Chapter 4:

Discourse & Genre

Genres are activities that people engage in through the use of language. Language usage in a
genre is influenced by its content, purpose, relationship with the audience, and the social and
cultural context. Genres vary in typicality and can be typical or less typical.

Defining genre:
Martin's definition of genre as a staged, goal-oriented activity in which speakers engage as
members of their culture has been influential in the Sydney School of genre analysis. It’s social
because participate with others, it’s goal oriented because to get things done, it’s staged
because takes few steps to reach goal. Swales prefers the notion of metaphor over definition, as
definitions may not be true in all possible worlds and times. Miller's notion of genre as social
action is important in rhetorical genre studies, as it is defined by the action it is used to
accomplish, forming a social agreement about language use in specific social and cultural
settings.

The Sydney school of genre analysis:

The Sydney School of genre analysis emphasizes the significance of genre in teaching writing
and reading. It uses the term schematic structure to describe the discourse structure of texts
which corresponding to Malinowski's context of culture and the register corresponds to
Malinowski’s context of situation. Genres are culture-specific, having specific purposes, stages,
and linguistic features, which need to be interpreted in relation to their cultural and social
contexts.

Genre analysis & English for specific purposes:

Genre analysis is a method used in teaching English for specific purposes, based on Swales'
discourse structure analysis of research article introductions. Swales argued that communicative
purpose determines whether a text belongs to a particular genre. However, he has since revised
this view, recognizing that genres may have multiple purposes and can vary across cultures,
even within the same genre category.

Rhetorical genre studies:

Rhetorical genre studies emphasize the role of genres in shaping knowledge about reality and
the world. They respond to and contribute to social contexts and individual socialization. Miller
suggests genres are key to understanding community actions, and their failure to recognize
genre as social action can lead to formalized texts, impacting genre-based teaching.
Choice & constraint in the use of spoken & written genres:
Swales discusses the concept of genre, arguing that it consists of choices and constraints,
regularity and chaos. Genres are dynamic and open to change, but they are not a free for all.
Devitt (1997) explains that conformity among genre users is a fact of genre, and there are
consequences for violating genre expectations. Swales argues that both constraint and choice
are necessary and positive components of genres, and both need to be valued.

Assigning a text to genre category:

The process of assigning a text to a genre category involves considering various factors such as
the author, intended audience, purpose, situation, physical form, title, pre-sequence, discourse
structure, content, formality, style, and whether the text is spoken or written. Linguists suggest
that genres can be defined based on similarities and differences in discourse structures.
However, not all instances of a particular genre will have the same discourse structure or
communicative purpose. Communication purpose is an important criterion for determining a
text's genre, as it may be presented in an unusual way but still have the same communicative
aim. Genre identification is a complex process that requires a flexible view of language, focusing
on prototype rather than defining features. Genres are seen as resources for meaning, with
typical ways of organization, situations, and goals. Assigning a text to a genre category doesn't
necessarily involve exact match, but rather a notion of "sufficient similarity" to other examples in
the genre category.

Relationships between genres:

Genre theory has developed notions of genre networks, genre chains, genre sets, and repertoires
of genres. These concepts highlight the interconnectedness of genres, such as academic
essays, which may draw from various genres such as academic lectures, specialist texts, and
journal articles. Studies have shown that students' preparation for assessments varies across
different areas of study, with informal study group sessions and hornbooks being crucial in law,
while class discussions and oral presentations are important in MBA. To assist students in these
situations, it is essential to understand the genres they engage in as they prepare for
assessments. For example, students need to interact with various genres in their application
process, such as the job interview, which interacts with other genres in a genre network,
including the job advertisement, position description, letter of application, and resumé. Job
applicants may use various genres to apply for a job, such as phone calls, emails, letters, faxes,
or casual conversations. In some countries, the genre network for job applications may be more
complex, such as in Italy, where a 'raccomandazione' or a public written examination is required.
Understanding genres involves understanding the totality of genres available in a particular
sector, their interactions, and the typical sequence and hierarchy of genres. In some cultures, a
'raccomandazione' may have higher value than a letter of recommendation or public examination.

An example of genre chain: letter to the editor:

Letters to the editor are an example of a genre chain, as they often reference and assume
knowledge of other genres and preceding events. They may refer to previous instances of the
same genre or a range of different genres. The letter to the editor is a reaction to a number of
previous texts and events, each interacting within their own genre network. Looking at the texts
in isolation removes much of the information needed to fully interpret and make a judgment
about them.

An example of a genre network:

Figure pa. 70: A genre network for US university research students, highlighting genres beyond
typical ones they need to participate in for success. These genres may vary, but are part of a
typical repertoire for many students. Many genres are occluded or supporting, which are closed
and difficult to access. Open genres, which are public, easily visible, and audible, are more
accessible. These genres pose challenges for graduate students and researchers.

An example of genre sets:

Figure pa. 71: illustrates the genre chains and sets surrounding the writing of Swales' book. It
reveals the relationship between Swales' original book proposal and various genres, including
interviews, data examination, publisher's contract, permissions, ethics applications, and
conversations between the author and study participants.

Written genres across cultures:

Contrastive rhetoric, a field of research that examines the use of genres across cultures, has
been a focus of many studies. Originating from Kaplan's work, it has found significant differences
in the discourse structure of academic writing across languages and cultures. However, some
studies have found similarities, such as the presence of "Asian ways of writing" in Chinese and
Japanese essay writing. Contrastive rhetoric can be seen as the study of differences in
pragmatic and strategic choices made by writers in response to external demands and cultural
histories. Canagarajah argues that contrastive rhetoric research needs to develop more complex
explanations for textual difference, focusing on genre analysis rather than normative, rule-
governed, and value-free descriptions of genre-specific discourse patterns. This call for further
complexification has been taken by others, who draw on theories in composition studies, cultural
anthropology, translation studies, and text linguistics. Wang also calls for further complexifying
contrastive genre studies by examining the relationship between texts and sociocultural
contexts.

Spoken genres across cultures:

Nakanishi's study examined the concept of 'going on a first date' in Japanese and compared it
with research conducted in the United States. The study found that while men and women
conceptualized the genre in Japanese, gender-specific behavior was observed. Japanese women
avoided silence during the date and asked more questions to learn more about their dating
partner. They were also less hesitant in expressing their ideas and feelings on a first date than in
other genres in Japanese. In the US study, men took proactive roles in setting up the date and
deciding its location, while women were more reactive in closing the date. The role of
conversation and non-verbal behavior also differed between the two cultures. Japanese women
observed their dating partner's behavior to learn more about them, while American women
commented more on their physical actions or non-verbal behavior. It is important to remember
that while there may be similarities in performing the same genre across cultures, there may also
be significant differences.

Genre & academic writing:

Genre plays a crucial role in teaching academic writing, with different approaches in different
parts of the world. In Britain and the United States, specific purpose genre work primarily
focuses on second language graduate student writing, in North America rhetorical genre, while in
Australia, genre-based teaching aims to empower underprivileged communities and provide
necessary resources for academic success. This approach has expanded to higher education
settings, known as the 'Sydney School'.

Discourse & academic writing:

Swales' work on discourse structure in academic texts has been extensively studied, including
research articles, dissertations, job applications, and university course texts. The CARS
framework, which describes the typical discourse structure of the Introduction section of
research articles, has been applied to other genres like theses and dissertations. It show how
authors establish the platform for their research. Other analyses have focused on how micro-
genres and rhetorical types, such as arguments and descriptions, come together in academic
writing, such as student assignments and essays.

Language and academic writing:

Hutchinson and Waters arguing that language variation between areas of specialization is due to
technical and specialized vocabulary rather than genre-specific language. However, recent
developments in corpus studies have challenged this view. Biber found a wide range of linguistic
variation within specific genres, revealing that different texts are complex in different ways.
Charles, Pecorari, and Hunston argue that corpus studies and discourse analysis are
complementary in analyzing academic writing, with discourse analysis being more top-down and
corpus-based analyses being bottom-up.

Academic writing & metadiscourse:

Metadiscourse, coined by Zellig Harris, refers to the writer's attempt to guide their audience's
perception of their text. Metadiscourse refers to aspects of a text that explicitly refer to the
writer's stance towards the content or reader, including interactive rhetorical and interactional
rhetorical features.

Interactive rhetorical resources guide readers through a text, expressing clause relations,
stages, information from other texts, and evaluating meanings, aiming to lead them to the
author's preferred interpretation.

Interactional rhetorical resources involve writers expressing their stance and engaging
with readers in their texts. Stance involves presenting oneself and conveying judgments,
opinions, and commitments.

Steps in genre analysis:

Bhatia and Bawarshi and Reiff provide steps for analyzing written genres. The steps can be taken
in various ways, such as a 'text-first' or 'context-first' approach. The first step is to collect
samples of the genre, which can be a few randomly chosen texts for exploratory investigation, a
single typical text for detailed analysis, or a larger sample for specific features.
Next, consider what is already known about the genre, including its setting and conventions. This
can be found in existing literature, practitioner advice, and research articles.
The analysis should then be refined by defining the speaker, audience, and purpose of the text.
An important considerations are typical discourse patterns for the genre, such as organization,
layout, and language features. People need to know what values, beliefs, and assumptions are
assumed by the genre. Additionally, the networks of texts surrounding the genre should be
considered, and knowledge of these should be important to understand the genre.

The social & cultural context of genres:

Genre analysis involves examining the social and cultural context of a written text, considering
factors such as setting, focus, purpose, intended audience, writer-reader relationship,
expectations, conventions, background knowledge, and relationship with other texts. These
aspects are intertwined and impact a writer's writing and style and are not as distinct as they
appear.
Context analysis of theses & dissertations:
The social and cultural context of theses and dissertations is crucial for understanding the
discourse structure and socially situated nature of texts. Researchers can contextualize their
studies to colsing the gap between text and context; by using ethnography as a method,
ethnography as methodology, and ethnography as deep theorizing.

Talk around text is an example of ethnography as a method, involving text-based

interviews or survey data to gather writers' perspectives on their texts.

Ethnography as methodology involves using multiple data sources and a sustained

involvement in the context to gain an understanding of the dynamic and complex meanings
and practices in the writing.

Ethnography as deep theorizing help researchers understand how language and

orientation of texts index and connect to social structures, values, and relations, providing
valuable insights into the writing process.
The studies follow a context-based, rhetorically organized approach to genre analysis, focusing
on factors influencing genre creation and reception in social, cultural, and political settings.
Devitt argues that genre forms are meaningful within their social, cultural, and individual
contexts.

Discourse structure of genres:

The discourse structure of genres can be analyzed by identifying its generic structure based on
genre category membership, such as letter to the editor or doctoral dissertation, or by examining
its rhetorical structure by examining rhetorical types like argument, description, and problem-
solution. These two perspectives offer a comprehensive understanding of the structure of texts,
which together form larger, more complex texts.

Discourse structure of theses & dissertations:

The study by Paltridge examined theses and dissertations in various study areas, revealing four
types of pattern: 'simple traditional', 'complex traditional', 'topic-based', and 'compilations of
research articles'.

Applications of genre analysis:

Genre analysis is a valuable tool in language teaching, but its application is complex. Some argue
that it can help students access texts and discourses, enhancing their participation in second
language interactions. Others, however, argue that teaching 'genres of power', such as academic
essays or dissertations, may lead to uncritical reproduction of the status quo and is socially
irresponsible. Teachers must also consider how to help students bring their individual voices into
their use of genres and students avoid overgeneralizing what they have learned about one genre.
Kay & Dudley argue teachers also need to contextualize genres by discussing purpose, audience,
and underlying beliefs and values before focusing on language features. They believe that genre-
based approaches are particularly suitable for beginner and intermediate level students.
Scott and Groom also view genres as resources students need for expression and
communication. The teaching of generic form sees moldels as part of a wider repertoire of
resources that students can draw on and adopt to support their meaning making.
Tardy explores genre-based teaching in first and second language contexts, highlighting that
genre theory goes beyond text types to consider them as social constructs shaped by human
activity. Cheng's work addresses concerns about the product-oriented nature of ESP genre-
based teaching. Dressen-Hammouda's study on a geology student's writing experience
highlights the importance of focusing on the disciplinary community's ways of perceiving,
interpreting, and behaving.
Box examined the role of genre in language syllabus design. Kongpetch found the effect of
genre-based in quality of her students writing.
Genres offer a framework for communicative events, enhancing learners' communication skills
and access to socially powerful language forms.