loyalty to employer,
commitment to quality of work and service, and ways of making decisions. In
some cultures, people ‘‘live to work’’ (e.g. the United States), in others, people
‘‘work to live’’ (e.g. Australia, France). Culture also determines attitudes towards
leisure, travel habits, frequency and seasonality of travel, preferred modes of travel
and accommodation, sources of information used, spending patterns, length of
stay, and destination selection. For example, tourists from the United States and
Europe like to travel independently, whereas tourists from Asia prefer to travel in
groups.
14. Time. Culture determines attitude towards time. In some cultures,
punctuality and promptness are expected (e.g. Germany). In others, people do not
bother about time; instead, they manage their life by sunrise and sunset, and by
winter, spring, summer, or fall. For example, in India or Latin America, being late
for appointments and not adhering to time schedules is acceptable.
15. Cognitive knowledge. Culture is a system of cognitive knowledge,
classifications, and categories existing in the minds of people and shaped by the
human brain. Culture is often described as ‘‘the collective programming of the
mind, which distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from
another.’’ For example, rules for human behavior are created by a culturally-
patterned mind.
16. Mental process and learning. Culture is about how people organize and
process information, how they learn and adapt to the surrounding environment, and
how they suffer the consequences of not learning certain information and not
adapting to new circumstances. For example, some cultures favor
straightforwardness, logic, cognition, and intellectual skills (e.g. Germany), others
stress circular logic, conceptualization, abstract thinking, and emotional
communication (e.g. Japan).
17. Information and communication. Culture is information, and information is
communication. Thus, culture is a communication system. It uses verbal and non-
verbal cues that distinguish one group from another. Language is a guide to
communication and culture. Language helps to transmit people’s values, beliefs,
perceptions, and norms. It facilitates the development of attitudes and perceptions
of the world. Differences in languages and verbal cues create different ways of
expressing beliefs, values, and perceptions. Non-verbal cues, such as gestures or
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body language, also differ by culture. For example, in some cultures, interruptions
in discussions are common (e.g. Brazil), in others, they are regarded as rude (e.g.
Japan). So, different cultures have different communication systems. In some
societies, people speak several major languages (e.g. in Switzerland people speak
German, Italian, and French). Within one language group there may be various
dialects, slang, jargons, or accents. People who speak the same language with the
same accent or jargon distinguish themselves from others.
18. Symbols and meanings. Culture is a system of symbols, meanings, ideas,
and emotions that influence people’s experiences. Members of the same culture
rely on the same symbols (e.g. letters, signs) to frame their thoughts, expressions,
and emotions (e.g. joy, sorrow). Symbols help people communicate, develop
attitudes towards life and others, and understand socially accepted behavior.
Symbols make culture possible and readable. Although meanings cannot be
observed and measured, they can help to understand others’ behavior. For
example, in some cultures patting a child on the head is unacceptable because the
head is considered to be the center of intellectual power (e.g. Malaysia), while in
other cultures head patting is acceptable. In Poland, for example, patting a child on
the head is considered to be a caring and protective gesture.
19. Perceptions. Culture is a way of perceiving the environment. It is ‘‘the sum
of people’s perceptions of themselves and of the world.’’ The similarity in people’s
perceptions indicates the existence of similar cultures and the sharing and
understanding of meanings.
20. Differences and similarities between people. Culture is about differences
and similarities between people. It is often referred to as differences between
groups of people who do things differently and perceive the world differently.
These differences indicate the existence of different cultures. It is important to
understand how cultural differences affect human perceptions of the world.
First of all, we are to consider some of the key processes and concepts
embodied in the word “culture.” Before you look at any culture in particular, it is
helpful to understand what culture is in general and how it works. The central
focus here is on the relationship between culture in the abstract—the underlying
values and assumptions of a society—and culture in the flesh—the specific
behaviors that derive from those values. It is important to understand that what
people do and say in a particular culture are not arbitrary and spontaneous, but are
consistent with what people in that culture value and believe in. By knowing
people’s values and beliefs, you can come to expect and predict their behavior. So,
for example, why do the English queue for everything? This relates to their
approach to fairness, justice, order, and rights. The rationale behind the queue is
that those that get there first should by rights be served first or get on the bus first.
Many other cultures simply do not queue in this manner as it is not part of their
cultural programing. Many people question what culture is. How can it be defined?
What analogies can be used to describe it? In intercultural training one of the
questions that is often asked of participants is to think what culture means to them.
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What picture can they draw to describe it? Whether they draw a tree, plate of food
or a tapestry, they are all valid as culture means different things to different people.
There is one model or analogy of culture that sums up the concept best: that is
the iceberg. The iceberg perhaps lends itself best to this as it so graphically
demonstrates the idea of having both a visible and invisible structure. Furthermore,
the fate of the Titanic, whose crew failed to appreciate the true size of the unseen
part of the iceberg, adds another dimension in illustrating to people within
intercultural training what can happen when this is ignored.
The iceberg, as mentioned above, has the visible tip. These are the areas of
culture that we can see manifest in the physical sense. In addition, more often than
not these are the elements that we come into contact with first when diving into a
new country or culture. Such “visible” elements include things such as music,
dress, dance, architecture, language, food, gestures, greetings, behaviors,
devotional practices, art and more. In addition, it can also relate to behaviors such
as seeing people ignoring red traffic lights, spitting on the floor, smoking in public
or queuing for a bus. All, depending on your own culture, may come across as
weird, strange, rude, ignorant or simply silly.
None of the visible elements can ever make real sense without understanding
the drivers behind them; and these are hidden on the bottom side of the iceberg, the
invisible side. It is these invisible elements that are the underlying causes of what
is manifested on the visible side. For example, religious beliefs influence holiday
customs, painting, music, and styles of dress; notions of modesty, influence styles
of dress; concept of self could influence rules of social etiquette; etc. So, when
thinking about culture, the bottom side of the iceberg will include things such as
religious beliefs and philosophies, worldviews, rules of relationships, approach to
the family, motivations, tolerance for change, attitudes to rules, communication
styles, modes of thinking, the difference between public and private, gender
differences and more.
It is for the reasons of clarity that the iceberg model has become so popular. It
perfectly demonstrates the idea of an unseen world manifesting itself in many
different ways in the visible world. In cross-cultural communication it is very
important to have the ability to see the visible elements of culture, to recognize
them and to correlate them with the drivers hidden on the invisible part of the
iceberg which we call culture.
Culture shapes individual human behavior by identifying appropriate and
inappropriate forms of human interaction. Individuals learn culture in the course of
everyday living by interacting with those around them; in other words, they
become socialized. The learning starts at an early age and generally stays with the
people for the rest of their lives. In turn, they transmit culture to others, particularly
to their offspring, through direct instruction and through behaviors they
consciously and unconsciously encourage and discourage.

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 When interculturalists use the word culture they do not just mean universal,
civilization, race, national and regional cultures, but the whole range of different
types of culture. These may include:
 corporate culture (for example, the culture of Microsoft);
 professional culture (for example, the culture of lawyers or doctors);
 gender culture (the different cultures of men and women);
 age culture (the different cultures of young, middle-aged, and old people);
 religious culture (for example, Catholicism, Protestantism, Islam);
 class culture (working class, middle class, and upper class);
 individual culture (an individual’s value system, beliefs, ideas, expectations,
actions, attitudes).
A country’s culture is defined by its value system and norms. In turn, the value
systems and norms of a country are influenced by such factors as social structure,
religion, language, education, political philosophy, and economic philosophy.
Countries and people differ from each other because of these factors.
Culture is learned rather than genetically inherited. This means that each of us
is capable of learning more than one culture, although - as with language - we are
usually most fluent and comfortable with the culture in which we grow up.
Culture is shared by members of a group. It is true that each of us is unique and
capable of individual thoughts, behaviors, and utterances. It is also true that
societal knowledge is not shared equally among all members; individuals have
varying levels of familiarity and expertise with different aspects of their own
culture. Even so, what we say and do must conform to some set of underlying
linguistic and cultural rules that makes us comprehensible to other members of our
society. Otherwise, this behavior is not cultural.
Culture is dynamic rather than static. During most of history, conquests and
trade contacts have caused the mixing of new ideas and artifacts among human
cultures. Today, few groups remain sufficiently isolated from the global networks
of information and artifact exchange to possess a culture that has remained
essentially unchanged over the last fifty years.
Culture is a systemic whole and should not to be broken into high and low
culture.

4. Cultural dimensions for assessing cultures. Low and high power

distance cultures. Individualistic and collectivistic cultures.

For those who study cross-cultural communication or who work in

international business, it is sometimes amazing to discover how differently people
in other cultures behave. We tend to have a human instinct “deep inside” that all
people are the same - but they are not. The question is, “How can I come to
understand these cultural differences?” Fortunately, a psychologist named Dr.
Geert Hofstede asked himself this question in the 1970s. What emerged after a
decade of research and thousands of interviews is a model of cultural dimensions
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that has become an internationally recognized standard. With access to people
working for the same organization in over 40 countries of the world, Hofstede
collected cultural data and analyzed his findings. He initially identified four
distinct cultural dimensions that served to distinguish one culture from another.
Later he added the fifth dimension and that is how the model stands today. He
scored each country using a scale of roughly 0 to 100 for each dimension. The
higher the score, the more that dimension is exhibited in society. Geert Hofstede’s
research gives us insights into other cultures so that we can be more effective when
interacting with people in other countries. If understood and applied properly, this
information should reduce your level of frustration, anxiety, and concern during a
cross-cultural contact. But most important, Geert Hofstede will give us the “edge
of understanding” which translates to more successful results.
The Hofstede’s Model of Cultural Dimensions can be of great use when it
comes to analyzing a country’s culture. There are however a few things one has to
keep in mind. Firstly, the averages of a country do not relate to individuals of that
country. Even though this model has proven to be quite often correct when applied
to the general population, one must be aware that not all individuals or even
regions with subcultures fit into the mould. It is to be used as a guide to
understanding the difference in culture between countries, not as law set in stone.
As always, there are exceptions to the rule. Secondly, how accurate is the data?
The data has been collected through questionnaires, which have their own
limitations. Not only that, but in some cultures the context of the question asked is
as important as its content. Especially in group-oriented cultures, individuals might
tend to answer questions as if they were addressed to the group he or she belongs
to. While, on the other hand, in the United States, which is an individualistic
culture, the answers will most likely be answered and perceived through the eyes
of that individual. Lastly, is the data up to date? How much does the culture of a
country change over time, either by internal or external influences?
From cross-cultural point of view we are interested in some specific features of
cultures that shape patterns of behavior and communication, views and attitudes.

Low vs. High Power Distance Index

According to Hofstede, the power distance index shows the extent to which
people perceive inequality as normal in a society, institution or organization.
Power distance describes also the extent to which employees accept that superiors
have more power than they have.
Low power distance is egalitarian and is the norm in such countries as the USA,
Britain, Austria, Israel, Denmark, New Zealand and the Scandinavian countries. In
these countries people expect and accept power relations that are more consultative
or democratic. People relate to one another more as equals regardless of formal
positions. Subordinates are more comfortable with their superiors and demand the
right to contribute to and criticize the decision- making processes of those in
power. Subordinates are more likely to challenge bosses and bosses tend to use a
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consultative management style. People of this culture believe in equality in social,
political, and economic affairs and that everyone should have access to power.
Individuals are expected to disagree openly or even to confront a friend, partner or
supervisor assertively. People who live in countries with the low power distance
culture are used to equal rights for all people. They are more open to contacts, have
their own opinion and are not scared to speak out. They are used to group decision-
making and are modest, tolerable and democratic. In low power distance cultures,
there is a certain distrust for authority; it’s seen as a kind of necessary evil that
should be limited as much as possible. Students are expected to demonstrate their
knowledge and command of the subject, participate in discussions with the teacher
and even challenge the teacher. Low power distance cultures rely less on symbols
of power, and less of a problem is created if you fail to use a respectful title. But
even in low power distance cultures you may create problem if, for example, you
call a medical doctor, police captain, military officer or professor Ms. or Mr.
In High power distance countries (e.g. Japan, China, Asian countries,
Mexico, Egypt, India, Arab countries, the majority of Eastern European countries),
the less powerful accept power relationships that are more autocratic and
paternalistic. Subordinates acknowledge the power of others simply based on
where they are situated in certain formal, hierarchical positions. People think that a
system of hierarchy is necessary for the existence of a society. It suggests that a
society’s level of inequality is endorsed by the followers as much as by the leaders.
So we can say that the Power Distance Index does not reflect an objective
difference in power distribution but rather the way people perceive power
differences. Superiors and subordinates consider themselves different; we can see
centralization of power, importance of status, rank and protocol. Subordinates are
excluded from decision-making. Power is concentrated in the hands of a few and
there is a great difference in the power held by these people and that held by the
ordinary citizen. In high power distance cultures, direct confrontation and
assertiveness may be viewed negatively, especially if directed at a superior. People
are taught to have great respect for authority; they see authority as desirable and
beneficial and challenges to authority are generally not welcomed. In high power
distance cultures, there is a great power distance between students and teachers;
students are expected to be modest, polite, and totally respectful. High power
distance cultures rely more on symbols of power. For example, titles (Dr.,
Professor, Chief, Inspector) are more important in high power distance cultures.
Failure to include these in forms of address is a serious breach of etiquette. In
Europe, power distance tends to be lower in northern countries and higher in
southern and eastern parts. There seems to be an admittedly disputable correlation
with predominant religions.
People brought up in high power distance cultures are used to acting and
communicating in accordance with patterns of behavior which are relevant to the
position they occupy in the hierarchy of their own society. Those who occupy the
leading positions expect special attention, respect (sometimes exaggerated). They
12
like formalities and visible signs of their special rule. They are used to making
their own personal decisions and usually do not pay attention to anybody’s
opinion. They show rigidity in opinions and suppress differences of opinion. They
are bossy and often like to use the channel of objective communication to send
special signals with their expensive shoes, wrist watches, clothes, cars. They are
intolerant to inattentive listening and being interrupted.
Those who consider themselves to be subordinates in business or social
hierarchy are used to showing signs of respect to the bosses. In countries with high
power distance employees are too afraid to express their doubts and disagreements
with their autocratic and paternalistic bosses.
The index of power distance describes the interdependence of relationships in a
country and determines behavior of people and their communication style.
How does this manifest in a culture or country?
In high power distance cultures the following may be observed:
 Those in authority openly demonstrate their rank.
Subordinates are not given important work and expect clear guidance from
above.
 Subordinates are expected to take the blame for things going wrong.
 The relationship between boss and subordinate is rarely close and personal.
 Politics is prone to totalitarianism.
 Class divisions within society are accepted.
In a low power distance culture:
 Superiors treat subordinates with respect and do not pull rank.
 Subordinates are entrusted with important assignments.
 Blame is either shared or very often accepted by the superior due to it being
their responsibility to manage.
 Managers may often socialize with subordinates.
 Liberal democracies are the norm.
 Societies lean more towards egalitarianism.
Individualism vs. collectivism
Individualism is contrasted with collectivism, and refers to the extent to which
people are expected to stand up for themselves and to choose their own affiliations,
or alternatively act predominantly as a member of a life-long group or
organization. This aspect of culture refers to the extent to which the individual’s
goals and desires or the group’s goals and desires are given greater importance.
Individual and collective tendencies are not mutually exclusive; it is not “all or
nothing” but rather a matter of emphasis.
On the collectivist side, we find societies in which people from birth onwards
are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, often extended families (with uncles,
aunts and grandparents) which continue protecting them in exchange for
unquestioning loyalty. Distinctions between in-group members and out-group
members are extremely important in collectivist cultures. In collectivistic cultures
children are taught, “You belong to a family, to a tribe, to a village. Your actions
13
reflect on the whole group. You must behave in a way that brings honor not shame
to the family name. We all take care of each other. No one stands alone.” There is
a group mentality that says, “We are a community and must share our food, private
lives, homes, and even opinions, to serve the whole.” This translates into a
behavior that is inclusive, not independent.
The word “collectivism” in this sense has no political meaning: it refers to the
group, not to the state. Latin American, African, Arab, Slavonic, Italian, Japanese,
Indonesian, Portuguese cultures rank among the most collectivist in this category.
Their cultures stress cooperation, conflict avoidance, solidarity, loyalty and group
decision-making. Collectivistic cultures put great emphasis on groups and think
more in terms of “we” rather than “I.” Harmony and loyalty within a company is
very important and should always be maintained and confrontation should be
avoided. In China, it is out of the question to disagree with someone’s opinion in
public. One will do that in a more private and personal atmosphere to protect a
person from the “loss of face.” Expressions or phrases are used which describe a
disagreement or negative statement instead of saying no. Saying “no” would mean
destroying the harmony in the group. The relationship between employer and
employee or business partners is based on trust and harmony and a deep
understanding of moral values. The wealth of the company is more important than
the prosperity of an individual. People brought up in collectivist cultures are not
independently-minded, the opinion of the group is important, relations within a
group are more important than the results of the group’s activity, people show
good team-work abilities and the feeling of loyalty to the group is very high.
On the individualist side, we find societies in which the ties between
individuals are loose: everyone is expected to look after their immediate family. In
individualistic societies, from the time children are small, they are taught:“You are
an individual. Learn to think for yourself.” Children from these societies know that
they should have an opinion and be able to defend it. Individuality and
independence are affirmed as good qualities. In the United States, one of the
founding values of the country is that the individual has rights. “I have my rights”
is a phrase you will hear an American say when he doesn’t feel he is being treated
justly. Another aspect of that individualism can be: “I will look out for myself -
you look out for yourself.” In individualistic cultures, which prize a person’s
distinctive qualities, the in-group versus out-group distinctions are likely to be less
important.
Western countries such as the U.S.A., Great Britain and Australia are the most
individualistic cultures. This type of culture stresses competition; individual goals
take precedence over group affiliates. In individualistic countries people are
expected to look out for themselves. Typical values are personal time, freedom,
and challenge. People in individualistic cultures emphasize their success and
achievements in job or private wealth and aim to achieve more. Especially in the
USA, the fight about jobs and trying to climb up the hierarchy ladder is something
very common. In business, they try to improve their connections and to gain more
14
value out of them, not for establishing a good relationship but just to be involved in
a calculative way. Employees are expected to defend their interests and to promote
themselves whenever possible.
Germany can be considered as individualistic culture with a high score (89) on
the scale of Hofstede compared to a country like Guatemala where they have
strong collectivism (6 on the scale). In Germany, people stress personal
achievements and individual rights. The Germans expect from each other to fulfill
their own needs. Group work is important, but everybody has the right to their own
opinion. People tend to have more loose relationships than the countries with the
collectivistic culture where people have large extended families.
Individualism or collectivism may be affected by the philosophy of
predominant religions. Protestant religion teaches individualism, independence,
reliance on your own will-power, strength of mind, competition. Catholicism and
Orthodoxy preach collectivism, support and assistance.
How does this manifest in a culture or country?
In a country that scores highly on the individualism scale the following
traits are common:
 A person’s identity revolves around the “I.”
 Personal goals and achievement are strived for.
 It is acceptable to pursue individual goals at the expense of others.
 Individualism is encouraged whether it be personality, clothes or music
tastes.
 The right of the individual reigns supreme; laws should protect choices and
freedom of speech.
In a country that scores low on the individualism scale the following traits
are common:
 ”We” is more important than“I.”
 Conformity is expected and perceived positively.
 Individual’s desires and aspirations should be curbed if necessary for the
good of the group.
 The rights of the family (or for the common good) are more important .
 Rules provide stability, order, obedience.

5. Polychronic and monochronic cultures. Masculine and feminine

cultures. Uncertainty-avoiding and uncertainty-accepting cultures.

Edward T. Hall, a respected anthropologist and one of the founders of

intercultural communication study, identified two more dimensions of culture. Hall
identified the concept that deals with the ways in which cultures structure time and
how people in these cultures perceive and manage time. It has merit in analyzing
cultural implications about time and communication. Usually individualistic
cultures are low-context ones and they are, as Hall termed them, “monochronic,”
viewing time as linear, highly scheduled, and can be lost or gained. High context
15
cultures, on the contrary, tend to be “polychronic,” that is they are apt to be
involved in a lot of different activities with different people at any given time, time
for them is circular and more holistic.
Cultures that have a linear concept of time (identified, very broadly, with low-
context cultures) view time as a precious commodity to be used, not wasted (“time
is money”); they schedule and measure time in small units (days, hours, minutes)
and consider punctuality and promptness a basic courtesy as well as a proof of
commitment. In order to get more things done in the shortest time possible, they
concentrate on one task at a time and dislike interruptions.
On the other hand, for cultures that view time as flexible (southern Europe,
Mediterranean countries, Latin America), time is not an absolute value. When
people and relationships demand attention, time can be manipulated or stretched,
and the passing of time will be ignored if it means that conversations or human
relations or interactions will be left unfinished. Compared to U.S. standards, for
example, business life in Italy is more relationship-focused. Polychronic cultures
often place completion of the job in a special category much below the importance
of being nice, courteous, considerate, kind, and sociable to other human beings.
In a meeting involving participants with different concepts of time, and
therefore a completely different frame of mind as far as planning, scheduling,
punctuality and deadlines are concerned, tensions may arise quite easily. It is the
task of the interpreter or cultural mediator, on the basis of his or her intercultural
competence, to make sure such different attitudes do not become the source of
major misunderstandings. When extra-linguistic problems arise in a meeting, the
interpreter should always try to facilitate mutual understanding either by briefing
the participants beforehand whenever possible or by interpreting in a more
diplomatic way so as to soften the atmosphere and allow the negotiation to
proceed.
Polychronic Cultures:
 Are not as oriented toward the clock as monochronic cultures.
 Are event oriented.
 Are spontaneous and flexible in their approach to life.
 Respond to what life brings.
 Consider that saving time is not as important as experiencing the moment.
Monochronic Cultures:
 Are time oriented.
 Are structured in their approach to life.
 Enjoy using time efficiently.
 Try to plan their day, and saving time is a value.
 Expecting the event (dinner, the arrival of a guest, or a meeting) to begin at
the time announced.
Masculinity vs. femininity
This dimension refers to the importance placed on traditionally male or female
values (as understood in most Western cultures). Gender is a social aspect which
16
has a great impact on international political, social and business life in many
different ways. Each culture handles gender roles differently.
The so called “masculine”cultures value competitiveness, assertiveness,
ambition, and the accumulation of wealth and material possessions. There is strong
separation of roles between men and women. Self-confidence, respect for things
which are big, strong, and fast is normally a masculine trait. People tend to value
having a high opportunity for earnings, getting the recognition they deserve when
doing a good job, having an opportunity for advancement to a higher-level job, and
having challenging work to do to derive a sense of accomplishment (Japan, Latin
America, Italy, Great Britain, Germany, US.) In a highly “masculine” culture men
are viewed as assertive, oriented to material success, and strong; women on the
other hand are viewed as modest, focused on the quality of life and tender.
Masculine cultures emphasize success and condition their people to be assertive,
ambitious and competitive. Members of masculine cultures are thus more likely to
confront conflicts directly and to competitively fight out any differences. They are
more likely to emphasize win-lose conflict strategies. Organizations also can be
viewed in terms of masculinity or femininity. Masculine organizations emphasize
competitiveness and aggressiveness. They focus on the bottom line and reward
their workers on the basis of their contribution to the organization. Communication
style is more aggressive and formal.
Feminine cultures place more value on relationships and quality of life, and
have weak separation of roles between men and women. Dominant characteristics
of culture are female-oriented: nurturing, emotionality, care of the unfortunate,
cooperation. People tend to value a good working relationship with their
supervisors; working with people who cooperate well with one another, living in
an area desirable to themselves and to their families, and having the security that
they will be able to work for their company as long as they want. (Spain, Norway,
Sweden, Denmark, the Netherlands). The women in feminine countries have the
modest, caring values as do the men. In a highly “feminine” culture, both men and
women are encouraged to be modest, oriented to maintaining the quality of life and
tender. Feminine cultures emphasize the quality of life and condition their people
to be modest and to emphasize close interpersonal relationship. Members of
feminine cultures are thus more likely to emphasize compromise and negotiation in
resolving conflict; they are more likely to seek win-win solutions. Communication
style is softer and more casual. Not surprisingly, people in feminine cultures score
significantly lower on depression levels. Feminine organizations are less
competitive and less aggressive. They are more likely to emphasize worker
satisfaction and reward their workers on he basis of need; those who have large
families, for example, may get better raises than the single people, even if the
singles have contributed more to the organization. Japan is considered by Hofstede
to be the most “masculine” culture, Sweden the most “feminine.” Anglo-Saxon
cultures are moderately masculine.
How does this manifest in a culture or country?
17
 Below are some of the common traits found in countries low on the
masculinity scale:
In life the main priorities are the family, relationships and quality of life.
Conflicts should ideally be solved through negotiation.
Men and women should share equal positions in society.
Professionals “work to live”, meaning longer vacations and flexible working
hours.
Below are some of the common traits found in countries high on the
masculinity scale:
Life’s priorities are achievement, wealth and expansion.
It is acceptable to settle conflicts through aggressive means.
Women and men have different roles in society.
Professionals often “live to work”, meaning longer work hours and short
vacations.
Uncertainty avoidance
This index deals with a society’s tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity. It
indicates to what extent a culture programs its members to feel either
uncomfortable or comfortable in unstructured situations. Unstructured situations
are novel, unknown, surprising and different from usual ones.
Generally, in communication, we seek to reduce uncertainty. Communication
with strangers involves relatively greater degrees of uncertainty, due to the
difficulty in predicting a stranger’s responses. We experience uncertainty with
regard to the stranger’s attitudes, feelings and beliefs. We are also uncertain of how
to explain the stranger’s behavior. The increased uncertainty in interactions with
strangers is accompanied by higher levels of anxiety, as we anticipate a wider array
of possible negative outcomes. We may worry about damage to our self-esteem
from feeling confused and out of control. We may fear the possibility of being
incompetent, or being exploited. We may worry about being perceived negatively
by the stranger.
Uncertainty-avoiding cultures try to minimize the possibility of such situations
by strict laws and rules, safety and security measures, and at the philosophical and
religious level by a belief in absolute Truth. People in uncertainty-avoiding
countries are also more emotional, and motivated by inner nervous energy. In the
high uncertainty-avoiding cultures (Greece, Portugal, Guatemala, Uruguay, Japan),
people avoid conflict in communication, seek consensus in conversation, security
through written rules, regulations, and face saving. Members of these societies are
anxious, aggressive, emotionally restrained and loyal to group decisions. They are
often nationalistic and suspicious toward foreigners.
The opposite type, uncertainty-accepting cultures, are more tolerant of
opinions different from what they are used to; they try to have as few rules as
possible, and on the philosophical and religious level they are relativist and allow
many currents to flow side by side. People within these cultures are more
phlegmatic and contemplative, and not expected by their environment to express
18
emotions. In the low uncertainty-avoiding cultures (Singapore, Denmark, Sweden,
Hong Kong, the United Kingdom, India, the United States, New Zealand), people
tolerate ambiguity and uncertainty in conversations, talk about new ideas, and need
few rules as possible to guide them in communication. They believe conflicts and
disagreements are natural. They accept foreigners with different ideas and are
optimistic about the future.
In essence, this cultural dimension measures preference for strict laws and
regulations over ambiguity and risk. According to Hofstede’s findings, Greece is
the most risk-averse culture while Singapore the least. Generally speaking,
Protestant countries and those with Chinese influences score low. Catholic,
Buddhist and Arabic-speaking countries tend to score high in uncertainty
avoidance.
How does this manifest itself in a culture or country?
Some of the common traits found in countries that score highly on the
uncertainty avoidance scale:
 Usually countries/cultures with a long history.
 The population is not multicultural, i.e. homogenous.
 Risks, even calculated, are avoided in business.
 New ideas and concepts are more difficult to introduce.
Some of the common traits found in countries that score low on the uncertainty
avoidance scale include:
 Usually a country with a young history, i.e. the USA.
 The population is much more diverse due to waves of immigration.
 Risk is embraced as part of business.
 Innovation and pushing boundaries is encouraged.

6. High-context and low-context cultures. Communication styles.

Edward T. Hall, a respected anthropologist and one of the founders of

intercultural communication study, identified two more dimensions of culture.
Understanding and applying these concepts can help to improve communication
skills across cultures. Hall presented a popular cultural framework in which he
stated that all cultures are situated in relation to one another through the styles in
which they communicate. He identified high-context and low-context cultures,
where the high- and low-context concept is primarily concerned with the way
information is communicated.
Low-Context cultures tend to be individualistic, where emphasis is put on the
goals and accomplishments of an individual rather than the group. This culture can
be characterized by fragile bonds between people, little sense of loyalty; tasks are
more important than relationships, people critisize others for failures, time is
highly organized, result is more important than the process. Personal values
include personal time, freedom, and challenge. These cultures place more
emphasis on written, explicit explanation, for example, on the written contracts in
19
business. Low-context communication occurs predominantly through explicit
statements in text and speech – the majority of the information is contained in the
words. As such, the bulk of information must be in the transmitted message. What
is omitted creates ambiguity; this ambiguity is to be eliminated by explicit and
direct communication. Cultures, such as Scandinavian, German, and Swiss, are
predominantly low-context.
High-context cultures are the opposite of low-context ones. High-context
cultures are also collectivist cultures. They prioritize group welfare over the goals
of the individual. The family’s history often has an influence on the way people see
an individual, whereas personal accomplishments will play a minor role.
Individuals in collectivistic cultures tend to be interdependent with others and
usually have a network of deep-rooted relationships and personal, loyal ties.
These cultures place great emphasis on personal relationships and oral agreements.
Members of high-context cultures spend lots of time getting to know each other
before any important transaction takes place. Because of this prior personal
knowledge, a great deal of information is shared and therefore does not have to be
explicitly stated. In this culture we can see strong people bonds with affiliation to
family and community, high commitment to long-term relationships, relationships
are more important than tasks, process is more important than the product, people
accept the failure personally, and time is more flexible.
The information is not explicitly stated in the verbal message. Messages
include other communication cues such as body language, eye movement, para-
verbal cues, and the use of silence. This type of communication features pre-
programmed information that is in the receiver and in the setting, with only
minimal information in the transmitted message. A high-context culture is one in
which much of the information in communications is contained in the context or in
the person, for example, information that was shared through previous
communication, through assumptions that participants hold about each other, and
through shared experiences.
The listener or the interpreter of the message is expected to read “between the
lines” to infer accurately the implicit intent of the verbal message. To the members
of these cultures, what is assumed is a vital part of the communication transaction.
In some instances, for example, silence is highly valued. People in these cultures
are reluctant to say “no” for fear of giving offense and causing the person to lose
face. For example, it is necessary to determine when the Japanese executive’s
“yes” means “yes” and when it means “no.” People in high-context cultures tend to
be more implicit in verbal codes, perceive highly verbal persons less attractive,
tend to be more reliant on and tuned into non-verbal communication, and expect to
have more non-verbal codes in communication. Japanese, Arab, Korean cultures
are considered high-contextual.
Another of Hofstede’s dimensions, which is tied to the High-Context / Low-
Context dimension as well as to the Collectivism/Individualism dimension, is the
Power Distance dimension. This refers to the extent to which less powerful
20
members expect and accept unequal power distribution within a culture. High
power distance cultures include many hierarchical levels, autocratic leadership, and
the expectation of inequality and power differences. In contrast, low power
distance cultures are characterized by the flat organization of structures,
consultative or participative management style, and the expectation of
egalitarianism, especially evident in the Scandinavian countries.
Communication styles.
Communication problems, especially misunderstanding and misinterpretation,
are one of the most common frustrations experienced by people in intercultural
dialogue.
The point here is that anyone working in the cross-cultural field is likely to
encounter styles of communication which are unfamiliar and, perhaps,
disconcerting. Learning to deal with a new set of communication styles is part of
the challenge of cross-cultural training. If you learn to do it well, it will add to your
ability to effectively communicate with a wider range of people. Conversations
differ depending on how direct people are and how they express meanings. For
example, in Japanese culture, speakers are required to circle around the topic. They
indicate only indirectly what they are discussing and what they want the listeners
to know. They let the listeners construct the meaning. It is considered rude and
inappropriate for the speaker to tell the listener directly the specific point being
conveyed. The Vietnamese also talk around the subject. In contrast, in the English-
speaking cultures, speakers are required to be explicit, give clear explanations, and
follow linear logic; they are responsible for structuring their conversation and
creating its meanings. As a consequence, the Japanese or Vietnamese may think of
the members of the English-speaking societies as rude and aggressive, whereas
members of the English-speaking societies may think of the Japanese as imprecise
and confusing. Moreover, Western societies think in linear terms; conversations
are organized and always have a beginning and an end. On the other hand, Eastern
and Asian cultures think in non-linear terms; conversations have no plan; they are
chaotic, limitless, and can be interrupted.
The direct-indirect style refers to the way of expressing the speaker’s true
intention in terms of his needs, wants and desires. It may appear similar to high-
and low-context cultures but it is not so. High and low contexts are the terms
referring to the whole culture and language. Directness or indirectness describes
communicative behavior of groups of people or individuals.
Direct communicators believe that if you discuss everything, you can resolve
the conflict, that it is better to say what needs to be said. Members of
individualistic, low-context cultures tend to use the direct style, which corresponds
best to the value orientations (honesty, openness, individual worth) of such
cultures. The language is therefore used in a straightforward and precise way.
Categorical words, such as “absolutely” and “certainly,” “one hundred percent
sure” are often employed. Meaning is conveyed through explicit statements made
directly to the people involved with little reliance on contextual factors such as
21
situation and timing. Members of cultures in which the direct style is used have,
for example, learned to say “no” when it is necessary. This “no” contains the
information, that something is not accepted and emphasizes a different personal
point of view towards a topic. To say “no” is normally not seen as impolite or
offending, but it is even expected due to the value orientation on honesty and
openness. The use of direct speech in individualistic, low-context cultures, asserts
self-face need and self-face concern.
Members of collectivistic, high-context cultures prefer to use the indirect
verbal style. Meaning is conveyed by suggestion, implication, non-verbal behavior,
and other contextual cues; for instance, statements intended for one person may be
made within earshot of a different person. It is possible that messages will be sent
through a third-party intermediary. Indirect communicators do not believe that
everything needs to be said. An important goal of their conversational style is to
maintain harmony, or at least the appearance of harmony. This style believes
strongly in “saving face,” a concept that many direct communicators do not factor
in when dealing with conflict. Saving face is simply dealing with an issue or
concern in a manner that does not publicly embarrass anyone or cause them to lose
respect in their own eyes or those of other individuals. Therefore, blame is not
directly placed on anyone but is usually alluded to. This style allows one to avoid
confronting another person or saves him from loosing face. Speakers of such
cultures often use imprecise and even ambiguous words to communicate their
message. An example for indirect speech would be to say “it is somewhat cold
today” instead of saying “please close the door.” Qualifiers like “maybe” or
“perhaps,” are employed to avoid hurting the feelings of other in-group members.
Also a direct “no” is not used. They do so in order to keep up group harmony and
group conformity, which are the main concerns in collectivistic cultures. Asian
people rather tend to reply to a question by saying “yes” and by avoiding saying
“no.” In collectivistic, high-context cultures, the indirect speech is preferred in
order to keep up group harmony and to preserve mutual-face need.
Here is an example of a Chinese Editor’s Rejection Slip:
“We have read your manuscript with boundless delight. If we were to publish
your paper, however, it would then be impossible for us to publish any work of a
lower standard. And it is unthinkable that in the next thousand years we shall see
its equal. We are, to our regret, compelled to return your divine composition and to
beg you one thousand times to overlook our short-sighted timidity.”
When a linear style is used, communication is conducted in a straight line.
There is a low reliance on context and a strong reliance on words. Circular style
means that communication is conducted in a circular manner, telling stories and
developing a context around the main point, which is often unstated because the
listener will get the point after all the information is given to him or her. There is a
high reliance on context. Conversations differ depending on how direct people are
and how they express meanings. For example, in Japanese culture, speakers are
discussing and what they want the listeners to know. They let the listeners
22
construct the meaning. It is considered rude and inappropriate for the speaker to
tell the listener directly the specific point being conveyed. The Vietnamese also
talk around the subject. In contrast, in English-speaking cultures, speakers are
required to be explicit, give clear explanations, and follow linear logic; they are
responsible for structuring their conversation and creating its meanings.
Attached style means that the issues are discussed with feeling and emotion,
conveying the speaker’s personal stake in the issue and the outcome. This shows
the passion someone feels in a situation or for an issue. In detached style issues are
discussed with calmness and objectivity, conveying the speaker’s ability to weigh
all the factors impersonally. It is important to be objective.
Intellectual engagement means that any disagreement with ideas is stated
directly, with the assumption that only the idea, not the relationship, is being
attacked. This is an intellectual style found in some European countries. Relational
engagement means that relational issues and problems are confronted directly,
while intellectual disagreement is handled more subtly and indirectly. If you have a
problem with someone, it helps to talk things over, albeit in a non-confrontational
manner.

7. English verbal etiquette.

Most Britons are reserved by nature and often find it difficult to indulge in
small talk with a complete stranger. Indeed, there are situations where idle
conversation is actually frowned upon, for example, when traveling on the London
underground; in these circumstances, a newspaper will act as a defensive tool in
public whilst also providing potential material for subsequent social intercourse in
private. On the whole, northerners tend to be more immediately friendly than
southerners, although true Scottish Highlanders will hardly say a word until you
get to know them better and Welsh farmers can be especially taciturn.
Addressing. Addressing others with respect is a must in communication.
Despite their reputation for stiff formality, the British are in fact quite informal and
the immediate use of first names is increasingly prevalent in all walks of British
life, especially amongst the young. Nevertheless, you should always wait to be
invited to use first names before doing so yourself. Quite often the invitation will
be spontaneous but it may never happen at all. Until then - and not all Britons like
the up-front American approach - you should be careful to follow strict protocol,
especially when dealing with older members of the “Establishment.” No one is
offended by exaggerated correctness whereas premature informality may be
deemed presumptuous. Equally, it is best to avoid the American habit of constantly
repeating someone’s name in the course of a conversation once on first-name
terms. Subordinates may never feel comfortable addressing their superiors by their
first name either in writing or orally. You should not be offended if people outside
the “Home Counties” of southeast England address you in apparently familiar or

23
overly affectionate terms such as “dear” or “love” (whether you are a man or a
woman).
Manner of speaking. For the most part, the British speak in low, moderate,
measured tones without raising the voice or gesticulating wildly for emphasis.
They also like to maintain their own personal space and will shy away from those
they find invasive. Although not all Britons are particularly articulate, you should
make an effort to speak in complete sentences; the British generally find the North
American habit of trailing off in mid-sentence rather irritating. Nor should you
interrupt someone; intonation conveys one has finished speaking and, in British
English, the voice normally goes down at the end of an affirmative sentence.
The British prefer to avoid animated discussions; if an argument does become
heated, it is quite likely to have been fuelled by alcohol and it may be time for you
to make your excuses and withdraw. In any case, a newspaper or some work to
look at should again afford a degree of protection from bores and boors alike.
Loudness of speech is one of the ways by means of which people of different
nations keep the due distance while communicating. In England the Americans are
constantly reproached due to their excessive loudness when talking. Loudness is an
attribute of an openness of American nation. The English are not disposed to
such openness. They have developed an art to address the interlocutor in such a
way that their voice reaches his ears without any significant effort, overcoming
noise and distance. From the point of view of Englishmen, if someone speaks so
loud, that everybody around can hear him, he behaves immodestly, like a person of
lower social standing. When, having got used to English manner of
communication, you return to Europe, you have a feeling that people seem to be
unnecessary noisy while speaking.
“Not to be personal” rule. Englishmen adhere to a rule of “not to be
personal,” that is not to talk about themselves, about their business. It is considered
bad manners to show your erudition and in general to speak categorically about
something. A visitor who hotly defends his point of view at a dining table, will be
considered to be at least a little odd, eccentric or as a badly brought up person. An
easy and light conversation, promoting a pleasant relaxation of mind is traditional
for English way of life, not thoughtful dialogue and of course not a collision of
opposite sights.
Showing off. In China or Japan, sometimes it is enough to read a hieroglyphic
inscription, to quote to the point an ancient poet or a philosopher, to gain the
interlocutor at once or at least to establish contact. It doesn’t work with
Englishmen. They do not avoid foreigners, but also do not show special interest
towards them, treating them a bit indulgently, as children among adults. Even
living constantly among Englishmen, you practically have no firsthand contact
with them.
English traditions order to be reserved in speech and judgments, tolerance,
avoidance of categorical statements or denying as respect to the interlocutor which
has the right to have his own opinion. They view the words “yes” and “no” as if
24
obscene and better to express ideas or opinions allegorically. That is why they like
such expressions as “it seems to me that,“ ” I think,” “may be I am not right but,”
“in my humble opinion,” “not in my knowledge, I am afraid” allowing to avoid
definiteness and the straightforwardness, capable to lead to collision of opinions.
The most widespread words in colloquial speech are “rather,” “fairly,” or “quite”
which soften sharpness of any statement or denial.
It is always advisable to try to initiate conversation with open questions rather
than an assertion of a personal point of view. The British are largely tolerant and
open-minded but every nation has its bigots and many Britons derive their opinions
from the tabloid press, which typically expresses itself in black-and-white terms
(the UK’s sometimes fraught relationship with the EU and continental Europe
generally represents a prime example of the way in which opinion can divide into
two extremely entrenched camps). This phenomenon is exemplified by the
archetypal London taxi driver whose often extreme opinions should be taken with
a large pinch of salt. Almost all Britons, however, are proud of their culture and
heritage and this should be respected not mocked.
The importance of not being serious. Humor is a vital feature of all aspects of
British life. In a society that finds it difficult to express genuine personal feelings,
humor often acts as a defense mechanism but it is almost never out of place in a
culture that is averse to seriousness in all circumstances. You need not strive to be
interminably witty yourself, but you should not be surprised by what you may
consider coarse or inappropriate levity. Despite of Englishmen being reserve, it is
impossible not to admit that they have excellent senses of humor. English humor is
something inmost, private, not for strangers. It is in barely visible hints and smiles,
addressed to people capable to appreciate these half-words. That is why English
humor is at first is almost imperceptible to a foreigner. You cannot feel it at once
or learn with the language. You can feel it only as a part of aroma of the country,
its most hardly perceptible ingredient. Englishmen appreciate as paramount
advantage of human characteristic the ability to keep sense of humor in moments
of despair.
Use of silence. The foreigner got used to consider that “silence is a sign of
consent “, and thus often wrongly believes that has proved his case. In England
listening patiently to the interlocutor, not interrupting him doesn’t not mean that
your opinion is shared. When you try to set a question point-blankly “Yes or not?“,
“For or against?“ – they usually start to light up their pipe or switch the topic of
conversation.
Topics to discuss. The British are much less politically correct than North
Americans who may be offended by some of the natives’ banter and “wit.” The
UK (especially, but not just, London) is a thoroughly multiracial and multicultural
society. You should not make any assumptions about a person’s background,
nationality or origins. Welcome topics of conversation are the weather (always a
safe starting point), sport (particularly football/soccer), animals (usually safe -
though beware vegetarians if you like to eat them), British history, culture,
25
literature, art, and popular music, current affairs, your immediate surroundings and
positive experiences in the UK, how good the food is (things have changed in
recent years!), real ale (i.e. traditional British beer.) Topics to avoid are religion
(especially if you are in Northern Ireland, Glasgow or Liverpool), the monarchy
and the Royal Family, partisan politics, the European Union, “Brussels” and the
Euro, the Middle East, personal questions about a person’s background, religion,
occupation, etc., class and the class system, race and immigration. The British are
always talking about the weather. Unlike many others, this stereotype is actually
true to life. But constant remarks about the weather at chance meetings are not the
result of polite conventions. They are not obligatory. Rather, they are the result of
the fact that, on the one hand, to ask personal questions would be rude while, at the
same time, silence would also be rude. The weather is a very convenient topic with
which to “fill the gap.”
English politeness is not just a form of courtesy, this is an unsurpassed art.
From early childhood people are used to “Please,” “Thank you,” “Would you be
so kind,” “If you do not mind,” etc.
Pronunciation. In English society pronunciation of a person is a parameter of
his social background. The exclusive role in this sense is played by the so called
Received Pronunciation (RP): it should not be mixed with standard, or correct. The
standard pronunciation speaks about the culture of a person, about his or her
education. The RP shows affiliation with elite. RP can be acquired only in early
age at elite schools of the south-east of the country, and later to polish in Oxford
and Cambridge. However to have RP does not mean at all to speak English
absolutely correctly and to express your ideas accurately and clearly. It is
paradoxical, but in England some defects of speech and vagueness of expressions
are an attribute of belonging to higher society. As to London measures, absolutely
correct speech is not aristocratic. The person having such an accent can be taken
for an actor, a foreigner, but not for a native of aristocracy.

8. Cultural peculiarities of non-verbal communication. Kinesics. Objective

communication.

Non-verbal communication (NVC) is usually understood as the process of

sending and receiving wordless messages. NVC repeats the verbal message,
accents it, complements or contradicts it, and is a substitute for the verbal message.
Such messages can be communicated through gestures; body language or
postures; facial expressions and eye contacts; object communication such as
clothing, hairstyles, tattoos; symbols; paralinguistic features of speech such as
voice quality, emotion and speaking style.
NVC can occur through any sensory channel — sight, sound, smell, touch or
taste. Just as verbal language differs from culture to culture, so the non-verbal
language may also differ. The average person actually speaks words for a total of
about ten or eleven minutes a day and that the average sentence takes only about
26
2.5 seconds. The verbal component of a face-to-face conversation is less than 35
per cent and over 65 per cent of communication is done non-verbally.
The palette of NVC is diverse. It may be divided into: kinesics–study of
communication through body movement and facial expression, proxemics–study of
the way that people use physical space to convey messages, haptics–the study of
touching as non-verbal communication, oculesics–communication through eye
contact or gaze, object communication–display of signals through, say, clothing,
chromatics–the use of color to communicate messages, olfactics –use of smells as
a means of non-verbal communication.
Kinesics may be a major factor, especially when no other types of information
are available in an intercultural communication act. Whereas one gesture may be
common in a particular culture and have a clear interpretation, it may be
meaningless in another culture or even have a completely opposite meaning. Take,
for example, the cultural interpretations of common hand gestures: the ring gesture
and the thumb-up one. The “OK”gesture is common to all English-speaking
countries and, although its meaning is fast spreading across Europe and Asia, it has
other origins and meanings in certain places. For example, in France it also means
“zero”or “nothing;” in Japan it can mean “money;” in some Mediterranean
countries it is a very rude signal. Passing an item to someone with one hand is very
rude in Japan. Even a very small item such as a pencil must be passed with two
hands. In many Middle East and Far East countries it is rude to pass something
with your left hand which is considered “unclean.”
The most common form of object communication is clothing. The types of
clothing that people wear are often used to determine their personality traits. Social
groups often use a common form of clothing to set themselves apart from other. A
good example of clothing as object communication is the uniform. Object
communication extends beyond clothing to other body adornments, such as
wedding rings or bindis to indicate marital status, tattoos, piercing. Also included
in object communication is anything used as a status symbol.
Haptics is the study of touching as non-verbal communication. Touches that
can be defined as communication include: handshakes, holding hands, kissing,
back slap, shoulder pat, etc. Each of these gives off non-verbal messages as to the
touching person’s intentions. They also cause feelings in the receiver, whether
positive or negative. It’s okay to pat a child on the head in American culture, but
not in Muslim one. The meaning of touch can vary from culture to culture. Some
cultures are considered “high-touch” (e.g. Mediterranean, Arab, Jew, Eastern
European cultures); whereas, others are considered “low-touch” (e.g. English,
German, Nordic, and many Asian cultures).
Oculesics is the study of communication through eye contact. In American and
British culture, eye contact is crucial to establishing a connection and a sense of
trust between the individuals. But too much of eye contact with an unfamiliar
person may be considered rude. In China and Japan eye contact is considered very

27
rude and disrespectful. In Islam, Muslims must lower their gaze and try not to
focus on the opposite sex’s faces and eyes.
Vocalics is the study of non-verbal cues of the voice. Things such as tone,
pitch, accent, and volume can all give off non-verbal cues. It’s possible to learn
about an individual’s personality, mood, and culture with the information given by
their voice.
A fascinating area in the non-verbal world of body language is that of spatial
relationships, or proxemics, the study of man’s appreciation and use of space. As a
species, man is highly territorial but we are rarely aware of it unless our space is
somehow violated. Spatial relationships and territorial boundaries directly
influence our daily encounters.
Symbolism and other forms of passive NVC are equally a major influence
factor for communication problems between different cultures. The meanings of
colors, for example, can be highly different in various cultures. In Europe, people
wear black for funerals while in India, Japan, Asia the symbol of mourning is
white. Numerical symbolism can equally vary. An example of this is the number
13, in Christian cultures often associated with bad luck, while in Jewish societies,
13 is a lucky number. Four is unlucky in Japan as it is pronounced similar to the
word “death.” Politically and religiously connected symbols can equally cause
confusion, or even anger. A cross, for example, worn in Arab society might be
interpreted as a direct attack on Islam, swastika - a Hindu symbol has a negative
meaning in European cultures. Recognizing differences in non-verbal
communication across cultures is needed to respect and prevent conflict between
the representatives of different cultures. NVC is one of the most fascinating parts
of cross-cultural communication which enables an observant person with magical
abilities to read the thoughts of his or her interlocutor.
Kinesics
Kinesics is a study of communication through body movement and facial
expression. When people are happy they smile; when they are sad or angry they
frown or scowl. Nodding the head is almost universally used to indicate “yes” or
affirmation. It appears to be a form of head lowering and is probably an inborn
gesture. Shaking the head from side to side to indicate “no” or negation is also
universal and may well be a gesture that is learned in infancy.
Posture is just as important as your grandmother always said it was. Sit or
stand erect if you want to be seen as alert and enthusiastic. When you slump in
your chair or lean on the wall, you look tired. No one wants to do business with
someone who has no energy.
The position of your head speaks to people. Keeping your head straight, which
is not the same as keeping your head on straight, will make you appear self-assured
and authoritative. People will take you seriously. Tilt your head to one side if you
want to come across as friendly and open.
How receptive you are is suggested by where you place your arms. Arms
crossed or folded over your chest say that you have shut other people out and have
28
no interest in them or what they are saying. This position can also say, “I don’t
agree with you.” You might just be cold, but unless you shiver at the same time,
the person in front of you may get the wrong message.
Legs talk, too. A lot of movement indicates nervousness. How and where you
cross them tells others how you feel. The preferred positions for the polished
professional are feet flat on the floor or legs crossed at the ankles. The least
professional and most offensive position is resting one leg or ankle on top of your
other knee. Some people call this the “Figure Four.” It can make you look
arrogant.
The angle of your body gives an indication to others about what’s going
through your head. Leaning in says, “Tell me more.” Leaning away signals
you’ve heard enough. Adding a nod of your head is another way to affirm that you
are listening.
A person’s bodily stance communicates a rich variety of messages.
 In many cultures throughout the world, it is impolite to show the bottom of
the shoe, which is often dirty. Therefore, one should not sit with the foot resting on
the opposite knee. (Offensive in Thailand, Saudi Arabia).
 In Argentina, standing with the hands on the hips suggests anger, or a
challenge.
 In many cultures, slouching or poor posture is considered to be disrespectful.
For example, good posture is important in Taiwan, with Taiwanese men usually
sitting with both feet firmly fixed to the floor.
 Bowing (not done in US; shows rank in Japan).
 Slouching (rude in most Northern European areas).
 Hands in pocket (disrespectful in Germany, Turkey).
 Sitting with legs crossed (offensive in Ghana, Turkey).
Locomotion: The style of physical movement in space also communicates a
great deal, as well as affecting the feelings of the person doing the moving:
slither crawl totter walk
stroll shuffle hurry run
jog spring tiptoe march
jump hop skip climb
swing acrobatics swim slink
Facial Expression: Face is more highly developed as an organ of expression in
humans than in any other animal. Some of these become quite habitual, almost
fixed into the chronic muscular structure of the face. This creates a characteristic
appearance:
pensive amused sad barely tolerant
warning pouting anxious sexually attracted
startled confused sleepy intoxicated
More transient expressions often reveal feelings that a person is not
intending to communicate. A smile sends a positive message and is appropriate in
all but a life-and-death situation. Smiling adds warmth and an aura of
29
confidence. Others will be more receptive if you remember to control your
expression. Your mouth gives clues, too, and not just when you are speaking.
Mouth movements, such as pursing your lips or twisting them to one side, can
indicate that you are thinking about what you are hearing or that you are holding
something back.
 Although smiling is an expression of happiness in most cultures, it can also
signify other emotions. Some Chinese, for example, may smile when they are
discussing something sad or uncomfortable.
 Winking has very different connotations in different cultures. In some Latin
American cultures, winking is a romantic or sexual invitation. In Nigeria, Yorubas
may wink at their children if they want them to leave the room. Many Chinese
consider winking to be rude.
 In Hong Kong, it is important not to blink one’s eyes conspicuously, as this
may be seen as a sign of disrespect and boredom.
 Some Filipinos will point to an object by shifting their eyes toward it or
pursing their lips and point with their mouth, rather than using their hands.
 Some Venezuelans may use their lips to point at something, because
pointing with a finger is impolite.
 Expressions of pain or discomfort such as crying are also specific to various
cultures; some cultures may value a stoic affect while others may encourage a
more emotive state. Expressions of pain or discomfort are also learned from one’s
family illness experiences, expressions, and idioms of distress.

INSIGHT..! Facial expressions are facial gestures that convey emotions and
attitudes.

Physiological responses: This, too, is an exceptional category, because it

cannot be practiced voluntarily. Still, it’s useful to become more aware of these
subtle signs of emotion. It often helps to comment on these observations, as it
implicitly gives permission to the person experiencing the emotion to more fully
open to that feeling; or, sometimes, to more actively suppress it. Some of the clues
to physiological processes include:
shaking flaring of nostrils trembling chin
sweating blanching cold clammy skin
blushing moisture in eyes flushing
blinking swallowing breathing heavily
While a few of these behaviors can be mimicked, for the most part these
reactions happen involuntarily. The only exercise is to watch for these reactions in
oneself or others, at least mentally note their occurrence, and consider what the
meaning of that emotional reaction might be.
Gestures
There are many kinds of universal gestures:
clenching fists shaking a finger pointing
30
 biting fingernails tugging at hair squirming
rubbing chin smoothing hair folding arms
raising eyebrows pursing lips narrowing eyes
scratching head looking away hands on hips
hands behind head rubbing nose rocking
sticking out tongue tugging earlobe waving
Gestures are simply arm and hand movements that communicate non-verbally.
There are at least four different kinds of gestures: emblems, illustrators, regulators,
and adaptors. Emblems are those gestures that have a specific verbal translation.
For example, you wave your hand as someone is leaving, it means good-by.
Illustrators are all those gestures that go along with our speech. For example, when
emphasizing a point by shaking a finger. Much of our conversation is regulated by
non-verbal gestures, called regulators. Thus, when someone tries to interrupt while
we are talking, we may put out our hand, indicating that we aren’t finished
speaking. Greeting and leave-taking are usually indicated by regulating gestures.
Adaptors are related to managing out emotions. For example, we may tap our feet
or fingers when we are nervous, or clench our fists when we are angry.
The ring or “OK” gesture. This gesture was popularized in the USA during
the early nineteenth century, apparently by the newspapers that, at the time, were
starting a craze of using initials to shorten common phrases. There are many
different views about what the initials “OK” stand for, some believing it stood for
“all correct” which may have been misspelled as “oll correct,” while others say
that it means the opposite of “knock-out” that is, K.O. Another popular theory is
that it is an abbreviation of “Old Kinderhook,” from the birthplace of a nineteenth
century American president who used the initials as a campaign slogan. Which
theory is the correct one we may never know, but it seems that the ring itself
represents the letter “O” in the “OK” signal. The “OK” meaning is common to all
English-speaking countries and, although its meaning is fast spreading across
Europe and Asia, it has other origins and meanings in certain places. For example,
in France it also means “zero” or “nothing;” in Japan it can mean “money;” in
some Mediterranean countries it is an orifice signal, often used to infer that a man
is homosexual.
Thumb-up gesture. For overseas travelers, the safest rule to obey is, “When in
Rome, do as the Romans do.” This can help avoid any possible embarrassing
circumstances. In Britain, Australia and New Zealand the thumb-up gesture has
three meanings; it is commonly used by hitch-hikers who are thumbing a lift, it is
an OK signal, and when the thumb is jerked sharply upwards it becomes an insult
signal, meaning “up yours” or “sit on this.” In some countries, such as Greece, its
main meaning is “get stuffed,” so you can imagine the dilemma of an Australian
hitch-hiker using this gesture in that country! When the Italians count from one to
five, they use this gesture to mean “one” and the index finger then becomes “two,”
whereas most Australians, Americans and English people count “one” on the index
finger and two on the middle finger. In this case the thumb will represent the
31
number “five.” The thumb is also used, in combination with other gestures, as a
power and superiority signal or in situations where people try to get us “under their
thumb.”
The V sign. This sign is popular throughout Australia, New Zealand and Great
Britain and carries an “up yours” interpretation. Winston Churchill popularized the
V for victory sign during World War II, but his two-fingered version was done
with the palm facing out, whereas the palm faces towards the speaker for the
obscene insult version. In most parts of Europe, however, the palm facing in
version still means “victory” so that an Englishman who uses it to tell a European
to “get stuffed” could leave the European wondering about what victory the
Englishman meant. This signal also means the number two in many parts of
Europe, and if the insulted European were a bartender, his response could be to
give an Englishman or an Australian two mugs of beer. These examples show that
cultural misinterpretation of gestures can produce embarrassing results and that
a person’s cultural background should always be considered before jumping to
conclusions about his or her body language or gestures. Therefore, unless
otherwise specified, our discussion should be considered culturally specific, that is,
generally pertaining to adult, white middle class people raised in Australia, New
Zealand, Great Britain, North America and other places where English is the
primary language.
One of the most serious mistakes in body language is to interpret a solitary
gesture in isolation of other gestures or other circumstances. For example,
scratching the head can mean a number of things — dandruff, fleas, sweating,
uncertainty, forgetfulness or lying, depending on the other gestures that occur at
the same time, so we must always look at gesture clusters for a correct reading.
Like any other language, body language consists of words, sentences and
punctuation. Each gesture is like a single word and a word may have several
different meanings. It is only when you put the word into a sentence with other
words that you can fully understand its meaning. Gestures come in “sentences” and
invariably tell the truth about a person’s feelings or attitudes. The “perceptive”
person is one who can read the non-verbal sentences and accurately match them
against a person’s verbal sentences. Gestures have many different meanings in
different cultures, and what may be friendly in one country or region can be an
insult in another.
 The “OK” sign is interpreted in Japan as the symbol for money, because the
circular shape of the index finger and thumb together suggest the shape of a coin.
In Argentina, Belgium, France, Portugal, Italy, Greece, and Zimbabwe, the sign
means “zero” or “nothing.” In some Eastern European countries as other countries
throughout the world, the gesture indicates a bodily orifice and is highly offensive.
 The U.S. forces’ superficial understanding of local tribal customs and
ancient ethnic and sectarian rivalries has hampered their efforts in Iraq and
Afghanistan. An outstretched arm, palm facing forward, for example, means “stop”
in most Western cultures, but in Iraq it’s considered a sign of welcome. Confusion
32
over the signal has had deadly consequences, leading U.S. troops to open fire at
Iraqi civilians who didn’t stop at checkpoints.
 In some parts of the U.S., to hold up crossed fingers is to wish good luck,
but to hold crossed fingers behind your back negates whatever pledge or statement
you’re thinking. In Russia, this is a way of rudely rejecting or denying something.
In Argentina and Spain, this sign is made to ward away bad luck. In China, it
signifies the number ten.
 The “thumbs-up” gesture has a vulgar connotation in Iran.
 In Colombia, tapping the underside of the elbow with the fingers of the other
hand suggests that someone is stingy.
 Many Chinese people point with their entire hand; using the forefinger to
point is viewed as rude. Similarly, in India one may use a full hand to point, but
never just a single finger.
 In Latin America, a shrug with the palms facing skyward may be interpreted
as a vulgar gesture.
Objective communication
We say a great deal to each other about who we are and how we experience
each other and the rest of the world through objective communication. It is
essentially passive, and messages emitted in this way are very easily
misinterpreted.
First, our choice of clothes can tell a great deal about who we are, what our
values are, what our status is, how conservative or liberal we are. We associate
differences in occupational status with different uniforms. The banker wears a suit,
the farmer wears overalls, and so on.
A second set of symbols with which we often associate meaning is hair. The
type of hairdo, length and color of hair, and the presence or absence of facial hair
say a great deal about who we are. However, these signals are often highly
ambiguous.
A third symbolic form is jewelry. Married people often wear wedding rings,
some people do not wear a watch, some people wear highly expensive jewelry, and
so on. These are passive messages that are given out continuously to other people.
A flag in the lapel, a red ribbon, an earring in one ear or in the nose say many
things to other people.
A fourth form of symbolic communication to other people is cosmetics, or
makeup. We associate meanings with different ways women apply makeup to their
bodies. Some people send us messages with their tattoos and piercing.
A fifth symbolic mode is the choice of automobiles. The business executive
who drives a sports car is giving out a different set of messages to the world than
his colleague who drives a luxury sedan or an ordinary family car.
A sixth symbolic mode is the choice and location of our houses. Social status is
directly related to the type of dwelling one lives in and its location.
Seventh, the geography of our living spaces is a form of symbolic
communication. If you sit behind your desk in your office interviewing somebody
33
who is on the other side of the desk, you are giving out a fundamentally different
set of messages than if the two of you sit face to face with no intervening furniture.
So we are always giving out a continuous stream of signals about what we
mean to other people through the symbols that we choose to surround ourselves
and invest ourselves with. These symbols are essentially passive. They are,
however, a real part of our communication. When we are talking, when we are not
talking, and when we are sleeping, we emit passive symbolic signals.
9. Cultural peculiarities of non-verbal communication. Haptics. Oculesics.

Haptics
Haptics is the study of touching as non-verbal communication. We use gestures
such as head and hand movements to reveal or conceal feelings. We can use them
to add emphasis, to illustrate points, and to manage turn-taking. You can
encourage others to continue talking by nodding periodically, whereas some
gestures such as scratching your head or face indicate impatience or disinterest.
Different gestures can be observed throughout societies like a social or polite
touch, such as handshake or helping someone on with a coat. People also make
gestures using a friendly touch, for example, putting an arm around a friends’
shoulder when you say “goodbye” and loving or intimate touch, such as kissing or
holding hands.
What kind of touch is appropriate depends on the situation and the relationship
between the people involved. Norms for touching vary from culture to culture.
Touching plays a role in communicating status or dominance. High-status or
confident people engage in more touching than do lower-status people. People tend
to touch each other when a) giving information or advice rather than receiving it;
b) giving an order rather than responding to one; c) requesting a favor rather than
reacting to it; d) attempting to persuade someone rather than being persuaded; e)
engaging in deep rather than casual conversation; f) attending social events such as
parties rather than being at work; g) conveying excitement rather than receiving it
from someone else; h) receiving reactions of concern rather than communicating
them. Misunderstandings can arise over a touch, which can lead to a variety of
undesired results. One can avoid misinterpretations by complementing touches
with other cues that match your intentions. For example, to get someone’s
attention, one could touch him or her on the arm while saying “excuse me.” You
could avoid the misinterpretation of a touch as being aggressive by accompanying
it with a smile and appropriate comments.
Touching is perhaps the most powerful non-verbal communication form. The
skin is the body’s largest organ, and through the skin we take in a variety of
stimuli. We can communicate anger, interest, trust, tenderness, warmth, and a
variety of other emotions very potently through touching. People differ, however,
in their willingness to touch and be touched. Some people give out non-verbal
body signals that say that they do not want to be touched, and there are other
people who describe themselves and are described by others as “touchy feely.”
There are many taboos associated with this form of communication. Persons can
34
learn about their own personalities and self-concepts through exploring their
reactions to touching and being touched. How one person touches another
communicates a great deal of information: Is a grip gentle or firm, and does one
hold the other person on the back of the upper arm, on the shoulder, or in the
middle of the back? Is the gesture a push or a tug? Is the touch closer to a pat, a
rub, or a grabbing? People have different areas of personal intimacy, and this refers
not only to the sexual dimension, but also the dimension of self-control. Many
adolescents are particularly sensitive to any touching that could be interpreted as
patronizing or undue familiarity.
Shaking hands is a relic of the caveman era. Whenever cavemen met, they
would hold their arms in the air to show that no weapons were being held or
concealed. The modem form of this ancient greeting ritual is the interlocking and
shaking of the palms which, in most English-speaking countries, is performed both
on initial greeting and on departure. One of three basic attitudes is transmitted
through the handshake. These are dominance, submission, and equality. These
attitudes are transmitted unconsciously and, with practice, the following
handshaking techniques can have an immediate effect on the outcome of a face-to-
face encounter with another person. Dominance is transmitted by turning your
hand so that your palm faces down in the handshake. The reverse of the dominant
handshake is to offer your hand with your palm facing upwards. This is
particularly effective when you want to give the other person control or allow him
to feel that he is in command of the situation. When two dominant people shake
hands, a symbolic struggle takes place as each person tries to turn the other’s palm
into the submissive position. The result is a vice-like hand shake with both palms
remaining in the vertical position as each person transmits a feeling of respect and
rapport to the other.
 In some cultures, light touching of the arm or a light kiss on the cheek is
very common, even among people who have just met. People from Latin America
and Eastern Europe may be very comfortable with this kind of touching, whereas
people from many Asian cultures may prefer less physical contact with
acquaintances.
 Touching another person’s head is considered offensive by some people
from Asia and the Middle East. It is therefore inappropriate to pat a child on the
head. (Head houses the soul and a touch puts it in jeopardy).
 Some Chinese may be uncomfortable with physical contact early in a
relationship. Although many Chinese will use a handshake to greet a Westerner,
any other contact may be considered inappropriate. This is especially important to
remember when dealing with older people or those in positions of authority.
 Men in Egypt tend to be more touch-oriented; a handshake may be
accompanied by a gentle touching of the recipient’s elbow with the fingers of the
left hand.
 A strong, warm handshake is the traditional greeting between men in Latin
America. However, because most Latin Americans show affection easily, male
35
friends, like female friends, may embrace. Women may lightly brush their cheeks
together.
 Throughout most of the Middle East, it is the custom to reserve the left hand
for bodily hygiene. For this reason, one should never offer the left hand to shake
hands or accept a gift. This is also true of some African cultures.
 A Western woman should not initiate a handshake with a man in India.
Many Indian women will shake hands with a foreign woman, but not a foreign
man.
 To many Indians, it is considered rather offensive to (even accidentally) step
on someone’s foot. Apologies should be made immediately.
 Islamic cultures generally don’t approve of any touching between genders
(even handshakes). But consider such touching (including hand holding, hugs)
between same-sex to be appropriate.
Oculesics
Oculesics is the study of the role of eyes in non-verbal communication. This
includes the study of eye gaze and pupil dilation. The most dominant and reliable
features of the face, the eyes, provide a constant channel of communication. They
can be shifty and evasive; convey hate, fear, and guilt; or express confidence, love,
and support. Studies have found that people use their eyes to indicate their interest.
This can be done through eye contact or lack of it.
Research shows that of the information relayed to a person’s brain, 87 per cent
comes via the eyes, 9 per cent via the ears, and 4 per cent via the other senses. If,
for example, the person is looking at your visual aid as you are speaking, he will
absorb as little as 9 per cent of your message if the message is not directly related
to what he sees. If the message is related to the visual aid, he will absorb only 25 to
30 percent of your message if he is looking at the visual aid.
It is only when you see “eye-to-eye” with another person that a real basis for
communication can be established. While some people can make us feel quite
comfortable when they converse with us, others can make us feel ill-at-ease and
some seem untrustworthy. This has to do primarily with the length of time that
they look at us or hold our gaze as they speak. When a person is being dishonest or
holding back information, his eyes meet ours less than one-third of the time. When
a person’s gaze meets yours for more than two-thirds of the time, it can mean one
of two things; first, he or she finds you very interesting or appealing, in which case
the gaze will be associated with dilated pupils; secondly, he or she is hostile
towards you and may be issuing a non-verbal challenge, in that case the pupils will
become constricted. In other words, to build a good rapport with another person,
your gaze should meet his or her about 60 to 70 per cent of the time. This will also
make them begin to like you. It is not surprising, therefore, that a nervous, timid
person who meets your gaze less than one-third of the time is rarely trusted. In
negotiations, dark tinted glasses should be avoided at all times as they make others
feel that you are staring at them.

36
 In American culture, eye contact is crucial to establishing a connection and a
sense of trust between the individuals involved, and regular, friendly eye contact
actively shows the other person that you are interested in him or her and what he or
she has to say. There is more direct eye contact when people like each other and
cooperate, whereas people make less eye contact when they dislike each other or
disagree. In more reserved, formal cultures, a lack of eye contact can show respect.
Some social critics see the Old World lack of eye contact as reflecting an
overall greater formality in the culture and a generally pessimistic, cynical view of
human nature. In the U.S., too much eye contact with an unfamiliar person may be
considered rude and intrusive. In Islam, Muslims must lower their gaze and try not
to focus on the opposite sex’s faces and eyes after the initial eye contact, other than
their legitimate partners or family members. This is done in order to avoid
potential unwanted conflict. Lustful glances at those of the opposite sex, young or
adult, are also prohibited. This means that eye contact between any man and
woman is allowed only for a second or two. This is a must in most Islamic schools,
with some exceptions depending on the case, like during teaching, testifying, or
looking at a girl for marriage. If allowed, it is only allowed under the general rule:
“No-Desire,” clean eye-contact. Otherwise, it is not allowed, and considered
“adultery of the eyes.”
Like body language and gestures, the length of time that one person gazes at
another is culturally determined. Southern Europeans have a high frequency of
gaze that may be offensive to others and the Japanese gaze at the neck rather than
at the face when conversing. Always be sure to consider cultural circumstances
before jumping to conclusions.
Not only is the length of the gaze significant; just as important is the particular
area of the person’s face and body at which you direct your gaze, as this can also
affect the outcome of negotiations. These signals are transmitted and received non-
verbally and are accurately interpreted by the receiver.
When having discussions on a business level, imagine that there is a triangle on
the other person’s forehead. By keeping your gaze directed at this area, you create
a serious atmosphere and the other person senses that you mean business. Provided
that your gaze does not drop below the level of the other person’s eyes, you are
able to maintain control of the interaction.
 Making direct eye contact is a sign of disrespect in some cultures. In other
cultures, refusing to make direct eye contact is a sign of disrespect. Many Asians
may be reluctant to make eye contact with an authority figure. For example, when
greeting a Chinese, it is best to avoid prolonged eye contact as a sign of respect
and deference.
 Many Middle Easterners have what the Americans and Europeans consider
“languid eyes.” It may appear that the person’s eyes are half closed, but this does
not express disinterest or disrespect.
 In Ghana, young children are taught not to look adults in the eye because to
do so would be considered an act of defiance.
37
  In Latin America, a good eye contact is important in both social and
business situations.

10.Cultural peculiarities of non-verbal communication. Proxemics.

Paralinguistics. Colour symbolism.

Proxemics
A fascinating area in the nonverbal world of body language is that of spatial
relationships, or proxemics, the study of man’s appreciation and use of space. As a
species, man is highly territorial but we are rarely aware of it unless our space is
somehow violated. Spatial relationships and territorial boundaries directly
influence our daily encounters. Maintaining control over such space is a key factor
in personal satisfaction; observing spatial interactions in everyday life is a key to
personal awareness. Personal space is another form of territory. Each person has
around him or her an invisible bubble of space which expands and contracts
depending on a number of things: the relationship with the people nearby, the
person’s emotional state, cultural background, and the activity being performed.
Few people are allowed to penetrate this bit of mobile territory and then only for
short periods of time. Changes in the bubble, brought about by cramped quarters or
crowding, cause people to feel uncomfortable or aggressive.
Behavioral study indicates that individuals perceive a distance that is
appropriate for different types of messages; they also establish a comfortable
distance for personal interaction and non-verbally define this as their personal
space. Research supports the hypothesis that the violation of this personal space
can have serious adverse effects on communication. Thus, if an individual is to be
mutually satisfied in a communication encounter, his or her personal space must be
respected. While the use of each of these spatial relationships can impede or
promote the act of communication, the area that humans control and use most often
is their informal space. Informal space is characterized by a personal zone or
“bubble” that varies for individuals and circumstances. This zone constitutes an
area that humans protect from the intrusion of outsiders. The study of spatial
territory for the purpose of communication uses four categories for informal space:
the intimate distance for embracing or whispering (6–18 inches), the personal
distance for conversations among good friends (1.5–4 feet), the social distance for
conversations among acquaintances (4–12 feet), and the public distance used for
public speaking (12 feet or more). Different nations have different spatial habits. It
is therefore obvious why, when negotiating business, the Asians and Europeans or
Americans look upon each other with some suspicion, the Europeans or
Americans referring to the Asians as “pushy” and “familiar” and the Asians
referring to the Europeans or Americans as “cold,” “stand-offish” and “cool.” The
lack of awareness of the distance variation of the intimate zones in different
cultures can easily lead to misconceptions and inaccurate assumptions.
38
  Compared to most people in the U.S., Latin Americans are accustomed to
standing and sitting close to people who are not well known to them. Even within
the majority of population in the U.S. there are important variations in the size of
the personal space comfort zone.
 People from the Middle East may stand quite close when talking to each
other.
 In some Muslim cultures, a woman may be alarmed if a man, even a male
physician, stands or sits too close to her.
Westerners visiting Russia usually experience a culture shock when they are
jostled on the bus, crammed onto the metro, and leaned into when overlooking
store counters. They watch ordinary exchanges of conversation on the street and in
shops that seem, by Western standards, to be angry shouting matches. People
constantly appear to be trying to cut in front of them in lines. The standard
foreigners’ conclusion is that the Russians are indescribably rude. Most of what
sounds and looks to foreigners like an argument between two Russians is only an
ordinary exchange in an emphatic mode. What foreigners read as anger is in fact
often only the raised volume and close distance of a personal conversation. In
western eyes people are yelling at and shoving them, flirting with them, perhaps
even molesting them by “intimate” touching — all signs of “space-invasion.” For
many foreigners such behavior in their home cultures would be the precursor to
being pick-pocketed, challenged to a fight, or being seduced. A few days of such
“molestation” by dozens of Russian strangers can scramble the nerves of all but
the most seasoned foreign visitor. But then, inevitably, as one begins to meet the
Russians at home, or at a business meeting, where hospitality, formality, and
elaborate courtesy are far more developed than in the West, one finally sees that
the Russians, in fact, have manners bordering on the baroque. The solution to the
mystery? Personal distance.
A problem for visiting Americans is that Russian personal distance lies within
an American’s intimate distance, just as American’s personal distance lies within
northern Europeans’ intimate space. The result is that the Russians seem pushy or
over-amorous to northern Europeans, and the Europeans seem cold and unfriendly
to the Russians. The Americans, existing somewhere in the middle, manage to
equally offend both parties, for opposite reasons. And this affects sexual, as well as
other relationships, between the nationalities as well. To American men, all
Russian women appear to be flirting outrageously. It is that level of unintentional
flattery that makes Russian women so sexy to western men. On the other hand,
many western men, by using their own national norms for greater distance, little
touching, and low eye contact, strike many Russian women as far more
“respectful” and “polite” than Russian men.
But personal distance is not just about proximity. It can be about emotions too.
The Russian “neutral” expression is a blank, unsmiling face, which appears
forbiddingly angry to the Americans. They in turn, often appear to be vulgarly
laughing at strangers when they automatically smile at people on the subway. Eye
39
contact also varies between the cultures. The Russians often seem to be staring
rudely by western standards of eye contact, which allows for little or no eye
contact between strangers.
Paralinguistics
Paralinguistics is also a major player in cross-cultural confusion. Paralanguage
refers to the non-verbal elements of communication used to modify meaning and
convey emotion. Paralanguage may be expressed consciously or unconsciously,
and it includes the pitch, volume, and, in some cases, intonation of speech. The
paralinguistic properties of speech play an important role in human speech
communication. There are no utterances or speech signals that lack paralinguistic
properties, since speech requires the presence of a voice that can be modulated.
Paralinguistics is useful in serving to emphasize key words and statements. They
facilitate an empathy which is beyond mere words and add color and contour to
our relatively flat statements.
For example, the notion that the Americans are talking too loud is often
interpreted in Europe as aggression or can be seen as a sign of uncultivated
behavior. Likewise, the British way of speaking quietly might be understood as
secretive by the Americans.
The speed of talking is equally different in various cultural settings. For
example, Finnish is spoken relatively slowly in comparison to other European
languages. This form of speaking has often resulted in the Finns as being regarded
somewhat “slow” and lax.
Further importance is given to the amount of silence that is perceived as right
during a conversation. A Japanese proverb says “Those who know do not speak –
those who speak do not know”; this must come as a slap in the face of, for
example, the Americans where even a slight silence is seen as embarrassing, and
hence is filled up with speaking, something often perceived as hypomanic.
Similarly, but different in usage, is the avoidance of silence in Arab countries,
where word games are played and thoughts repeated to avoid silence. Cultural
communication patterns not only include rules concerning the use of verbal
expressions but also determine situations in which people use silence to express
their intentions or feelings. Socio-cultural silence may help to understand cultural
communication patterns much better than spoken words. For example, cultures
have developed certain conceptions of authorities. These conceptions often include
the use of silence for different purposes. Students, for example, become quiet as
soon as the teacher enters the room. The public will stop talking when the judge
enters the court. Becoming silent in such situations means a recognition and
acknowledgement of the authoritative position. Cultures also refrain from speech at
certain places. Churches, libraries and cemeteries are just a few examples where
people keep silent for the purpose of maintaining norms and popular belief. Silence
as a major source of rhetorical control takes place mostly in ceremonial public
events, like flag hoisting, praying or testimony. If one breaks the silence in such a
situation, it is seen as strong anti-social behavior.
40
 Emphasis – which is placed on a word to give it more importance within a
sentence; for example, “I told her that the diet was important” has subtly different
inferences depending upon where the emphasis is applied. If “told” is emphasized,
the speaker may be conveying their own feelings of frustration at their ignored
advice, but emphasis placed on “I” points to ownership of the action. Other
languages may employ the use of repetition, extra words or a change in the pace or
pitch of their speaking, to convey their feelings or the relevance of something.
Intonation – which can turn a phrase into a question without the need to
restructure the sentence. This can be very confusing to someone who has been
taught English as a second language in a more formal manner. A second-language
speaker may also have a much greater range of tones, or linguistic tunes, with
which they convey friendliness, respect or interest, and may be confused or
offended by our limited tonal range, which they feel conveys lack of respect or
boredom. Some languages, for example, the Chinese, place great importance on
intonation, which is used to give a single word numerous different meanings.
Speakers of such tonal languages may be perceived as angry or arrogant by British
English speakers.
 vocal characterizers (laugh, cry, yell, moan, whine, belch, yawn). These
send different messages in different cultures (Japan - giggling indicates
embarrassment; India – belch indicates satisfaction).
 vocal qualifiers (volume, pitch, rhythm, tempo, and tone). Loudness
indicates strength in Arab cultures and softness indicates weakness; it indicates
confidence and authority to the Germans; it indicates impoliteness to the Thais; it
indicates loss of control to the Japanese. (Generally, one learns not to “shout” in
Asia for nearly any reason!). Women tend to speak higher and more softly than
men.
 vocal segregates (un-huh, shh, uh, ooh, mmmh, humm, eh, mah, lah).
Segregates indicate formality, acceptance, assent, uncertainty.

11.National character.

The number of people, travelling abroad as guests, tourists or on business is

increasing all the time. The number of people engaged in international business is
growing, and though international exchanges participants try to keep to the same
ethical norms and rules, nevertheless national and cultural differences may be more
vividly seen in interpersonal and business relations.
Usually when the interests of the different participants coincide, the
differences of the national character, manners of behavior and ways of thinking do
not reveal themselves noticeably. However as soon as a discord or conflict appears,
these differences begin to play an important role. That is why it is necessary to be
ready for unforeseen actions, behavior, decisions from your foreign colleagues and
to work out beforehand the optimum tactics and strategy of relationships towards

41
them. That is why it is necessary to know the features of their national character,
specificity of their lifestyle and manners of behavior.
By the term national character is understood the traditional forms of people’s
reactions to the surrounding world, the formed patterns of behavior and activity
gained, learned in process of the interaction with a specific community established
on the basis of the system of values of society in the course of centuries living
together as a nation. What is important that they are adopted both at conscious and
subconscious levels.
There are some powerful factors capable of influencing national character
formation. Amongst them - the type of society in which people live, language,
dominant religion, psycho-physiological nature of the nation, habitat, etc. Traits of
the national character may change in the course of time. The main factor here is
usually the type of the economy.
Religion is in many cases the strongest factor in shaping the national character,
sometimes stronger than the language, the common territory and the lifestyle, the
type of society and other factors. For example, the Tamils in Sri-Lanka (Hindu)
refuse to consider themselves one nation with the Singhalese (Buddhist), living on
the same island. On Cyprus, the Turkish Cypriots (Muslim) would not recognize
the Greek-Cypriots (Orthodox), and vice versa. They have the same lifestyle and
common territory, but different religions and languages, brought to the island long
ago by the conquerors.
The Irish, English and Scots cannot reconcile their differences over the
territory of Ulster. They speak one language - English. What divides them is
religion: the Irish are Roman Catholics, while the English and Scots are, in general,
Protestants.
The influence of dominant religions on the character, lifestyle and thinking is
evident among peoples of Northern Europe - England, Germany, Holland, Scotland
and others, as well as the USA, where the main religion is Protestantism. This
religion advocates the cult of the rationalism, enrichment, and enterprise. The
highest happiness according to this ethics is the economic prosperity of the nation.
There are some specific features of character and behavior, which are common
for the big groups, inhabiting Europe. So, as to the temperament and manner of
behavior, German psychologist X. Gunter has conditionally divided the Europeans
into four subtypes – the Nordic, the Dinarians, the Mediterranians and the Ostians.
Let’s see his vision of the Europeans.
According to Gunter, people of Scandinavia, England, Belgium, Holland,
Northern Germany and Northern France are close to the Nordic type. As to their
temperament, the Nordic people are cold, reserved, laconic, not inclined to
familiarity, and possess will power. They are self-confident, critical thinking, truth
lovers. They are distinguished by sensible minds, love of order and high ideals.
They are stubborn, constant in their attachments, do not like neither to repent nor
to forgive. Above all they appreciate freedom, do not lose courage or resolve in the
face of hardships, possess a strong sense of duty, responsibility and are devoted to
42
family. They do not like showing off and have a creative spirit. They respect
authority, and have skills to supervise other people. They are often the people who
give birth to idealists, fanatics and despots.
People of Serbia, Bosnia, Croatia, Albania, Greece, and Austria belong to the
Dinarians. They are sonorous, inclined to fun and violently display their moods.
They are full of pride, courage, honor and militancy. They respect and like their
own way of a life, customs, and folk art. They are explosive and can be
aggressive. They are very sensitive and at the same time good-natured. They love
the pleasures of life, and love jokes. They do not have enough discipline, clearness
of thought or rational boldness. They are inclined to extremes: either love or hate.
Inhabitants of the Pyrenees (Spaniards, Portuguese), Corsicans, Sardinians,
Italians, people of southern France and the Balkan Peninsula belong to the
Mediterranean subtype. As to their temperament – they are restless, obsessive,
vigorous, changeable in their mood, love life, changes, of an amorous disposition,
good at literature. They are born conspirators and revolutionaries. Their judgments
are usually built on sensuality or intuition. Many of them are artistic and have a
talent for poetry. In a political life, these people lay ways for new ideas. They are
morals renovators, apostles of revolt against the decayed forms of social order,
organizers of spiritual life of the nation in the spheres of ideology, religion, art,
and politics.
The Ostians are representatives of many peoples of Eastern Europe. They have
sharply formed feelings, but lack self-control. They are unable to resist temptations
and love routine. They love high official posts. Bureaucracy is part and parcel of
their life. The Ostians avoid fanaticism. They are realists and politically they are
democrats. As a rule, they join a party of majority. Personal achievement and
family happiness is the prime target of their life.
Stereotyping refers to the attribution of certain traits, labeling and perceptions
of people on the basis of common characteristics, or judgments about others on the
basis of their specific characteristics or group membership. Stereotypes can be
developed on the basis of culture, occupation, age, race, ethnicity, religion, sexual
orientation, etc. People use stereotypes when they meet new people, are faced with
a new situation, or lack depth of knowledge about the group. People develop
stereotypes when they are unable or unwilling to obtain all of the information they
need to make fair judgments about new people or situations. Many stereotypes are
developed through personal experiences, by reading books and magazines, seeing
movies or television, or talking to friends and gossiping.
In many European nations, especially the United Kingdom, the Americans are
stereotyped as brash, ignorant, self-centered, and obese. They are also stereotyped
as wearing baseball hats and comfortable clothes, watching basketball games,
drinking Coca Cola, and eating hamburgers, French fries, and pizzas. Some people
perceive the Americans as the Wild West cowboys.
Germans are stereotyped as aloof, cold, precise, and punctual. People often
think of Germans as perfectionists who follow the rules, drink beer, sing and listen
43
to folk music, and walk around in funny clothes. The Asians are stereotyped as
being ‘‘exotic,” ancient, spiritual, mystical, and full of ancient wisdom. The
Italians are stereotyped as food and fashion lovers, whereas the French are
perceived as good lovers and kissers. The Arabs are portrayed as belly dance
lovers or billionaires.
Many stereotypes are inaccurate and do not acknowledge differences and
exceptions to general rules. The negative attributes are often emphasized, whereas
the positive ones, are ignored. Stereotyping leads to errors in interpretation of
others’ behavior and harmful effects in categorizing and labeling people.
Stereotyping limits the understanding of human behavior. Stereotypes can be a
source of serious misunderstanding.

12.Character of the British.

It’s difficult to give a general idea of what 61 million people are like. It’s even
more difficult when you consider that there are four different countries in the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and also that people from
many other countries have come to live here too.
Many books have been written - even more, perhaps, by the French,
Americans, Germans, and other foreigners than by British people - about the
British traits, way of life, and character. Their authors are by no means always in
agreement, but they tend to point out what seem to them puzzles, contrasts, in the
way the English behave. A few of these contrasts may serve to sum up how the
world looks at the British.
Of course, films, television, books, etc. have probably given you ideas about
what British people are like. The national character of the British has been
differently described, but most commentators agree on such qualities, as fatuous
self-satisfaction, serene sense of superiority, and insular pride. People abroad have
very fixed ideas about the British - they are cold, reserved, aristocratic and
arrogant. Actually this is not always true. Of course, some are shy and reserved
with strangers, but some are shy and reserved with everybody. Others are very
extrovert and talk to anybody. This just proves that you shouldn’t make
generalizations about people!
But still, some generalizations are firmly fixed in our consciousness.
Everybody knows that all Englishmen wear bowler hats, pinstripe suits and carry
umbrellas. The Scots are mean, hate spending money and drink whisky all day
long. The Welsh do nothing but play rugby and sing. And the Irish? Well, they
only exist so that other British people can play jokes on them.
National character is found in all nations. Englishmen perhaps have something
like a penchant for survivability in their nature. The first and most obvious feature
of this nation is stability and constancy of character of its individuals. They are less
subjected to influence of times than others.

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 If the authors writing about England and Englishmen, repeat each other in
many aspects it speaks, first of all, of invariability of English character base. It is
important to emphasize, however, that with all that stability English character
consists of rather inconsistent, even paradoxical features, some of which are rather
obvious, others - hardly perceptible, so each generalization concerning
Englishmen can be easily challenged.
Intellectual curiosity of the English has allowed them to get acquainted with the
best of what other people have and nevertheless to remain loyal to their traditions.
Showing their conformism, Englishmen, at the same time, are confirmed
individualists.
It does not mean that the English have not changed. The process of changes
never stops, but in the view of an outsider these changes do not touch the nature of
the nation. Good or bad, the native features of English nature will still remain a
certain common denominator, influence strongly the national character and way
of life.
When we speak about “a stiff upper lip” of an Englishman, we understand this
to be his or her ability to be self-controlled and a skill to react adequately in
different situations. But neither of these features were in their nature up to the
beginning of the XIX century. Coolness and self-control, restraint and manners
were not at all features of English character in the days of “Merry old England”
when both the upper class and the masses distinguished themselves by quick-
temper, there were no moral taboo, when the favorite shows were public
executions and whippings, and even English humor was based on cruelty.
The principles of “gentlemanly behavior” were established during Queen
Victoria’s time. They have prevailed over tough temper of “an old England.“ Now
an Englishman struggles with the nature of his temperament trying to break from
inside. Such total self-control takes much spiritual strength. That may partly
explain why Englishmen are sluggish, do not cut corners and like privacy. Quite
often it is enough to watch Englishmen at a national festival or a football match to
feel the national temperament trying to tear the bridle of self-control. Modern
Englishmen consider self-control as the main advantage of human character.
Words: “Be able to keep yourself under control”– is the motto of this nation. In
good times and in bad times, at success and failure the person should remain calm
at least externally, and even better - internally. Since childhood an Englishman is
taught to bear cold and hunger, to suffer pain and fear, to bridle affection and
antipathy.
British people do not like to complain. They will “swallow” bad service or bad
food at a restaurant, because they don’t want to make a scene. They might
therefore become very nervous if you try to voice your dissatisfaction. Criticism
should also preferably be voiced in an indirect way. Otherwise it will only make
your British counterpart very hostile and defensive and your criticism is unlikely to
have any effect. Considering open, relaxed display of feelings as bad manners,
Englishmen sometimes misinterpret behavior of foreigners, and foreigners quite
45
often misinterpret the English, accepting a mask of coolness for a person’s real
nature, not understanding, why it is necessary to hide the natural state of mind
under such a mask.
British people are distinguished by moderation both at work, and during
pleasure time. An Englishman lives first of all and most of all for himself.
Decency, love of comfort and intellectual activity characterize his nature.
There is no other country in Europe where the custom would be elevated to
such an inviolable law. If the custom exists, however strange, ridiculous or
original, not a single well brought up Englishman will dare to break it. Though
Englishmen are politically free, they strictly obey public discipline and customs.
The English are tolerant to other people’s opinion. But they do not like when
people are “showing off.” In general, many people in Britain are suspicious of
education and “high culture.” Nobody normally proclaims their academic
qualifications or title to the world at large. Among the upper class, too much of
intelligence and academism in a person is still viewed with suspicion.
They like to mix with other people, but nobody can seclude from the
surrounding people better than them. They are capable to be lost in thought among
a huge crowd, do what they want without restricting neither themselves nor others.
Nobody is able to allocate so strictly time and money as the English. They
work very much, but always find time to have a rest. During work hours they work
hard using their intellectual and physical abilities, but at leisure they enjoy their
pleasures.
Each Englishman, wherever he lives, has a sense of his nationality. A
Frenchman cannot always be distinguished from an Italian or a Spaniard, but it is
difficult not to recognize an Englishman. Wherever he lives he brings his customs,
the manner of living. He is at home everywhere. It is an original, distinctive and
very integral character.
Englishmen are rather vain. They are assured that everything goes better in
their homeland, than in other countries. Therefore they look down on foreigners.
May be this feature has developed due to insularity, restraint and exaggerated
understanding of English superiority over others.
Englishmen travel much and always try to learn more, but do not make friends
easily with the people of the countries which they visit. To make friends abroad is
not allowed by their etiquette, pride, lack of understanding and arrogance towards
the other peoples’ customs and traditions.
Nothing falls into decay in their country - the new things live side by side with
the old ones.
Englishmen have an innate ability to look for adventures. Phlegmatic by their
nature, they are capable of being carried away by everything great, new and
original. If an Englishman lacks an opportunity to struggle heavily against
everyday problems he falls into melancholy. Then because of boredom he begins
to look for entertainment in the strangest adventures.

46
 Englishmen’s ideal is independence, intelligence, self-respect, honesty and
unselfishness, tactfulness, good manners, ability to lead and to obey, persistence in
trying to solve the problem.
Some generalisations are probably true. The British don’t like answering
questions about the details of their lives. You must never ask them how much
money they earn, or how old they are. Only officials can ask questions like that;
that is perhaps why the British don’t really like officials.
One more thing British people share is love of politeness. It’s important to be
polite in Britain, even to people you don’t know. You can hear such words or
phrases as “Please”, “Thank you”, “Sorry”, “Excuse me” very often. They will also
expect you to be polite in the way that is normal to them. Actually, their politeness
isn’t always real. The British don’t like people who shout loudly in the street or
push their way through crowds with their elbows. Their habit of queuing is
amazing. At bus stops and cinemas, in shops, banks and in lots of other places
you’ll have to join the queue and wait patiently for your turn to be served. Queuing
is as British as fish and chips.
Humor is the cornerstone of the British society. It is used in numerous ways:
to establish a positive atmosphere, to create a sense of togetherness, to bridge
differences, to introduce risky ideas, to criticize, to show appreciation or contempt
of a person. The English are famous for their humour, which is kind and tolerant.
It’s tolerant in that the victim of people’s jokes, usually shares in the humour too.
People seem to be able to laugh at themselves, their mistakes and their weaknesses.
It’s kind because it softens the harsh realities of life, such as frustrated ambitions,
boredom, the sheer grind of working for a living, and the affect of the bureaucratic
blunders on our lives. So, if one day English people seem to be laughing at you,
and if you are not an arrogant, pompous or hateful person, then don’t become
offended, because they are laughing with you too, and in the laughter there is
kindness, tolerance and generosity. However people don’t laugh with the pompous,
the arrogant, and the hateful - only at them. And this is an expression of contempt
for such people and what they represent. Many people find the upper class
snobbish, and they see a big difference between the upper class and the working
class. Humor is often combined with understatement. Depending on the tone “Not
bad” can actually mean “very good” and “not bad at all” might be the highest
praise you ever get from a Brit.
There is a contrast between the unity the English display in a crisis, their strong
sense for public order, aspiration to conformity, and their extraordinary toleration
of individual eccentricities. Germans are usually astounded by what they regard as
the Englishman’s lack of respect for authority and discipline. Frenchmen are often
puzzled by the vehemence of English political debates, which in their own country
would have the appearance of a grave political disturbance. This sort of contrast
has led to the common belief held by foreigners that the Brits are a most illogical
people.

47
 There is a contrast between English democracy, the English sense of the dignity
and importance of the individual. There has recently been some tendency to allow
greater social equality. But Victorian and Edwardian England - which foreigners
still think of as the typical England - did display extremes of riches and poverty,
and draw an almost caste line between ladies and gentlemen and those not ladies or
gentlemen.
There is the contrast between the reputation of the English as hard-headed
practical men - the “nation of shopkeepers” - and as men of poetry - the
countrymen of Shakespeare and Shelley. The English tradition in Philosophy has
always been realistic and hostile to mysticism; yet the English look down on the
French as narrow rationalists. The apparent coldness of Englishmen and their being
reserved has been almost universally noted by foreigners; but foreigners also
confess that they find English reservedness not unpleasant, and that when one gets
to know an Englishman he turns out to be a very companionable fellow.

13.American national character.

It is as difficult to define American character as, say, Russian, Italian, or

Chinese. But there is always a set of features and patterns of behavior which is
typical of a particular nation. The Americans have such traits as independence,
vigor, enterprise, and industry.
When immigrants first arrived in America, they brought their European beliefs
and values to the “New World.” They landed in a place where there appeared to be
unlimited natural resources and vast opportunities to excel. In Europe, if you were
born poor you died poor. The combination of European beliefs and values and the
abundant supply of resources and opportunities created a new set of cultural values
that we call “American.”
These new beliefs and values of individual achievement and class mobility
were rewarded and reinforced. The Americans then began to identify themselves
in terms of what they do. If you encounter an American at a party, he or she will
often greet you with, “Hello, my name is Gary Weaver. I’m a professor at
American University. What do you do?” People from many other cultures,
however, identify themselves in terms of who they are. A West African might greet
you by saying, “Hello. I’m Pap Seka the son of Tamsier Seka from up river in
Basse.” The primary source of his identity is who he is—his father and his
birthplace. His status is based upon family and heritage, not what he does as an
individual or what he may do in the future.
American concept of independence is based on a conviction that every person
will do his or her best to care about his or her interests. The roots of this belief go
back into protestant religion, which teaches that each human being is personally
responsible for his or her actions in the face of God and that God likes industrious
and competent people. That is why the American system of education accentuates
an individual development of each person. That explains the spirit of competition
48
even between friends, aspiration of young people to start an independent life as
soon as possible.
In their book, An Introduction to Intercultural Communication, Condon and
Yousef make a distinction between individualism, prevalent in the United States,
and individuality, which is different and prevalent in many other parts of the world.
What makes individualism in the United States is not so much the peculiar
characteristics of each person but the sense each person has of having a separate
but equal place in society. This fusion of individualism and equality is so valued
and so basic that many Americans find it most difficult to relate to contrasting
values in other cultures where interdependence, complementary relationships, and
valued differences in age and sex greatly determine a person’s sense of self.
Individuality is different and appears to be much more the norm. Individuality
refers to the person’s freedom to act differently within the limits set by the social
structure. Compared to the United States, many other cultures appear to be much
more tolerant of “eccentrics” and “local characters.” This confusion of one kind of
individualism with individuality at first appears paradoxical: we might suppose
that a society which promises that apparently great personal freedoms would
produce the greatest number of obviously unique, even peculiar people, and yet for
more than a century visitors to the United States have been struck by a kind of
“sameness” or standardization. As one writer interpreted it, U.S. freedom allows
everybody to be like everybody else. While the individual (glorified as “the rugged
individualist”) is praised, historically individuals in the United States have made
their achievements in loose groupings. What is different here is that the
independent U.S. self must never feel bound to a particular group; he must always
be free to change his alliances or, if necessary, to move on. Cultures better
characterized by values of individuality are likely to lack this kind of independence
from the group, as well as individual mobility. Thus it may be that such cultures
allow for greater diversity in personal behavior in order to give balance to the
individual vis-а-vis the group, whereas the United States, characterized by loose
groupings and high mobility, does not.
The Americans consider hard work as a way to personal success and
prosperity. At a very early age they try to form confidence that every human being
thanks to his or her diligence, talent and hard work can reach a lot in this life. That
is why parents stimulate the desire of their children to earn money and praise such
traits as exactness, punctuality and professionalism.
The idea of equality is very important for each American. It is supposed that
all people have equal opportunities to reach success. It predetermines the relations
among the people: there is no accent on difference in class status, age, and official
position.
The Americans are very patriotic, they respect their coat of arms, flag, and
anthem. A school day begins with the national anthem and a salute to the national
flag. At the same time they do not allow their government to live off them,
limiting their obligations by the tax payment.
49
 The Americans are very proud of the solidity of the country. Each state has its
own laws, but the people of this or that state are proud to be citizens of one Great
State.
Permanent affluence and home high-tech influence the way of life and
psychology: Americans are benevolent. They are veracious, to tell lies is unusual
because it destroys reputation. Students are not used to cribs during exams at
Universities – that is a disgrace.
The Americans like neither to linger nor to look too far in the future. They do
not like the projects which do not bring the results within 2-3 years. They have a
belief that any problem can be solved if you have know-how.
An average American is suspicious towards unlucky people – if you have not
reached financial success in your profession – you are not a professional.
An American is full of joie de vivre or at least smiling, especially at work. The
boss by his or her optimism shows everybody that everything goes OK. To be
sullen in the office is the same as being badly dressed. The Americans are cheerful
and talkative people, and will go and on with an explanation when it is already
vivid and clear. Their jokes, as a rule, are rather plain. They are very rational and
rationalistic. Different cultures have their own “smiling codes.” In American
culture, positive feelings are very important. This culture fosters and encourages
cheerfulness. It could be seen first and foremost in the American most common
mottos: “Cheer up, things could be worse,” “Smile, look on the bright side!” This
cheerfulness is instilled in a person from birth. American parents usually say to
their toddlers: “Smile! Look cheerful when you go out in public!” So these
children grow up into “automatic smilers.” In American culture, it’s not only
cheerfulness that is cultivated in people, there’s also constant pursuit of happiness.
Even The Declaration of Independence proclaims that the pursuit of happiness is
an inalienable right. The Americans say that failing to be happy implies that one is
shirking one’s responsibility and failing to realize the American cultural mandate.
No wonder that the percentage of Americans who report that they are happy is 80
percent. And it’s easy to guess that the American smile is a prototypical expression
of happiness and also conveys friendliness. There is a strong preference to preserve
the appearance of cordiality and friendliness, even when strong differences of
opinion are present. Nice words and polite smiles are expected as something
natural during everyday social interaction.
What strikes most in American society – is its insularity: they are not very
interested in the outer world. They do not know much about the life in other
countries and have their national idols – great baseball and basketball players,
American writers, movie stars, celebrities. Less than 20% of the American public
possess a passport.

US-American values
So what are “US-American values”? How many are there? Do all US-
Americans really share them? Answers to such questions always depend upon who
50
is observing and reporting. For example, a few of the most common conceptions
held by people from other countries about US-Americans include:
 ignorance of geography, world affairs, and other cultures
 generosity and charity
 wealth and materialism
 informality
 loud, uncultured behavior and attitudes
 living to work, not working to live
 self-assurance and independence
 stress upon practical, problem-solving solutions
 arrogance and self-righteousness
 showing little respect for authority
 friendliness, they “want to be liked”
 relatively blunt and direct communication style
Obviously, US-Americans would see some of these characteristics as positive
and worth emulating. Others are obviously negative and critical of US-Americans.
While it is normal to reject criticism, to succeed abroad it is important to resist
reacting negatively when people suggest that your values are not seen or
appreciated in the same way you do. Trying to see things from another cultural
perspective is always useful because the same behavior can often be interpreted
completely differently. This is one of the first “rules” for going to a new culture.
For example, when a US-American is showing enthusiasm, high spirits, and
normal excitement, local people may interpret that behavior as boorish,
undisciplined, rude, and insensitive. The “normal” US-American tendency to be
friendly towards strangers, smiling at them and making eye contact when walking
down the street, is considered quite strange in many parts of Europe and Asia. The
US-American, insisting that a relatively new acquaintance should use first names,
can be particularly disconcerting to adults in those societies that value hierarchy
and to whom maintaining status distinctions is important.
It doesn’t mean that absolutely every individual in the United States believes in
every value that exists in the culture, nor does it mean that US-Americans always
act according to these principles.
All cultures set goals and propose ways of living that they think best. The
difference between what people agree upon as worthy ideals and actual behavior
has long been recognized as the tension between “ideal” versus “real” statements.
The gap between the ideal of racial equality and the reality of US-American
educational and housing patterns is but one example of the kind of inconsistencies
that can exist in a society.

14.Identity. Ethnic identity: the native British. Ethnic identity: the non-
native British.

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 A sense of national identity, knowledge of who you are and where you come
from, seems to be essential for the health of any society. Just as adopted children,
however happy with their adoptive parents, long to know about their roots, people
who have no pride in their collective past will not be able to deal with the present
or the future. Both ethnic and national identities shape many patterns of cultural
behavior, and since behavior is communication, cross-cultural communication is
interested in studying these aspects.
National identity can be defined as a patriotic attachment to ethnic, national or
multinational group, united by common territory, history, ancestry, beliefs, culture,
political and legal system and sometimes language. There are the following types
of identity: ethnic identity, geographical identity, religious identity, political
identity, social and cultural identity.
Identity is displayed through: language (accents, dialects), non-verbal
communication, national character (behavior), national philosophy (world view),
customs and traditions, national symbols (flag, coat-of-arms, anthem, national
flower or animal, color), national dress or uniform, national food, etc.
Ethnic and national identities present a multidimensional construct based on:
historic territory, homeland; shared myths and common historic memories; shared
popular culture, same rights and duties; single economic territory with mobility of
labour and exchange of goods. There are some functions of national identity: it
locates the community in space and time, supports state power and institutions,
reinforces economic control over a given territory, provides framework for
socialization of people as citizens, establishes a social bond between individuals
(by providing shared values and symbols) and provides a social framework for
individual identification.
People also define their identity in terms of their occupation, education,
material possessions, wealth, social classes, kinship, place of residence, ideology,
ancestry, language, history, values, customs, institutions they work for, and even
politics. However, the most important distinction among people is not political,
economic, social, or ideological, but cultural. Cultural identity is dramatically
increasing in importance compared to other dimensions of identity. People identify
themselves with cultural groups such as tribes, ethnic groups, religious
communities, nations, and, at the broadest level, even civilizations. They like to
use symbols of their cultural identities, including traditional clothing, music, food,
flags, crosses, head coverings, and colors. Cultural identity is what is most
meaningful to most people. It is the major factor that gives people the sense of self
and belonging, provides meanings and directions, helps to reaffirm values, defines
beliefs and views, and develops attitudes towards world politics, the economy, and
the environment. Cultural identity gives strength to those who are lost through
globalization, industrialization, urbanization, and rapid economic and
technological developments. The question ‘‘Who are we?’’ is important not only to
individuals and societies but to all nations. Most nations identify themselves not by

52
economic wealth or military power but by their cultural values. Thus, today more
and more nations are seeking their cultural identities.
Globalization does not lead to the ironing-out of national characteristics: it
leads to a stronger desire than ever to huddle together for safety. If that instinct is
denied or repressed, it will reappear - not as a healthy pride in one’s national and
cultural identity - but as something poisonous, xenophobic, whining and
aggressive.
In the last decades of the twentieth century, there was a decline in the
proportion of people in Great Britain who thought of themselves as primarily or
exclusively British and a growing proportion of people who thought of themselves
as the Scotts, Welsh or English (or none of these) rather than the British. A sense
of British identity nevertheless remains widespread and in all three territories the
majority of British residents continue to have dual identities, as both the British
and Scotts, British and Welsh or British and English. (Population of Northern
Ireland is a mixture of English, Scots and Irish.) The main driver of a feeling of
attachment or belonging to Britain is age, with younger people being less strongly
attached to Britain and more to Scotland, Wales and England. It is likely that much
of the decline in pride and attachment is generational in character, with younger
generations who feel a lower sense of attachment gradually replacing older
generations. Even allowing for age differences we find no evidence that Muslims
or people of Pakistani heritage were in general less attached to Britain than were
other religions or ethnic groups. Ethnic minorities show clear evidence of “dual”
rather than “exclusive” identities. However, people born overseas in a non-
Commonwealth country and people who have arrived in Britain only recently tend
to have a weaker sense of belonging to Britain.
How do British people identify themselves? Who do they feel they are?
Everybody has an image of themselves, but the things that make up this image can
vary. For example, in some parts of the world, it is very important that you are a
member of a particular family; in other parts of the world, it might be more
important that you come from a particular place; in others - that you belong to a
certain social class.
INSIGHT..! Identity is the concept of who we are. Characteristics of identity
may be understood differently depending on the perspectives that people take (for
example, social psychological, communication, or critical perspectives.)

Ethnic identity: the native British

Historically, British identity is a relatively recent construct and was gradually
superimposed on earlier national identities of English, Welsh, Scotts and Irish.
National (“ethnic”) loyalties can be strong among the people in Britain whose
ancestors were not English. For some people living in England who call
themselves Scotts, Welsh or Irish, this loyalty is little more than a matter of
emotional attachment. National identities in the British Isles have been a neglected
subject of study for a long time, though interest has been growing recently. Much
53
of the problem has to do with the peculiar, and dominating, position of England
historically within the United Kingdom. This has led to a relative indifference to
questions of national identity on the part of English, and, by a defensive reaction,
a corresponding increase, over time, with such questions on the part of the Scots,
Welsh and Irish. The English developed a largely “non-national” conception of
themselves, preoccupied as they were with the management of the United
Kingdom and the British Empire. The English have tended to use the terms English
and British synonymously. They were the boss nation, the dominant culture, and
the Celtic fringes were merely colorful add-ons to the prevailing English way of
life. Things, however, have changed. The English have woken up to the fact that
the Scots and the Welsh increasingly call themselves “nations,” not regions.
People in Scotland have constant reminders of their distinctiveness. First,
several important aspects of public life are organized separately, and differently,
from the rest of Britain - notably, education, law and religion. Second, the Scottish
way of speaking English is very distinctive. A modern form of the dialect known
as Scots is spoken in everyday life by most of the working classes in the lowlands.
It has many features which are different from other forms of English and cannot
usually be understood by people who are not Scots. Third, there are many symbols
of Scottishness which are well-known throughout Britain. However, the feeling of
being a Scott is not that simple. This is partly because of the historical cultural
split between highland and lowland Scotland. A genuinely Scottish Gaelic sense of
cultural identity is, in modern times, felt only by a few tens of thousands of people
in some of the western isles of Scotland and the adjoining mainland.
The people of Wales do not have as many reminders of their Welshness in
everyday life. The organisation of public life is identical to that in England. Nor
are there as many well-known symbols of Welshness. In addition, a large minority
of the people in Wales probably do not consider themselves to be especially Welsh
at all. In the nineteenth century, large numbers of Scottish, Irish and English
people went to find work there, and today many English people still make their
homes in Wales or have holiday houses there. As a result, a feeling of loyalty to
Wales is often similar in nature to the fairly weak loyalties to particular
geographical areas found throughout England it is regional rather than
nationalistic.
However, there is one single highly important symbol of Welsh identity — the
Welsh language. Everybody in Wales can speak English, but it is not everybody’s
first language. For about 20% of the population (that’s more than half a million
people), the mother tongue is Welsh. For these people Welsh identity obviously
means more than just living in the region known as Wales. Moreover, in
comparison to the other small minority languages of Europe, Welsh shows signs of
continued vitality. Thanks to successive campaigns, the language receives a lot of
public support. All children in Wales learn it at school, there are many local
newspapers in Welsh, there is a Welsh television channel and nearly all public
notices and signs are written in both Welsh and English.
54
 The question of identity in Northern Ireland is a much more complex issue. In
this part of the UK, the pattern of identity and loyalty outlined above does not
apply. Here, ethnicity, family, politics and religion are all inter-related and social
class has a comparatively minor role in establishing identity. Northern Ireland is a
polarised society where most people are born into, and stay in, one or the other of
the two communities for the whole of their lives.
On one side of the divide are people whose ancestors came from lowland
Scotland or England. They are predominantly Protestant and want Northern Ireland
to remain in the UK. On the other side are people whose ancestors were native
Irish. They are predominantly Catholic and would like Northern Ireland to become
part of the Irish Republic.
Although the two communities live side-by-side, their lives are almost entirely
segregated. They live in different housing estates, listen to different radio and
television programs, register with different doctors, have prescriptions made up by
chemists of their own denominations, march to commemorate different
anniversaries and read different newspapers. Their children go to different schools,
so that those who go on to university often find themselves mixing with people
from the ‘other’ community for the first time in their lives. For the majority who
do not go to university, merely talking to somebody from the other community is a
rare event.
In this atmosphere, marrying a member of the other community is traditionally
regarded with horror, and has sometimes even resulted in the deaths of the Romeos
and Juliets concerned (as punishment for the “betrayal” of their people). The
extremes of these hard-line attitudes are gradually softening. It should also be
noted that they apply to a much lesser extent among the middle-classes. It is
illustrative of this that while in football, a mainly working-class sport, Northern
Ireland and the Republic have separate teams, in rugby, a more middle-class sport,
there is only one team for the whole of Ireland, in which Protestants from the north
play alongside Catholics from the south with no sign of disharmony whatsoever.
Ethnic identity: the non-native British
The long centuries of contact between the peoples of the four nations of the
British Isles means that there is a limit to their significant differences. With minor
variations, they look the same, speak the same language, eat the same food, have
the same religious heritage (Christianity) and have the same attitudes to the roles
of men and women.
The situation for the several million people in Britain whose family roots lie in
the Caribbean or in South Asia or elsewhere in the world is different. For them,
ethnic identity is more than a question of deciding which sports team to support.
Non-whites (about 6% of the total British population) cannot, as white non-English
groups can, choose when to advertise their ethnic identity and when not to.
Most non-whites, although themselves born in Britain, have parents who were
born outside it. The great wave of immigration from the Caribbean and South Asia
took place between 1950 and 1965. These immigrants, especially those from South
55
Asia, brought with them different languages, different religions (Hindu and
Muslim) and everyday habits and attitudes that were sometimes radically different
from traditional British ones. As they usually married among themselves, these
habits and customs have, to some extent, been preserved. For some young people
brought up in Britain, this mixed cultural background can create problems. For
example, many young Asians resent the fact that their parents expect to have more
control over them than most black or white parents expect to have over their
children. Nevertheless, they cannot avoid these experiences, which therefore make
up part of their identity.
As well as this “given” identity, non-white people in Britain often take pride in
their cultural roots. This pride seems to be increasing as their cultural practices,
their everyday habits and attitudes, gradually become less distinctive. Most of the
country’s non-whites are British citizens. Partly because of this, they are on the
way to developing the same kind of division of loyalties and identity that exists for
many Irish, Scottish and Welsh people. Pride can increase as a defensive reaction
to racial discrimination. There is quite a lot of this in Britain. There are tens of
thousands of racially motivated attacks on people every year, including one or two
murders. All in all, however, overt racism is not as common as it is in many other
parts of Europe.
The cultural backgrounds of people living in Britain are changing fast and
becoming increasingly varied because of immigration and emigration processes.
This is one reason why “multiculturalism” is a hot topic of debate in Britain these
days. Many people think that it is the so called “salad-bowl” model when the
different ingredient, also mixed together and making an appetizing whole, are still
distinct. Many consider that polices designed to recognize and respect different
cultural groups may tend to keep these groups separate. And of course separation
leads to lack of understanding, which can lead to hostility. Some members of
mainstream British culture interpret “multiculturalism” in yet another way. They
seem to think it means their own cultural ingredients are simply excluded from the
bowl.

15.Religious and political identity, regionalism, family and class system in

Great Britain.

Religious and political identity

In comparison with some other European countries, and with the one notable
exception of Northern Ireland, neither religion nor politics is an important part of
people’s social identity in modern Britain. This is partly because the two do not, as
they do in some other countries, go together in any significant way.
Of course, there are many people who regard themselves as belonging to this or
that church or party. Some people among the minority who are regular churchgoers
and the very small minority who are active members of political parties feel this
sense of belonging strongly and deeply. It may form a very important part of their
56
own idea of themselves as individuals. But even for these people it plays little part
in determining other aspects of their lives such as where they work, which trade
union they belong to, who their friends are or who they would like their neighbours
to be. For the vast majority of parents in the country (some ethnic groups
excepted), the religion or voting habits of their future son-in-law’s or daughter-in-
law’s family are of only passing interest and rarely the major cause of objection to
the proposed marriage.
Regionalism
All nations have a number of regions, each of which regards itself as different
from all the others. This applies in France, Italy, the US, Russia, Spain, Scotland.
People from St Petersburg talk about Muscovites as though they were members of
a different species; East-coast and Midwest Americans might as well be from
different planets, ditto Tuscans and Neapolitans.
A sense of identity based on place of birth is, like family identity, not very
common or strong in most parts of Britain — and perhaps for the same reason.
People are just too mobile and very few live in the same place all their lives. There
is quite a lot of local pride, and people find many opportunities to express it. This
pride, however, arises because people are happy to live in what they consider to be
a nice place and often they will fight to preserve it. It does not usually mean that
the people of a locality feel strongly that they belong to that place.
A sense of identity with a larger geographical area is a bit stronger. Nearly
everybody has a spoken accent that identifies them as coming in a particular large
city or region. In some cases there is quite a strong sense of identification.
Liverpudlians (from Liverpool), Mancunians (from Manchester), Geordies (from
the Newcastle area), Glaswegians (from Glasgow), Aberdonians (from Aberdeen)
and Cockneys (from London) are often proud to be known by these names. In other
cases, identity is associated with a county. These are the most ancient divisions of
England. Although their boundaries and names do not always conform to the
modern arrangement of local government, they still claim the allegiance of some
people. Yorkshire, in the north of England, is a notable example. Another is
Cornwall, in the south-west corner of England. Even today, some Cornish people
still talk about “going to “England” when they cross the county border — a
testament to its ethnic Celtic history.
Many English people see themselves as either “northerners” or “southerners.”
The fact that the south is on the whole richer than the north, and the domination of
the media by the affairs of London and the south-east, leads to resentment in the
north. This reinforces the pride in their northern roots felt by many northerners,
who, stereotypically, see themselves as tougher, more honest and warmer-hearted
than the soft, hypocritical and unfriendly southerners. To people in the south, the
stereotypical northerner (who is usually male) is rather ignorant and uncultured and
interested only in sport and beer-drinking.
The family

57
 In comparison with most other places in the world, family identity is rather
weak in Britain, especially in England. Of course, the family unit is still the basic
living arrangement for most people. But in Britain this definitely means the nuclear
family. There is little sense of extended family identity, except among some racial
minorities. This is reflected in the size and composition of households. It is
unusual for adults of different generations within the family to live together. The
average number of people living in each household in Britain is lower than in most
other European countries. The proportion of elderly people living alone is similarly
high.
Even the stereotyped nuclear family of father, mother and children is becoming
less common. Britain has a higher rate of divorce than anywhere else in Europe
except Denmark and the proportion of children born outside marriage has risen
dramatically and is also one of the highest (about a third of all births). However,
these trends do not necessarily mean that the nuclear family is disappearing.
Divorces have increased, but the majority of marriages in Britain (about 55%) do
not break down. In addition, it is notable that about three-quarters of all births
outside marriage are officially registered by both parents and more than half of the
children concerned are born to parents who are living together at the time.
Class system in Britain
Historians say that the class system has survived in Britain because of its
flexibility. It has always been possible to buy or marry or even work your way up,
so that your children (and their children) belong to a higher social class than you
do. As a result, the class system has never been swept away by a revolution and an
awareness of class forms a major part of most people’s sense of identity.
People in modern Britain are very conscious of class differences. Most people
say they do not approve of class divisions. Nor does it have very much to do with
political or religious affiliations. It results from the fact that the different classes
have different sets of attitudes and daily habits. Typically, they tend to eat different
food at different times of day (and call the meals by different names), they like to
talk about different topics using different styles and accents of English and they
enjoy different pastimes and sports. They have different values about what things
in life are most important and different ideas about the correct way to behave.
Stereotypically, they go to different kinds of school.
An interesting feature of the class structure in Britain is that it is not just, or
even mainly, relative wealth or the appearance of it which determines someone’s
class. Of course, wealth is part of it — if you become wealthy, you can provide the
conditions to enable your children to belong to a higher class than you do. But it is
not always possible to guess reliably the class to which a person belongs by
looking at his or her clothes, car or bank balance. The most obvious and immediate
sign comes when a person opens his or her mouth, giving the listener clues to the
speaker’s attitudes and interests, both of which are indicative of class.
But even more indicative than what the speaker says is the way that he or she
says it. The English grammar and vocabulary which is used in public speaking,
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radio and television news broadcasts, books and newspapers is known as “standard
British English”. Most working-class people, however, use lots of words and
grammatical forms in their everyday speech which are regarded as “non-standard.”
Nevertheless, nearly everybody in the country is capable of using standard
English (or something very close to it) when they judge that the situation demands
it. They are taught to do so at school. Therefore, the clearest indication of a
person’s class is often his or her accent. Most people cannot change this
convincingly to suit the situation. The most prestigious accent in Britain is known
as “Received Pronunciation” (RP). It is the combination of Standard English
spoken with an RP accent that is usually meant when people talk about “BBC
English” or “Oxford English” (referring to the university, not the town) or “the
Queen’s English.”
RP is not associated with any particular part of the country. The vast majority
of people, however, speak with an accent which is geographically limited. In
England and Wales, anyone who speaks with a strong regional accent is
automatically assumed to be working class. Conversely, anyone with an RP accent
is assumed to be upper or upper-middle class. (In Scotland and Northern Ireland,
the situation is slightly different; in these places, some forms of regional accent are
almost as prestigious as RP.)
During the last quarter of the twentieth century, the way that people wish to
identify themselves seems to have changed. In Britain, as anywhere else where
there are recognised social classes, a certain amount of “social climbing” goes on;
that is, people try to appear as if they belong to as high a class as possible. These
days, however, nobody wants to be thought of as snobbish. The word “posh”
illustrates this tendency. It is used by people from all classes to mean of a class
higher than the one belong to and it is normally used with negative connotations.
To accuse someone of being posh is to accuse them of being pretentious.
Working-class people are traditionally proud of their class membership and
would not usually wish to be thought of as belonging to any other class.
Interestingly, a survey conducted in the early 1990s showed that the proportion of
people who describe themselves as working class is actually greater than the
proportion whom sociologists would classify as such! This is one manifestation of
a phenomenon known as “inverted snobbery”, whereby middle-class people try to
adopt working-class values and habits. They do this in the belief that the working
classes are in some way “better” (for example, more honest) than the middle
classes.
In this egalitarian climate, the unofficial segregation of the classes in Britain
has become less rigid than it was. A person whose accent shows that he or she is
working class is no longer prohibited from most high-status jobs for that reason
alone. Nobody takes elocution lessons any more in order to sound more upper
class. It is now acceptable for radio and television presenters to speak with “an
accent” (i.e. not to use strict RP). It is also notable that, at the time of writing, none

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of the last five British Prime Ministers went to an elitist school for upper-class
children, while almost every previous Prime Minister in history did.
In general, the different classes mix more readily and easily with each other
than they used to. There has been a great increase in the number of people from
working-class origins who are house owners and who do traditionally middle-class
jobs. The lower and middle classes have drawn closer to each other in their
attitudes.

16.Ethnic identity of Americans. US Regionalism.

On every coin issued by the government of the United States are found three
words in Latin: E pluribus unum. In English this phrase means “out of many, one.”
The phrase is an American motto. Its presence on coins is meant to indicate that
America is one nation made up of many different peoples, whose ancestors came
from almost every area of the globe.
It was once widely believed that the US was a “melting pot,” fueled by the
clash of immigrant cultures. In recent years, the interest of America’s myriad
ethnic minorities in the customs and traditions of the lands from which their fathers
came has grown, sparked in part by a new sense of self-esteem. More accurate than
the “melting pot” might be the metaphor “salad bowl,” implying that each
ingredient makes its contribution and adds flavor to the whole. There is some truth
to this idea. The United States is certainly a culturally diverse society; however,
there is also a dominant culture. Immigrants became part of this culture by giving
up their differences so that they could fit into the mainstream of society. A more
historically accurate metaphor is that the United States has had a cultural “cookie-
cutter” with a white Anglo-Saxon, Protestant, male mold or shape. White
immigrant males could easily fit this British colonial mold by adopting an Anglo
name, converting to Protestant Christianity, and speaking English without a foreign
accent. However, women and people of color could not fit into the cookie-cutter
mold. They could not change their gender, skin color, or hair texture. Because they
were different, they were often excluded from the mainstream culture. Some
people melted more easily than the other and people of color simply did not melt
into the pot. Of course, the United States has changed.
Most Americans would no longer accept a melting pot or a cookie-cutter
culture. In fact, it has become common to describe the United States as a mosaic or
a tapestry. These now popular metaphors suggest that it is acceptable to keep one’s
differences and still be part of the overall society. In a mosaic or a tapestry, each
color is distinct and adds to the overall beauty of the object. If you remove one
piece from the mosaic or one thread from the tapestry, you destroy it. Today, you
can keep your differences. Differences in gender, race, national origin, ethnicity,
religion, and sexual orientation are acceptable and need not be abandoned to have
an equal opportunity to achieve your life goals.
“Hyphenated Americans”—people with dual identities—reflect the belief that
one can keep one’s ethnic, national, religious, or racial identity and still be an
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American. Mexican-Americans, Irish-Americans, African-Americans or Black
Americans, Arab-Americans, Muslim Americans, and American Indians all reflect
the practice of being a true American but also maintaining a co-identity. Of course,
what holds the country together is not only a set of common values and beliefs, but
also the English language and common experiences.
In four states—New Mexico, Texas, California, and Hawaii—and the District
of Columbia, non-Hispanic white people are a demographic minority. By 2050,
most demographers agree that non-Hispanic white people will be a minority in the
overall national population. But, this trend does not seem to threaten the average
American. In fact, most Americans believe that diversity enhances creative
problem solving and increases productivity.
This reflects a multicultural model and the assumption is that not only are
differences welcomed, but they are even valued and viewed as strengths. Very few
people would want to go back to the past when minorities had to give up their
differences to fit into the mainstream culture. Diversity is an opportunity to be
embraced, not an obstacle to be overcome.
The issue facing America today is not how to get rid of differences, but rather
how to manage a society with so many differences. The United States has always
been very diverse, but it is no longer simply a matter of bringing together different
European nationalities and ethnic groups. Today diversity means all races and
ethnic groups, various nationalities, men and women, the disabled, employees of
all ages, and people of various sexual orientations. Because of the reality of the
demographic changes, increasing global interdependence, and the obvious benefits
of diversity, Americans will adapt and develop the necessary skills to communicate
and work with people of all cultural backgrounds.
Since there are different ethnic groups in the United States, the civil right issue
has always dominated American politics. It became very urgent in the 1950s and
1960s. Numerous Presidents attempted to improve the situation of black people
and other minorities in American society. The blacks themselves, led by people
like the Reverend Martin Luther King, became increasingly active in attempting to
improve their status, and numerous non-violent protests began in 1960 to speed up
the end of segregation. In the mid-1960s these mass demonstrations often
degenerated into violent clashes, as the militant Black Power movements replaced
the non-violent organizations.
Much has changed for the better since then, though substantial segments of
American population are still excluded from the American dream of equal
opportunity for all. America has not solved all her social problems yet, but an
unprecedented national awareness of their existence gives hope that the basis has
already been laid for a better spreading of the good life.
Once mostly English and Dutch, then one-fifth slave, then host to immigrants
from a hundred lands, the American people have grown increasingly diverse as
they have prospered. The national character has been immeasurably enriched by

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the special skills and outlooks each successive wave of newcomers has included in
its ethnic luggage.
The United States is becoming a more diverse society both racially and
ethnically. While the total population increased by 7.4 per cent between 1990 and
1997, the black population grew by 14.2 per cent and had reached 33.8 million by
1997. The number of persons of Hispanic origin increased by 53 per cent to 30.0
million between 1990 and 1997. The Native American population, including Inuit
and Aleut, also increased reaching 2.3 million. The number of Asians and Pacific
Islanders by 1997 had reached 10.0 million.
These figures are accounted for both by migration from Asia, Latin America,
and other areas and by higher population growth rates among blacks. During much
of its history, the United States had an official policy of admitting more
immigrants from Europe than from Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Changes were
made in immigration policy during the 1970s that resulted in large numbers of
non-European immigrants entering the United States. Census figures reported for
1990 showed that whites constituted about 80 per cent of the population; blacks,
12.1 per cent; Native Americans, 0.8 per cent; and Asians and Pacific Islanders,
2.9 per cent. Hispanics, who may also be counted among other groups, made up 9
per cent of the population. According to the 1990 census, the largest group, about
58 million Americans, was partly or solely of German ancestry; Irish ancestry was
reported by 38.7 million Americans, and English ancestry by another 32.7 million.
Despite sporadic setbacks and slowdowns, America continues to inch toward
full realization of the ideal first expressed almost two centuries ago: “Here, it is not
asked what or who was your father, but what are you?”
US Regionalism
What do Americans think of the United States? They often speak of it as a
country of several large regions. These regions are cultural rather than
governmental units. Although it is one nation the United States is made up of
several distinct regions inhabited by people whose ancestors come from all parts of
the world. Americans are bound together by their differences as well as their
similarities.
They have been formed out of the history, geography, economics, literature and
traditions that all parts of a region share in common.
The development, over time, of culturally distinctive regions within a country
is not unique to the United States. Indeed, in some countries, regionalism has
acquired political significance and has led to domestic conflict. In the United
States, however, regions have remained culturally defined, to the point that there
are no easily demarcated borders between them. For this reason, no two lists of
American regions are exactly alike. One common grouping creates six regions.
They are:
• New England, made up of the northernmost five states along the Atlantic
seaboard plus Vermont and parts of New York.

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 • The Middle Atlantic Region, composed of New York, New Jersey,
Pennsylvania, Delaware and Maryland.
• The South, which runs from Virginia south to Florida and then west as far as
central Texas. The region also takes in West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee,
Arkansas, Louisiana and large parts of Missouri and Oklahoma.
• The Midwest, a broad collection of states sweeping westward from Ohio to
Nebraska and southward from North Dakota to Kansas, including eastern
Colorado.
• The Southwest, made up of western Texas, portions of Oklahoma, New
Mexico, Arizona, Nevada and the southern interior area of California.
• The West, comprising Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, Utah, California,
Nevada, Idaho, Oregon, Washington, Alaska and Hawaii.
What makes one region of the United States different from another? There are
many answers to the question and the answers vary from place to place.
Consider the way Americans use the English language: for many years experts
have been writing rules for standard American English, both written and spoken.
With the coming of radio and television, this standard use of the English language
has become much more generalized. But within several regions and sub-regions
local ways of speaking, known as dialects, still remain quite strong.
In some farming areas of New England the natives are known for being people
of few words. When they speak at all, they do so in short, rather choppy sentences
and clipped words. Even in the cities of New England there are definite styles of
speech.
Southern dialect tends to be much slower and more musical. People of this
region have referred to their slow speech as a “southern drawl.”
Regional differences extend beyond foods and dialects. Among more educated
Americans, these differences sometimes center on attitudes and outlooks. An
example is the stress given to foreign news in various local newspapers. In the
East, where people look out across the Atlantic Ocean, papers tend to show
greatest concern with what is happening in Europe, North Africa and western Asia.
In the towns and cities that ring the Gulf of Mexico, the press tends to be more
interested in Latin America. In California, bordering the Pacific Ocean, news
editors give more attention to events in East Asia and Australia.
To explain the nature of regionalism more fully, it is necessary to take a closer
look at each of these areas and the people who live there.
New Englanders are known for certain traits, and are still thought as being
shrewd, thrifty, hardworking and inventive.
Midwesterners are praised as being open, friendly, straightforward and “down-
to-earth.” Their politics tend to be cautious, though the caution could sometimes be
peppered with protest.
Three Southwestern states – Texas, New Mexico and Arizona have a larger
Spanish-speaking population than other regions except southern California.

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 In much of California life is more flamboyant than in the West region. Some
observers claim that this is the result of a sunny climate and the self-confidence
that comes of success.

17.Values and behaviours.

In cross-cultural communication in order to predict possible behavior we

should know values of this or that culture. Behavior makes much more sense when
you understand the value or belief behind it. Patterns of behavior are on the visible
side of the “iceberg of culture” and our values, beliefs and principles are on the
invisible side of it. In the field of cross-cultural communication it is important to
know about their interrelation.
The fundamental building blocks of culture are its values and norms. Values
are related to decisions that shape people’s lives, such as one’s career choice, as
well as to daily behaviors, such as deciding how much time to invest in studying
for an exam. The psychological processes that shape the effects of values on
behavior are strongly affected by the social context in which people operate. These
processes are therefore culturally bound.
Cultural values are shared, abstract notions of what is viewed as good, right,
and desirable in a society. They are broad goals that members of the society are
encouraged to pursue and hence serve to distinguish them among societies. Being
part of a culture that shares a common core set of values creates expectations and
predictability without which a culture would disintegrate and its members would
lose their personal identity and sense of worth. Values tell people what is good,
beneficial, important, useful, beautiful, desirable, appropriate, etc. They answer the
question of why people do what they do. Values help people solve common human
problems for survival. Over time, they become the roots of traditions that groups of
people find important in their day-to-day lives. Values can be positive or negative;
some are destructive. To understand people of other cultures, we must come to
understand the values, beliefs and assumptions that motivate their behavior. Values
are related to the norms of a culture, but they are more global and abstract than
norms. Norms are rules for behavior in specific situations, while values identify
what should be judged as good or evil. Flying the national flag on a holiday is a
norm, but it reflects the value of patriotism. Wearing dark clothing and appearing
solemn are normal behaviors at a funeral. In certain cultures they reflect the values
of respect and support of friends and family. Different cultures reflect different
values.
Personal values are desirable goals that guide the way people select actions,
evaluate people and events, and explain their actions and evaluations. They are
affected by socialization (and hence by cultural values), but can also be a product
of genetic heritage, and unique personal experience. Personal values have been
found to be associated with a large variety of behaviors and behavioral intentions:
the extent to which fathers and mothers are involved in child care, choices in
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scenarios of social dilemmas, conflict resolution styles and coping strategies,
behavior during negotiation, concern for the environment, political orientation and
voting and many others. The processes through which values affect behavior are
yet to be thoroughly investigated.
Thus, whereas societal members share some important values, they also vary
considerably in their personal value hierarchies. Members take part in a culture
even if each member’s personal values do not entirely agree with some of the
normative values sanctioned in the culture. This reflects an individual’s ability to
synthesize and extract aspects valuable to them from the multiple subcultures they
belong to. If a group member expresses a value that is in serious conflict with the
group’s norms, the group’s authority may carry out various ways of encouraging
conformity or stigmatizing the non-conforming behavior of its members. For
example, imprisonment can result from conflict with social norms that have been
established as law. Cultural values are likely to affect the personal values
emphasized by individuals within the society. Distinguishing the two levels of
values is crucial for understanding how values are connected with behavior.
Values are often confused with other personal attributes, such as attitudes,
traits, and personal goals. But values are a distinct entity, differing from other
personal attributes in many important ways. Values transcend specific
circumstances. An important value is important across many situations. This
feature distinguishes values from norms, attitudes, and specific goals, which
usually refer to specific actions, objects, or situations.
Cross-cultural research on personal values reveals commonalities in the
meaning of values and some similarity in personal hierarchies of values across
cultures. At the same time, this research indicates a substantial variance in the
importance attributed to values across cultures. The processes through which
values affect behavior are yet to be thoroughly investigated. Despite the wealth of
studies on values and behavior, little is known regarding how culture shapes these
relationships. Yet there is a reason to believe that culture affects them profoundly.
Culture provides a shared meaning system that determines socialization processes.
Culture encompasses communication of ideas, values, and behavioral expectations.
Thus, culture determines the social context in which individuals’ values and
behavior operate.
Letting one’s personal values serve as a guide for one’s behavior is a form of
self-expression. But this form of self-expression is not valued in all cultures to the
same degree. Publicly expressing one’s thoughts, feelings, and preferences is
valued more in Western European and English-speaking countries than in East
Asian and African countries. Culture determines the specific situations in which
there are strong behavioral norms.
Comparing the associations between values and behaviors across cultures
involves an additional challenge due to the possible different meaning that the
same behavior may have in different cultural groups. Whereas considerable
research verified the similarity in the meanings of values across cultures, little, if
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any, research have explored the similarity and differences in the meanings of
behavior. We do not refer here merely to surface differences, such as culture-
specific gestures, conveying conventionalized meaning but to more profound
differences in the meaning of behavior that are due to differences in social
structure and institutions. Thus, seemingly equivalent behaviors may have different
meaning across cultures, if they take place in different circumstances, and lead to
different consequences.
The basic individualistic and collectivistic views of people as either
independent or interdependent lead to contrasting sets of cultural values:
Orientation to Self or Group. The individualistic view of people as independent
units leads to emphasis on a range of self-oriented values and skills that support
independent living. These values include self-sufficiency, self-determination, self-
advocacy, self-competence, self-direction, self-efficacy, self-regulation, self-
reliance, and self-responsibility. On the other hand, the collectivistic view of
people as interdependent leads to emphasis on group-oriented values and skills that
contribute to effectively filling roles within the family or other group. Instead of
living independently or going away to college, the young adult may be expected to
remain at home and fulfill roles within the family.
Decision-Making. Culture influences how decisions are made within a family.
In traditional collectivistic cultures, there is likely to be a social hierarchy based on
gender, birth order, and age. Family elders may be highly respected, and they often
have roles of authority with responsibility to make sure family members do what is
best for the family rather than what is best for themselves as individuals. Elders
may have final say about how far their children go to school, who they marry, or
where they work. Decisions by authority figures in collectivist cultures are likely
to be obeyed with less questioning than is typical in individualistic cultures. There
are, however, many collectivistic cultures with a strong egalitarian orientation that
promotes shared decision-making. In American individualism, the ideal is for all
people to be able to freely make their own decisions. The opinions of family elders
may be respected, but as youth enter adulthood, they expect and are expected to
make decisions about their own lives.
Knowledge Transmission. Social hierarchy also strongly influences how
knowledge is obtained and transmitted. In many collectivistic cultures, people of
high social status may be seen as holding important cultural and technological
knowledge. This knowledge may have traditionally been memorized (i.e., rather
than recorded in writing) and transmitted orally. Much of this knowledge may be
reserved only for people who have passed ceremonial milestones or belong to a
restricted group, so that they can effectively fill their social roles. It may be
considered disrespectful for children to express their opinions to or ask many
questions of their elders. Instead they may be expected to absorb and then reflect
back the knowledge provided to them by their elders, who determine when
youngsters are ready to learn. In individualistic cultures, it is more likely that
children are encouraged to form and express opinions and to seek knowledge at a
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pace they self-determine. An important individualistic value is that knowledge
should be freely available to anyone who wants it.
Concepts of Progress. A widely shared value in American mainstream
individualism is that people should continually be improving themselves and
advancing in their educations, careers, and other endeavors. Everyone’s individual
efforts combined are expected to generate progress at the national level as well,
especially in terms of a higher standard of living. Traditional collectivistic cultures,
however, may not place a strong value on this kind of progress. For one thing, time
may be viewed less like an arrow into the future and more like a circular process,
as seasons change in their regular order and humans repeat their traditional
activities, such as planting or harvesting crops. The concern of the family and
community may be mainly on faithfully carrying on the activities that have
sustained their lives over generations, rather than trying to improve the system into
which they were born. In addition, there may be a focus on spiritual rather than
material advancement.
Competitiveness. In American individualism, people can show that they have
valued characteristics–such as mastery of certain skills or being able to perform
under pressure–by competing with and doing better than others. From the
perspective of many collectivist cultures, however, the Americans are often
considered too competitive and focused on material rewards. Collectivistic cultures
are more likely to emphasize cooperation among group members as the basis for
success in competition with other groups, whether at the level of the family,
business, or nation. Members of successful groups take pride in what the group has
accomplished.
Shame and Guilt. People are likely to feel shame or guilt if they do poorly in
competition or behave in ways that others criticize. Fear of failing or losing may
keep people from tackling a challenge or entering a competition. As social
emotions, shame and guilt naturally vary across cultures. Because people with an
individualistic orientation tend to view themselves as being more in control of their
own lives, they may be more likely to blame themselves and feel shame or guilt if
they do not meet expectations. Because people with a collectivistic orientation are
more likely to identify strongly with their family or some other group, they tend to
be more likely to feel shame or guilt if their behavior is judged to bring disgrace on
the group.
Expression of Identity. American mainstream culture promotes self-expression.
Cars, clothes, cosmetics, and most other consumer items are often marketed in
terms of how they help people to express their inner selves. In collectivistic
cultures, by contrast, people are more likely to adopt an appearance appropriate for
their social status, with less concern for expressing what makes them unique as
individuals.
Interaction Style. Each culture has its own norms of behavior with each other.
Misunderstandings are therefore likely when people from different cultures
interact. Common tendencies in American individualism include directly raising
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topics or issues, freely expressing personal opinions, and asking personal
questions, even of strangers. All of these tendencies are generally less prominent in
collectivistic cultures. Norms vary a great deal across cultures for the distance at
which people feel comfortable talking to each other or for appropriate touching
(e.g. it may be customary for people to greet each other by hugging, shaking hands,
or bowing). In all cultures, interaction norms depend on people’s social status. In
many collectivistic cultures, it is especially likely that younger or socially lower
people are expected to behave in a respectful and obedient way when interacting
with older people or people of higher social rank.

18.Important European values.

Currently, the European Union encompasses more than 400 million people.
The majority of the population is Caucasian. Europeans speak German, Romance,
and Slavic languages. Europeans have an inherent interest in the quality of life.
Historically, they had to fight their neighbors, and they think in the context of the
past. They have suffered and survived many wars, plagues, and government
changes; they have a sense of survival. Long-term survival is more important to
them than money. They have a sense of social responsibility. They desire
education and security, and mistrust authority. They observe formal rules and titles
in oral and written communication. They like new ideas and new ventures that lead
to the enhancement of their quality of life. The four most significant European
values that dominate the European culture are pragmatism, rationalism, holism,
and humanism. However, European countries are quite different from each other in
terms of their value orientations.
A high score on Hofstede’s dimension indicates a high position in that
dimension. The most individualistic European countries are the United Kingdom,
the Netherlands, Hungary, Belgium, and Denmark; the most collectivistic are
Portugal, Bulgaria, Romania, Greece, and Turkey. High on power distance are
Slovakia, Russia, and Romania. Low on power distance are Austria and Denmark.
The highest on uncertainty avoidance and the most threatened are Greece,
Portugal, Malta, Russia, and Belgium; the lowest on uncertainty are Denmark,
Sweden, the United Kingdom, and Ireland. The most masculine are Slovakia,
Hungary, Austria, Italy, and Switzerland; the most feminine are Sweden, Norway,
the Netherlands, Denmark, Finland, and Portugal. The highest on long term
orientation are Hungary, the Netherlands, and Slovakia, followed by Sweden and
Germany; the lowest are the Czech Republic and Norway. Greece is one of the
countries that scored highly on collectivism and very highly on uncertainty
avoidance. The Germanic countries are characterized by smaller power distance
and weak-to-medium uncertainty avoidance. In the Germanic group, the extreme
country is Denmark, characterized by very small power distance and very weak
uncertainty avoidance. Belgium, on the other hand, is characterized by quite high
uncertainty avoidance. The United Kingdom and Ireland are close to Germany but
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they are low on both power distance and uncertainty avoidance dimensions.
Germany is more collectivistic than the United Kingdom. It was noted that
Germans value cooperation, mutual support, team spirit, avoidance of conflict, and
punctuality. However, the degree of formality in Germany is extreme. The
Germans address others and conduct themselves in a very formal manner; they use
titles and identify people by their positions in social structures.
In terms of the Confucian Work Dynamism dimension, Sweden, Poland, and
Germany are in the middle rank on the Confucius long-term orientation. Their
value orientations are in between the long-term orientation (persistence, ordering
relationships by status, thrift, having a sense of shame) and short-term orientation
(personal stability, protecting “face,” respect for tradition, reciprocation).
The most universalistic cultures can be found in the United Kingdom,
Germany, and Sweden; and the most particularistic in France. Countries in which
people are inner-directed are the United Kingdom and Germany; countries with
outer-orientation are Sweden, the Netherlands, and France. The most analytical are
the United Kingdom, the Netherlands and Sweden; the most integrative are France
and Germany. Countries in which status is gained by achievement are the United
Kingdom, Sweden, Germany and the Netherlands; the country in which status is
ascribed is France. Countries that view time as sequential are Sweden, the
Netherlands, the United Kingdom and Germany; the country that views time as
synchronized is France.
Germany
Germany has a population of more than 82 million. Most Germans are Roman
Catholics. They are known as hard working, reserved, disciplined and cold in
behavior. They are meticulous, methodical, precise (linear thinking), well
organized, and efficient. They have one of the highest standards of living in the
world and can afford buying luxuries. They are very punctual and formal, and use
an official form of address when addressing others in public. They are title
conscious. They maintain large distance between themselves. They are restrained
in their body movements and follow rules of polite behavior. For example, talking
to someone with your hands in your pockets, or sitting with the bottom of the shoes
facing another person is unacceptable.
Italy
Italy has a population of about 60 million. The major ethnic groups are Italians,
with small groups of Germans, French, Slovenes, Albanians and Greeks. They are
primarily Roman Catholic. They are family and relationship-oriented. Having a big
family and network of friends is most important. The Italians are more being-
oriented rather than doing-oriented. Individuals are valued by not what they do for
living but how they do and who they are. Although they like to be individualistic
they do depend on each other. Although initially they are formal in relationships,
they are warm, and like to hug, embrace, and kiss each other. The rules of social
hierarchy must be followed; status and titles are important. Image is the key
element in all areas of life, including dress and behavior. Good appearance is of
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great importance. Italians compete in appearance and lifestyle. Italian culture is
high-context; language is elaborate and musical. People talk a lot and engage in
heated discussions. Italians are emotional, expressive, and affectionate. They
discuss secrets in public. They have a very well developed system of non-verbal
gestures. They are very creative and can find solutions to any problem; they are
very good at getting around and beating the system. Since they do not like to take
risks, they have to follow thousands of laws and regulations. The Italians are
fatalistic and believe in destiny. They always do several things simultaneously. In
the more industrial North, they are more punctual; in the South, they are more
flexible about time, relaxed about the appointments and schedules.
Russia
Russia has about 145 million people. In the past, Russian individualism,
personal gains and self-interest were traditionally discouraged. People had to
sacrifice and subjugate to the state that had control over their lives. Young
Russians were taught discipline and subordination. The Russians suffered from the
sense of inferiority. The society was very hierarchical. They were passive and
believed in the governing class. They needed authority to establish order. They
distrusted outsiders and anyone outside the circle, particularly foreigners. In
business, the Russians were noted for patience and stalling; they did not accept
compromise. They constantly sought concessions and used connections and
influences, and exchanged favors. Currently, after the collapse of the Soviet Union,
the Russian people are trying to rebuild rich Russian tradition and culture.
Although the Russian economy is booming, it is also experiencing chaos, which is
generating fear of the unexpected among those who are at the bottom of society.
After having suffered heavy casualties during the wars, the Russians avoid risk
and danger, and search for stability, certainty, and order. Russian values reflect
more feminine than masculine values; people attach importance to friends, family
life, social relations, and cultural life rather than money. Love, ethics, morality,
and feelings are taught as being important values in life. Although in public people
are reserved and use formal ways of address, privately they are expressive and
emotional. They dislike the Western attitude toward materialism, time, and pace of
life. The younger generations strive to be more educated and cosmopolitan. The
Russians are very hospitable people. In general, Russian values reflect both Asian
and European values. The Russians attach great importance to social harmony
and relationships with others. They worship the past and present more than the
future. They are pessimistic due to experiencing hardship for many decades. They
believe people are bad or a mixture of good and evil. They believe they cannot
control the environment. At the same time, they seek the Western values of
personal rights, individualism, and freedom. Today the Russians have become
more individualistic, risk-taking, and masculine. They seek identity, want to be
unique, and enjoy all the pleasures of the Western world.
Spain

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 Spain has more than 40 million people. The major religious group is Roman
Catholic, and minority is Muslim. The Spaniards enjoy their life; they focus on life
quality; they work to live rather than live to work. They are proud of their own
heritage, and enjoy companionship, music, and good food. People do not follow
the rules of the clock; they have time for families and friends. Gender roles are
differentiated, and children are pampered. The Spaniards are very friendly,
hospitable, and warm; it is easy to establish relationships with them. They are also
emotional, affectionate and lively – often chaotic in discussions.
France
France’s population is about 60 million. The French are mostly Roman
Catholic. They are concerned with such values as honor, integrity, liberty, equality,
and fraternity. They are religion-tolerant and appreciate diversity. They are
individualistic in nature. They want to be seen as different, unique, and special.
They are very status conscious. Although they like power, they dislike
competition. The French are proud of their cultural heritage and language. They
focus on the quality of life; they work to live rather than live to work. They love
life. They attach great importance to vacations and free time. They are casual and
flexible in terms of time; they enjoy leisure and socialization, good food and wine.
They are inner-oriented and base their decisions on feelings and emotions. They
are often indirect in conversations, which are meant to entertain. They talk more
freely about sex; however, they avoid talking about money, jobs, and salaries,
which are perceived to be not the business of others. The French are friendly,
humorous, and often cynical; they want to be liked and they want to impress. They
attach importance to appearance and good taste. They judge others on the basis of
personality.
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom has more than 60 million people. The major ethnic
groups are English, Welsh and Scottish. They are traditional, conventional,
reserved, and distant; they avoid direct conflicts and do not complain. They tend to
downplay situations that may cause conflict. Respect and deference is shown to
superiors and appropriate distance is used in communication and social
interactions. Family names and titles are used. Manners and good etiquette are
followed on all occasions.

19.Common Arab values. Asian values and behaviors. Common Latin

American values. African values and behaviours.

Common Arab values

The most important values of the Arab people are dignity, honor, and
reputation. Losing face or being ashamed is avoided. The Arabs are loyal to
family, courteous, and good communicators. They put people and country needs
first. They seek close personal relationships. They emphasize the importance of
good listening skills. It is customary for men to kiss each other on both cheeks.
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Islamic teachings forbid eating pork, drinking alcohol, gambling, and prostitution.
Men are allowed to marry more than one woman, whereas a woman may marry
only one man. The Koran teaches to be modest in appearance; people have to cover
arms and shoulders. The feminist movement is quickly emerging within the Arab
cultures, alongside Islamic fundamentalism.
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia is the heartland of Islamic culture. Approximately 90% of the
Saudi people are the Arabs; the rest are Afro-Asian. The Kingdom’s population is
24 million. Islam permeates Saudi life. The royal family controls the top
government positions and the nations’ wealth. Arab society places great emphasis
on honor, and shame must be avoided. Shame means a loss of power and
influence. Families depend upon each other. The Arabs are concerned about their
families, clan, tribe, and country. They seek connections and networking. Arab
women are not part of the socialization process and networking. Bargaining is a
norm. The Arabs dislike imposing Western time frames and work schedules.
Communication with the Arabs is complex: the Arabic language is high-context
and uses lots of non-verbal cues such as gestures, facial expressions, eye browsing,
eye contact, standing close, etc. “Yes” may mean “no” or “maybe.” Swearing is
unacceptable. It is unacceptable to engage in conversation about religion, politics,
and Israel. Drinking alcohol is prohibited. Pointing fingers at someone or showing
the soles of the feet when seated are considered rude.

Asian values and behaviors

A number of values are common to most Asian cultures. These are social
hierarchy; respect for elders, parents, ancestors, and traditions; importance of the
family and family ties as a source of personal self-worth; differentiation between
in-groups and out-groups; social harmony; a sense of obligation and shame; face-
saving, group consensus, loyalty, cooperation, indirectness, ambiguity, silence, and
emotional restraint, patience, avoidance of strong emotions, having connections,
self-respect, and reputation. Group orientation, discipline, importance of education,
protocol, avoidance of conflict and moral responsibility are also important.

China
The People’s Republic of China has a population of 1.3 billion. The name of
the country means “center of the world.” As a result, the Chinese think of their
culture as the center of human civilization and hold themselves in high esteem.
Chinese culture has been influenced by the teachings of Confucianism, Taoism,
and Buddhism. China is a hierarchical society, people believe in authority and
subordination. They follow the formal rules of social etiquette; social status is
important. The important personal characteristics are determination, calmness,
honor, persistence and patience. Chinese culture is group-oriented; group activity,
consensus, cooperation, support and loyalty are vital for social harmony. Chinese
culture is high-context culture. The Chinese understand non-verbal signals and use
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them frequently to send the true meanings in conversation. The Chinese are long-
term oriented; they are interested in long-term benefits. They are bound by their
tradition and proud of ancestors. They negotiate and talk through an intermediary
or a third party. They do not believe that the signing of a contract is a completed
agreement; circumstances may change. They reciprocate invitations and gifts. The
Chinese are punctual, dress formally, and address others by their second names or
titles. They use business cards in introductions and follow a proper etiquette. They
are reserved, respectful and sensitive. The concept of privacy does not exist; they
often ask questions about salaries or incomes, personal information is frequently
discussed. They avoid displaying affections, keep distance when speaking, do not
touch each other, and do not appreciate loud behavior. The four most important
terminal values of the Chinese are true friendship, wisdom, freedom, and mature
love, whereas the four least important terminal values are family security, a
comfortable life, an exciting life, and salvation. The four most important
instrumental values are being ambitious, broad-minded, intellectual, and
courageous, whereas the four least important instrumental values are being
forgiving, helpful, clean, and obedient.

Japan
Japan has a population of about 130 million. More than 99% of it is represented
by the Japanese. Traditionally, Japan is a very noble country which values honor,
pride, and perseverance. However, Japanese culture is slowly changing; it is
following values of the contemporary world. The major religions are Shintoism
and Buddhism. The Japanese put great emphasis on the group, the family, and
loyalty. They show respect for social classes, authority, and elders. They try not to
harm anyone; rather, they save their own face as well as that of others’ in order to
preserve social harmony. They avoid praising, complementing and criticizing.
They do not stand out from a group. The Japanese use indirect, vague
communicating style; they focus on the context rather than content of a verbal
message. Non-verbal language is more important to them than verbal expressions.
They leave sentences unfinished so others can make a conclusion. The Japanese
language is full of nuances; it has various degrees of courtesy and respect for
different social classes. Third party is used in introductions and deals to create trust
between individuals. The Japanese follow the custom of using business cards
(meishi) that identify their owner’s professional titles. Cards are usually translated
into English. Formality prevails. Bowing is a traditional form of greeting. The
Japanese are time conscious and punctual. They also follow a tradition of
obligatory gift-giving; gifts are given at any social event and must be reciprocated.
The Japanese like order, cleanliness, and discipline. They are sensitive to what
others think or expect of them. They avoid risk; they require physical and
psychological security. They have difficulties dealing with strangers and
foreigners. Many experience a difficulty to adapt and feel alienated. They laugh
when they are happy and sad. They are insular. They value education, new
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technological developments; they have pride in their work. They work hard. The
Japanese give consideration to the effect of their behavior on others. When on
vacation, Japanese ourists are activity-oriented unlike the Western tourists who
travel to do nothing. Shopping is very important to them. The Japanese attach
importance to obligatory gift-giving and polite inexplicitness; they avoid
humiliation, try not to offend, or disturb the harmony of a group. Trust and
relationship building are vital to their existence. A high standard of service is
critical to Japanese satisfaction. Numerous studies have been done on Japanese
culture. It was noted that Japanese are courteous, moral, loyal to others (gimur),
have a sense of obligation and duty (giri), try to save face (kao), follow correct
protocol of presentation, do not display emotions, participate in rituals, and use
non-verbal communication. The Japanese value peacefulness, passivity, reciprocal
obligation, and hierarchical structure. They are expected to subordinate individual
interests to the group, cooperate with one another, and remain loyal to the group.
Their behavior is formal to reduce conflict and embarrassment and maintain
harmony. Seishin spirit teaches them self-discipline, order, sacrifice, dedication,
hierarchy, loyalty, responsibility, goodwill, and group activity; they must be
beautiful for themselves and others, and disregard material disadvantages. The
spirit stresses the importance of duty (giri), indebtedness (on) and obligation.
Buddhism teaches the Japanese to live in harmony with nature. A stranger is not an
enemy but a friend, and the aim is to reach consensus and compromise.
Confucianism and Buddhism prescribe collectivism, a hierarchical structure of
authority, status and obedience of superiors (Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Indo-
Chinese). The importance of the social hierarchy in Japanese culture can be
explained in terms of high scores on power distance and masculinity, and low
scores on individualism. Differences in status dictate different non-verbal behavior.
Japanese culture is characterized by a high degree of collectivism; it emphasizes
conformity, belongingness, empathy, and dependence. The Japanese value
courage, a sense of justice, love, companionship, trust, and friendship; they are
concerned with war and peace. The Japanese do not value comfort; they value self-
adjustment, advancement, and serenity. The Japanese are group-oriented; they
emphasize harmony in interpersonal relations, solidarity, loyalty, and
belongingness to society. Their society is closed to outsiders. They differentiate
between what they say and actually do, between tatemae (outside behavior) and
honne (real intentions), between formal and informal behavior. They avoid giving
negative answers to not to hurt others. They have several ways of saying “no.”
They depend on each other, cooperate, suppress open conflict and competition, and
strive for group welfare. They perceive Westerners as “odd” people due to their
focus on individualism. They remove shoes before entering house.
India
India has a population of over 1 billion. Hinduism is the major religion that
dominates the culture and all personal and business relationships. India has a huge
variety of languages, customs and cultural beliefs. There are 15 official languages,
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including English, with more than 1400 dialects. Family and friends are of great
importance. People are expected to sense others’ needs and help to meet these
needs. India is a hierarchical society; people respect those of higher social
positions and use titles to address others. The rules of social etiquette are followed.
People do not ask personal questions and do not display affection in public. Hindu
people are mostly vegetarian; they do not eat beef and do not drink alcohol.
Drinking alcohol is considered degrading. People eat with their hands. The left
hand is considered unclean; the right hand is used for eating. The American style
of backslapping is not acceptable. Women should not be touched in public. Hindus
like to bargain for goods and services.
Common Latin American values
Mexico
Mexico is one-fourth the size of the United States and has a population of more
than 103 million. Major ethnic groups are of indigenous, Mestizo and European
descent. About 90% of the Mexicans are Roman Catholic. Mexicans are warm and
hospitable. Their culture is people-oriented, and less task-oriented. The Mexicans
value strong family and strong social relationships. They like to socialize and take
time for conversation. Although they are relaxed and leisure-oriented, many are
hard workers. They are proud of their own heritage and culture. They believe
individual achievements are not as important as a person’s soul or spirit. Although
they value equality and democracy, they are also status-, age-, and gender-
conscious. They are concerned with protocol; they address others by using official
titles, such as senor or don, as a sign of respect. They are traditional and have high
moral values. They believe money is not the only determinant of social status;
honesty and decency are more important. They respect the past and enjoy the
present. They believe nature has been created by God, and only God can influence
or change it. The future is determined by God’s will. Mexican culture is a high-
context culture; messages are sent through non-verbal language, such as hand
movements, and emotional expressions. People like closeness; they stand close to
each other and often touch each other. The Mexicans have a polychronic attitude
toward time; they do many things simultaneously. They are relaxed about time;
they do not allow time schedules to interfere with their friends and families.
Although they believe it is important to be on time for meetings, they also agree
that one should always expect to wait. They avoid risk and believe in a written
document.
Brazil
Brazil has a population of about 176 million. About 55% of the people are
white descendants of the Portuguese, Germans, Italians, Spaniards and Poles; 40%
are mixed; and 6% black. More than 50% of the population is young – under 20
years of age. People are warm, hospitable, emotional, affectionate, sensitive,
generous, and receptive to foreigners. The Brazilians are not prejudiced against any
skin color or nationality. For them social relationships are more important than
individual achievements. Extended family, usually male-dominated, is the single
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most important social institution. They believe in social hierarchy and appropriate
forms of greetings. They are concerned about their appearance. They treat business
relationships as personal relationships. They think time is flexible. They like to talk
about their families. They avoid controversial subjects. They are not always direct.
Their communication style is expressive and focused on details. They are high-
contact communicators; they use a lot of non-verbal communication, such as eye
contact. They like to intervene in discussions. They do not follow formal rules and
procedures; those who do are perceived as unimaginative and lacking intelligence.
They are often late; time is not important to them. Their speaking distance is close.
African values and behaviors
The most important unit of African society is the family, which in most cases
includes the extended family or tribe. African family life is concentrated in
villages, where food is gathered. The village elders are leaders; they judge and
dictate the rules. The family tribe provides the rules for acceptable behavior,
individual rights, duties, marriage, inheritance, and succession. The Africans
believe that people and social relationships come first. Friendship based on trust
and sincerity is highly valued. People accept that everyone is a friend. Showing
respect is the key element for social harmony. Elders are given the most respect;
young people are not expected to express opinions. The Africans are warm,
friendly, relaxed, and informal. They are never in a hurry; they view time as
flexible. They like to sit and talk to know each other better before they discuss
business. Time is unlimited; what cannot be done today can be accomplished
tomorrow. The concept of time is, however, changing in big cities. In Africa,
corruption is common; it is related to poverty, inadequate pay, and bad working
conditions.

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