Paper – 1

NATIONAL TESTING AGENCY (NTA)

PAPER – 1 || VOLUME – 3

D.I, ICT, People, Development & Environment

and Higher Education System
 UGC NET PAPER – 1
S.N. Content P.N.
UNIT – VII DATA INTERPRETATION
1. Data Sources, Acquisition and Classification of Data 1
2. Quantitative and Qualitative Data 6
1. 3. Graphical Representation 8
4. Data and Governance 13
5. Data Interpretation 15
6. Practice Questions 46
UNIT – VIII
INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT)
1. ICT 56
2. Important Terms Related to Internet 67
2. 3. Digital Initiatives in Higher Education 72
4. E – Governance 116
5. Practice Questions 120
UNIT – IX PEOPLE, DEVELOPMENT & ENVIRONMENT
1. Development and Environment 130
2. Human and Environment Interaction 132
3. Environmental Issues 134
3. 4. Impacts of Pollutants on Human Health 137
5. Natural and Energy Resources 138
6. Natural Hazards and Disaster 140
7. Environmental Protection Law of India 141
8. Practice Question 150
UNIT – X HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM
1. Institutions of Higher Learning and Education in Ancient India 155
2. Oriental, Conventional and Non-conventional learning Programmes in 163
India.
4. 165
3. Professional, Technical and skill Based Education
4. Value education and Environment Education 167
5. Policies, Governance and Administration 173
6. Practice Question 194
 Chapter Analysis

UNIT - 7

Data Interpretation
Chapter 1
Questions 5 Questions

 Basic Calculative & easy to moderate level questions asked from this
unit
 Practice basic math concepts including general calculations,
percentage, average & ratio.
 Practice PYQ as much as possible

Key Points
 Basics of
 Mathematics
> Average
> Percentage
> Ratio
 Table Chart
 7 Data Interpretation
UNIT

Chapter - 1
Data Sources, Acquisition and Classification of Data
Learning Objectives
● Data acquisition and classification
● Qualitative and Quantitative Data
● Photographic description and data map
● Interpretation of data
● Statistics and Good Governance

Introduction
The material provided is basically a bunch of raw facts, figures and statistics. The process by which
meaningful information is obtained - data. For example, the number is often called statistics or the
receipt of any information, its calculation, process or processing. The data is compiled, checked and
stored after arranging in some sequence. After this it is sent to different person. The process consists of
the following steps
1. Calculation - Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, Division
2. Comparison - Equal, Greater, Smaller, Zero, Positive, Negative
3. Decision making - different stages depending on some condition
4. Reasoning - order of terms to get the required result
Mere counting of numbers is not called a process. Finding errors in documents with the help of
computer. Arranging tax etc. is also called process or processing.

Information
The given matter which has been processed is called information. Meaning is a complete fact number or
statistical information. In simple words, the meaningful data that is obtained after processing the data
is called information. Information is useful material having properties according to different categories.
Information is essential and helpful for the following reasons -
1. It presents information in a concise and more meaningful way
2. It helps in taking decisions for present and future.
3. It is helpful in evaluating the future

Properties of Information
We know that information is an essential factor for a system so information should have the following
properties
1. Semantic completeness
2. Chastity
3. Accuracy
4. Improving prior knowledge and continuity as much as Possible
5. Conciseness
6. Timeliness
7. Assistant in Editing the Work

1
Data can be defined as the quantitative or qualitative values of a variable. Data is plural of datum which
literally means to give or something given. Data is thought to be the lowest unit of information from
which other measurements and analysis can be done.
Data can be numbers, images, words, figures, facts or ideas. Data in itself cannot be understood and to
get information from the data one must interpret it into meaningful information. There are various
methods of interpreting data.

Data Sources are Broadly Classified into Primary and Secondary Data
Data collection plays a very crucial role in the statistical analysis. In research, there are different methods
used to gather information, all of which fall into two categories, i.e. primary and secondary data (Douglas,
2015).
As the name suggests, primary data is one which is collected for the first time by the researcher while
secondary data is the data already collected or produced by others.
There are many differences between primary and secondary data, which are discussed in this work. But
the most important difference is that—
• Primary data is factual and original whereas secondary data is just the analysis and interpretation of
the primary data.
• While primary data is collected with an aim for getting a solution to the problem at hand, secondary
data is collected for other purposes.
• The fundamental differences between primary and secondary data are; the term primary data refers
to the data originated by the researcher for the first time while secondary data is the already existing
data collected by the investigator agencies and organizations earlier.
• Primary data sources include surveys, observations, experiments, questionnaire, personal interview
etc. on the other contrary, secondary data collection sources are government publications, websites,
books, journal articles, internal records etc.
Primary Data
Primary data means original data that has been collected specially for the purpose in mind. It means
someone collected the data from the original source first hand.
• Data collected this way is called primary data. Primary data has not been published yet and is more
reliable, authentic and objective. Primary data has not been changed or altered by human beings;
therefore, its validity is greater than secondary data.
Secondary Data
Secondary data is the data that has been already collected by and readily available from other sources.
When we use Statistical Method with Primary Data from another purpose for our purpose we refer to it
as Secondary Data. It means that one purpose Primary Data is another purpose Secondary Data. So that
secondary data is data that is being reused. Such data are more quickly obtainable than the primary data.
• These secondary data may be obtained from many sources, including literature, industry surveys,
compilations from computerized databases and information systems, and computerized or
mathematical models of environmental processes.

2
Data Acquisition
Data is one of the most important and vital aspects of any research studies. Researchers conducted in
different fields of study can be different in methodology but every research is based on data which is
analyzed and interpreted to get information. Data is the basic unit in statistical studies. Statistical
information like census, population variables, health statistics, and road accidents records are all
developed from data.
There are two sources of data collection techniques. Primary and Secondary data collection techniques,
Primary data collection uses surveys, experiments or direct observations.
Secondary data collection may be conducted by collecting information from a diverse source of
documents or electronically stored information, census and market studies are examples of common
sources of secondary data. This is also referred to as “data mining.”
Survey
The survey is the most commonly used method in social sciences, management, marketing and
psychology to some extent. Surveys can be conducted in different methods.
Questionnaire
The questionnaire is the most commonly used method in the survey. Questionnaires are a list of
questions either an open-ended or close-ended for which the respondent give answers. A questionnaire
can be conducted via telephone, mail, live in a public area, or in an institute, through electronic mail or
through fax and other methods.
Interview
An interview is a face-to-face conversation with the respondent. It is slow, expensive, and they take
people away from their regular jobs, but they allow in-depth questioning and follow-up questions.
Observations
Observations can be done while letting the observing person know that he is being observed or without
letting him know. Observations can also be made in natural settings as well as in the artificially created
environment.
Published Printed Sources
There are varieties of published printed sources. Their credibility depends on many factors. For example,
on the writer, publishing company and time and date when published. New sources are preferred and
old sources should be avoided as new technology and researches bring new facts into light.
Books
Books are available today on any topic that you want to research. The uses of books start before even
you have selected the topic. After selection of topics books provide insight on how much work has
already been done on the same topic and you can prepare your literature review. Books are a secondary
source but most authentic one in secondary sources.
Journals/Periodicals
Journals and periodicals are becoming more important as far as data collection is concerned. The reason
is that journals provide up-to-date information which at times books cannot and secondly, journals can
give information on the very specific topic on which you are researching rather talking about more
general topics.

3
Magazines/Newspapers
Magazines are also effective but not very reliable. Newspaper, on the other hand, is more reliable and
in some cases, the information can only be obtained from newspapers as in the case of some political
studies.

Published Electronic Sources

As internet is becoming more advance, fast and reachable to the masses; it has been seen that much
information that is not available in printed form is available on internet. In the past the credibility of
internet was questionable but today it is not.
The reasons that in the past journals and books were seldom published on internet but today almost
every journal and book is available online. Some are free and for others you have to pay the price.
E-journals: e-journals are more commonly available than printed journals. Latest journals are difficult to
retrieve without a subscription but if your university has an e-library you can view any journal, print it
and those that are not available you can make an order for them.
General Websites; Generally, websites do not contain very reliable information so their content should
be checked for the reliability before quoting from them.
Weblogs: Weblogs are also becoming common. They are actually diaries written by different people.
These diaries are as reliable to use as personal written diaries.

Classification of Data
Data classification is the process of organizing data into categories for its most effective and efficient
use.
Classification is the way of arranging the data in different classes in order to give a definite form and a
coherent structure to the data collected, facilitating their use in the most systematic and effective
manner. It is the process of grouping the statistical data under various understandable homogeneous
groups for the purpose of convenient interpretation.
There are three different approaches are the industry standard for data classification:
• Content-based classification
• Context-based classification
• User-based classification
Objectives of Classification of Data
• To group heterogeneous data under the homogeneous group of common characteristics;
• To facility similarity of the various group;
• To facilitate effective comparison;
• To present complex, haphazard and scattered dates in a concise, logical, homogeneous, and
intelligible form;
• To maintain clarity and simplicity of complex data;
• To identify independent and dependent variables and establish their relationship;
• To establish a cohesive nature for the diverse data for effective and logical analysis;
• To make logical and effective quantification
• A good classification should have the characteristics of clarity, homogeneity, and equality of scale,
purposefulness, accuracy, stability, flexibility, and unambiguity.

4
Classification is of two types, viz., quantitative classification, which is on the basis of variables or quantity;
and qualitative classification (classification according to attributes). The former is the way of grouping
the variables, say quantifying the variables in cohesive groups, while the latter group the data on the
basis of attributes or qualities. Again, it may be multiple classification or dichotomous classification.
The former is the way of making many (more than two) groups on the basis of some quality or attributes,
while the latter is the classification into two groups on the basis of the presence or absence of a certain
quality.
Data classification, in the context of information security, is the classification of data based on its level
of sensitivity and the impact to the University should that data be disclosed, altered or destroyed without
authorization. The classification of data helps determine what baseline security controls are appropriate
for safeguarding that data. All institutional data should be classified into one of three sensitivity levels,
or classifications:
A. Restricted Data

Data should be classified as Restricted when the unauthorized disclosure, alteration or

destruction of that data could cause a significant level of risk to the University or its affiliates.
Examples of Restricted data include data protected by state or federal privacy regulations and
data protected by confidentiality agreements. The highest level of security controls should be
applied to Restricted data.

B. Private Data

Data should be classified as Private when the unauthorized disclosure, alteration or destruction
of that data could result in a moderate level of risk to the University or its affiliates. By default, all
Institutional Data that is not explicitly classified as Restricted or Public data should be treated as
Private data. A reasonable level of security controls should be applied to Private data.

C. Public Data

Data should be classified as Public when the unauthorized disclosure, alteration or destruction of
that data would results in little or no risk to the University and its affiliates. Examples of Public
data include press releases, course information and research publications. While little or no
controls are required to protect the confidentiality of Public data, some level of control is required
to prevent unauthorized modification or destruction of Public data.

5
 Chapter – 2
Quantitative and Qualitative Data
Qualitative Data
Qualitative data analysis can be summed up in one word - categorical. With qualitative
analysis, data is not described through numerical values or patterns, but through the use
of descriptive context (i.e., text). Typically, narrative data is gathered by employing a wide
variety of person-to-person techniques. These techniques include:
• Observations: detailing behavioral patterns that occur within an observation group. These patterns
could be the amount of time spent in an activity, the type of activity, and the method of
communication employed.
• Focus groups: Group people and ask them relevant questions to generate a collaborative discussion
about a research topic.
• Secondary Research: much like how patterns of behavior can be observed, different types of
documentation resources can be coded and divided based on the type of material they contain.
• Interviews: one of the best collection methods for narrative data. Inquiry responses can be grouped
by theme, topic, or category. The interview approach allows for highly-focused data segmentation.

Quantitative Data
If quantitative data interpretation could be summed up in one word (and it really can't) that word would
be "numerical." There are few certainties when it comes to data analysis, but you can be sure that if the
research you are engaging in has no numbers involved, it is not quantitative research. Quantitative
analysis refers to a set of processes by which numerical data is analyzed. More often than not, it involves
the use of statistical modeling such as standard deviation, mean and median. Let's quickly review the
most common statistical terms:
• Mean: a mean represents a numerical average for a set of responses. When dealing with a data set
(or multiple data sets), a mean will represent a central value of a specific set of numbers. It is the
sum of the values divided by the number of values within the data set. Other terms that can be used
to describe the concept are arithmetic mean, average and mathematical expectation.
• Standard deviation: this is another statistical term commonly appearing in quantitative analysis.
Standard deviation reveals the distribution of the responses around the mean. It describes the
degree of consistency within the responses, together with the mean, it provides insight into data
sets.
• Frequency distribution: this is a measurement gauging the rate of a response appearance within a
data set. When using a survey, for example, frequency distribution has the capability of determining
the number of times a specific ordinal scale response appears (ie., agree, strongly agree, disagree,
etc.). Frequency distribution is extremely keen in determining the degree of consensus among data
points.
The difference between qualitative and quantitative is given below.
Qualitative Quantitative
1. The qualitative method develops an 1. Quantitative method is used to generate
understanding of the human and social numerical data from scientific and empirical
sciences research method.
2. The qualitative method is holistic in nature. 2. Quantitative research is specific.

6
3. In this method the reasoning used to 3. The reasoning used in quantitative method is
synthesize the data is inductive deductive
4. It is Inventor 4. Quantitative is crucial
5. Quantitative method relies on random
5. Qualitative method is based on purposive
sampling in which large representative
sampling of data where a small group or sampling method is used for the entire
sample size is selected to get an in-depth population.
understanding of the target concept. 6. In quantitative method measurable data is
6. Oral data is collected in qualitative method. done.
7. Qualitative method remains process oriented 7. Not such a quantitative method
8. 8.

7
 Chapter – 3
Graphical Representation
Data Visualization
Data can be serialized and represented in many ways, for example
1. Table
2. Pictogram
3. Bar Chart
4. Histogram
5. Pie Chart
6. Line Graph
Sometimes the data can be in more than one table, pie chart etc. Their purpose is not only quantitative
cell testing. But also to explore comparative and analytical skills.
Main parts of the table
A Table Must Have the Following Main Parts
1. Title of the Table
It is very important to have a proper title of each table. Which should reveal and clarify that what
kind of figures are there? At what time? And to which place is it related? Title should be clear, concise
and at some places explanatory. The quality of attractiveness is also necessary in the title so that the
attention of the reader goes towards it and it does not have to spend much time and effort to
understand it.
2. Table No.
Each table should be numbered at the beginning. The table number makes it easy to find a term.
When the number of tables is large, these tables should be numbered judiciously. Usually placed
above the title. In such a way that it comes to the center of the title.
3. Subtitle Each
A table consists of several columns. The headings in the columns are called subheadings or captions.
The subheading should be placed in the middle of the column. There can be many headings under
one subheading. When the terms in different columns are measured in different units of
measurement, the concerned unit is omitted from the subheading.
4. Row Title
The title of the row is called row title or stn, it is given twice in the table.
5. Table Cover
This is the main and important part of the table. Its size format should be decided in advance on the
basis of data. In this section, the data is arranged according to the distribution of subheadings and
line headings.
6. Underline and Spacing
Leaving drawing space is also an important part of the table. By leaving proper space and making
proper drawing, the table becomes more attractive and effective so that improvements can be made
as much as possible and an attractive and clear table can be made.
7. Foot Note
Sometimes comments are considered necessary for the explanation of the figures or words
Given in the table, then they are given below the table, but as far as possible, the comments
Should be used as little as possible.
8
Table No. “Title”
Line Subheading Main Column Title Total
Sub headline Sub headline Sub headline
Sub-entries Middle part
Total

Bar Chart
A bar chart is a graph that uses bars to show a comparison between categories of data. The bars can be
either horizontal or vertical. There are 2 points in the graph. One axis will describe the types of categories
being compared and the other will have a numerical value. Which represent the values of the data, it
doesn't matter which axis or axes. But it will determine what is shown in the bar graph. If the description
is on the horizontal axis, the outside will be oriented vertically. If the values are along the horizontal axis,
the bars will be oriented horizontally.
Types of Bar Charts
There are many types of bar charts or bar graphs, they are not always interchangeable. Each type will
work best with a different type of fry. What we want to compare helps us determine what type of bar
graph to use. First we will discuss some simple bar graph
Vertical or Vertical Bar Chart
A simple vertical bar graph is best. When you do not have to make a comparison between two or more
than two independent variables. Each variable will be related to a fixed value and hence can be fixed for
horizontal value.

Horizontal Bar Chart

If your data has negative and positive values, but is still a comparison between two or more fixed
independent variables, then it is appropriate to have a horizontal graph. The vertical axis can be oriented
in the middle of the horizontal axis. Whose negative and positive value can be represented?

9
Range Bar Chart
A range bar chart represents a range of data for each independent variable. Temperature ranges or value
ranges are common sets of data for range graphs. Unlike the above graph the data does not start from
a common listening point. But that particular point starts at a low number for the range of the data. A
range bar graph can be either horizontal or vertical.

Histogram Data
Statistical information is shown by histogram. The histogram describes the mean between two variables.
It is a graphical representation of numerical or histogram data distribution in equal parts. It is a priority
distribution of a continuous variable. It was first proposed by Karl Priusen. The histogram shows
tabulated frequencies. Which is represented by a rectangle shown on a discrete interval, in which the
area of the respective interval is directly proportional to the frequency of observation. The height of the
rectangle is also proportional to the frequency density of the corresponding interval, ie the ratio of the
shape and the interval width.

10
The total area of the map is equal to the total number of figures. A histogram is also displayed by
overnormalizing it with the corresponding frequency. Talking about a common form of a histogram, it is
shown with the dependent or independent variable on the horizontal line and the dependent or
dependent variable along the vertical, these data are shown separately in some color or like a covered
moving area.
It is very similar to a bar chart. But there are constant variables in it. The difference between a histogram
and a simple bar graph is that each bar in a histogram represents a series of dependent variables, rather
than just a single dotted point.

DATA MAPPING
• Data mapping is the process of mapping data fields from a source file to their related target fields.
The accessibility to required data can make some organization more successful. Somehow, data is
easier to use when it can be visualized as well.
• Visual data help people to understand how different concepts originate and their relation with each
other.
• Data mapping helps in all these. For example, "Name, "Email,' and 'Phone' fields from an Excel source
are mapped to the relevant fields in a delimited file, which is our destination.
• Data mapping helps by providing organizations with procedure links to show how certain tasks are
to be utilized. Forty per cent of our nerve fibres linking to the brain are in the retina only. Data
mapping helps us to see what makes different pieces of data useful and helpful
• The customer trends can be traced in the real time The causes of trends and past data numbers can
be analysed and other calculations of information and variables can be done. We can also use data
mapping software to compare our date with that of competitors. This should make it easier for your
business to grow when chosen right.
• They also work by establishing larger maps. Salesforce of any organization has a particularly strong
data mapping software program that can be put to use. This helps in real time also. We can get
connected to a cloud network to get information in real time.
• Data mapping works for all businesses. For example, if we were in the retail sector, then we can use
data mapping to calculate how discount sales can influence the overall sales totals in our business.
Similarly, financing, investment type decisions can also be made.
• Data may be internal or external, but it is getting more dispersed and voluminous, then its data
leverage is important and actionable insights are developed.
• In general, data mapping helps with the following activities.
o Data Integration
Data mapping tools to cover differences in the schemas of data source and destination, allowing
businesses to consolidate information from different data points easily.
o Data Migration
It is moving data from one database to another. Here, using a code-free data mapping solution
that can automate the process is important to migrate data to the destination successfully.
o Data Warehousing
Data mapping in a data warehouse is the process of creating a connection between the source
and target tables or attributes.

11
 o Data Transformation
It is essential to break information silos and draw insights. Data mapping is the first step in data
transformation.
o Data Mapping Techniques
Although an essential step in any data management process, data mapping can be complex and
time consuming. Based on the level of automation, data mapping techniques can be divided into
two types and they are as follows.
1. Manual data mapping - Although hand-coded, manual data mapping process offers unlimited
flexibility.
2. Semi-automated data mapping - Schema mapping is often classified as a semi-automated
data mapping technique. The process involves identifying two data objects that are
semantically related and then building mappings between them.

Figure or Data Interpretation

Data interpretation assigns a meaning to the information analyzed and determines its signature and
implication. It refers to the implementation of procedures through which data are reviewed for the
purpose of arriving at an informed conclusion. A good judgment should be made for its comparative
measurement. It includes the following scales.
1. Nominal Scale It consists of non-numerical scale which cannot be ranked or compared quantitatively.
Variable is specific and exhaustive
2. Karma Indicative Number or Ordinal Scale. It consists of categories that are other wholes, but with a
logical dema. Examples of quality ratings and agreement ratings are Good, Very, Good, Fair, or Agree.
3. Interval scale. Here the data is sorted and grouped into categories on the basis of equal distance. It is
always an arbitrary 0 point.
4. Proportion It includes all the above three features while interpreting the data an analysis should try
to understand the difference between correlation factor and coincidence etc. apart from some other
factors.

12
 Chapter - 4
DATA AND GOVERNANCE
• Data governance is a requirement in today's fast-moving and highly competitive
enterprise environment. Now that organizations have the opportunity to capture
massive amounts of diverse internal and external data, they need a discipline to
maximize their value, manage risks and reduce cost.
• Data governance is a collection of processes, roles, policies, standards, and metrics that ensure the
effective and efficient use of information in enabling an organization to achieve its goals. Data
governance defines who can take what action, upon what data, in what situations, using what
methods.
• Data governance ensures that roles related to data are clearly defined, and that responsibility and
accountability are agreed upon across the enterprise. A well-planned data governance framework
covers strategic, tactical, and operational roles and responsibilities.
• While crafting data and governance strategy, we need to be careful.
• Data Governance is not data management: Data management refers to the management of the full
data lifecycle needs of an organization. Data governance is the core component of data management
such as data warehousing.
1. Data Governance is not master data management: Master data management focuses on
identifying an organization's key entities and then improving the quality of this data.
2. Data Governance is not data stewardship: Data stewards take care of data assets, making certain
that the actual data is consistent with the data governance plan, linked with other data assets
and in control in terms of data quality, compliance, or security.

Benefits of Data Governance

An effective data governance strategy provides many benefits to an organization, where it includes
the following
• There is a common understanding of data.
• There is improved quality of data, such as data accuracy, completeness and consistency.
• Data map is available.
• Holistic view: A 360-degree view of each customer and other business entities basically a single
version of the truth'.
• Consistent compliance: Data governance provides a platform for meeting the demands of
government regulations.
• Improved data management: It brings the human dimension into a highly automated and data-
driven world.
We can use technology as the enabler for the same.
Open source and cloud are the basic strategies for data governance tools. IPaas is also closely linked with
them. These tools also help us achieve the following.
1. Capture and understand our data,
2. Improve the quality of our data.
3. Managing data: With metadata-driven ETL and ELT, and data integration applications.
4. Controlling data.
5. Document our data.

13
6. Empower the people that know the data best: To contribute to the data stewardship.
7. Protecting sensitive data.
We need to understand that data governance is not optional.
The implementation known as a 'data lake' necessarily requires processes that allow you to keep the
data you need in a way that eliminates technical barriers and gives new capabilities to process that data.

14
 Data Interpretation
Data Interpretation refers to the process of reviewing the data provided and using these data to
calculate the required value.
Data can be provided in various forms such as tables, line diagrams, bar diagrams, pie charts,
radar graphs, compound graphs and caselets. Also, check the data adequacy concepts once
through the data interpretation concepts.
Data Interpretation Methodology is a way of analyzing and helping people make sense of
numerical data that has been collected, analyzed and presented. When the data is collected, it
usually remains in the form of a row which can be difficult for the lay person to understand and
that is why analysts always divide the collected information so that others can understand it. For
example, when founders present their pitches to or to their potential investors, they may seek a
better understanding of the market.
The following concepts are useful for solving data interpretation –
● Average
● Ratio and Proportion
● Percent

Average
The average or arithmetic mean or mean of two or more quantities is equal to their sum divided
by the number of those quantities.
Sum of all quantities
Average 
Number of quantities
It is defined as the central value of the values of all quantities. It is the result of the sum of the
values of all the quantities divided by the number of quantities. The average is always between
the highest and lowest values of all quantities. It is necessary that the quantities taken into
account have the same features and must be expressed either in the same unit or in comparable
units. In order to calculate the average, students must learn the various properties related to the
average.

Ratio and Proportion

The comparative relation between two quantities of the same type by division is called ratio. In
other words, ratio means how much of one quantity belongs to another.
The ratio is always between the same units like kg : kg, hour : hour, litre : litre etc.
Let us consider two quantities x and y in the ratio x : y or x/y or x y.
The two quantities being compared here are called terms. The first quantity 'x' is called
antecedent. The second quantity 'y' is called the resultant.

Percent
Percent means every hundred. It is a ratio with a base of 100. Percentage calculation is the most
important aspect in representation as well as in the interpretation of data.
Percentage increase = (Final value - Initial value) / (Initial value) × 100
Percentage reduction = Initial value - Final value) / (Initial value) × 100

15