EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICS I

Phys 2101(3015)

ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF NATURAL AND COMPUTATIONAL
SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
CONTENTS
Pages

General Guidelines on Report Writing 3

1. Addition of Vectors 8

2. Measurement of the Earth’s Gravitational Intensity 14

3. Conservation of Linear Momentum 19

4. Investigation of Torque and Equilibrium 29

5. Moment of Inertia of a Solid Sphere 37

6. The Rigid Pendulum 43

7. Resonance in Air Columns 48

8. Measurement of the Specific Heat of Solids 55

2
General Guidelines on Report Writings
I. Introduction

The purpose of the physics laboratory is to provide the practical knowledge

necessary for a complete understanding of the subject - physics. The other
objective is to develop familiarity with the experimental method, upon
which science depends.

Instructions

Students are required to read and understand all sections (objectives,

theory, etc.) of an experiment before the regular laboratory session. All
observations and data should be neatly recorded in a suitable tabular form
previously arranged for the particular experiment. The columns should be
labeled clearly and the units in which the quantities are measured should
be denoted. Instruments should be read to the limit of their possibilities by
estimating the last figure of the reading, i.e., the fraction of the smallest
scale division. In making calculations, it is better to include the
mathematical equations to indicate the operations performed and to show
clearly how the results have been obtained. It is expected that every
student exercises the greatest care while using the laboratory apparatus.

II. How to write a report

The report for each experiment should be started on a page and should
normally consist of the following parts:

1. Title, name and date (cover page)

2. Objective of the Experiment – It declares the objective of the experiment
precisely.
3. Theory – it contains detailed explanations of the physical principles
(laws, formulae, etc.) of the experiment.
4. Apparatus – it contains a complete description of the devices used in
the experiment.
5. Procedure – it contains a complete description of the experimental
setup and the steps employed in performing the experiment.

3
 6. Data – the values of the measurements are displayed, usually in
tabular form.
7. Data analysis and error analysis – it contains calculations of the
observed data and the corresponding errors.
8. Results and discussion – it contains the results of the experiment
expressed in terms of numbers, tables, figures, graphs, etc. obtained
from the experiment are presented.
9. Conclusions – in this section the writer highlights the important
results of the experiment.
10. Solutions or answers – it contains the solutions (showing all the
necessary steps) or (and) answers to the questions given at the end
of each experiment.

Note: 1) The pre-lab section shall include up to the procedure of the contents
of the lab report and shall be prepared a head of the lab session.
2) If you do not complete an experiment during a session, a statement of the
reasons for discontinuing the experiment should be given.
III. Uncertainty in measurements
Laboratory investigations involve taking measurements of physical
quantities and the process of taking measurements. No matter how careful
one is, measurements always involve some uncertainty or experimental
error. There are different types of errors, such as personal, systematic,
instrumental and accidental errors. These are identified by the following
characteristics:

➢ Personal errors include blunders, such as mistakes in arithmetic, in

recording an observation or in reading a scale division. Another
important kind of personal error is known as personal bias, such as
prejudiced in favor of the first observation.

➢ Systematic errors are characterized by their tendency to be in only

one direction, either positive or negative. For example, if a meter
stick is slightly worn at one end, and measurements are taken from
this end, then a constant error will occur in all these measurements.

➢ Instrumental errors are those introduced by slight imperfections in

manufacturing or calibration of the instrument.

4
 ➢ Accidental errors are deviations that are beyond the control of the
observer. These errors are due to jarring, noise, fluctuations in
temperature, variations in atmospheric pressure and the like.

The accuracy of a measurement, therefore, depends upon a number of

factors, many of which cannot be easily determined. It will be assumed in
these experiments that the apparatus is sufficiently accurate so that
instrumental errors are negligible and that systematic errors, personal
errors and personal bias are eliminated. Under these conditions all
variations in the readings are due to accidental errors. In this case,
experience tells us that the arithmetic mean of a number of observations
will give us the most probable result. But this is still not the true value of
the quantity that is being measured, since the true value is seldom known.
Hence it is important to know how reliable the result is, to a certain set
limit within which the true value most probably lies. It is known from the
theory of probability that:

➢ The arithmetic mean of a number observations (readings), whose

values are denoted by xi with i = 1, 2, 3, … n, is given by
n
xi
x=
i =1 n .

➢ The arithmetic mean will approach the true value as the number of
observations increases.

➢ One way of increasing the accuracy of measurements is to take a

large number of observations.

There are several ways of expressing the measure of reliability of the

arithmetic mean. These are

➢ the average deviation from the mean (a.d.),

➢ the average deviation of the mean (A.D.), and

➢ the percentage deviation of the mean (% A.D.).

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 When the mean (average) of a number of observations is taken, the
departures of the individual values from the mean are called deviation ( xi
). That is,
xi = xi − x .
The average deviation from the mean (a.d.) is the average of all deviations,
regardless to the sign. It is given by
n xi − x n xi
a.d . =  =
i =1 n i =1 n .
The average deviation of the mean (A.D.) is equal to the average deviation
from the mean (a.d.) divided by the square root of the number of
observations. That is,
a.d . n xi
A.D. = = .
n i =1 n n

The A.D. is a measure of the deviation of the arithmetic mean from the true
value; it is the quantity that is generally known as the probable error. The
significance of the A.D., from the probability theory, is that the chances that
the true value will lie within the range x  A. D. or outside that range is
one-to-one, where x is the observed arithmetic mean.

The percentage deviation of the mean (% A.D.) is equal to the A.D. divided
by the mean multiplied by 100 %. That is,

A. D.
% A. D. =  100 %.
x
Example

➢ Six measurements of the length of a body have been made and the
following values recorded.

Readings, Deviations,
xi (cm) xi = xi - x (cm) |xi| (cm)
7.85 +0.02 0.02
7.81 +0.02 0.02
7.84 +0.01 0.01
6
 7.82 -0.01 0.01
7.85 +0.02 0.02
7.80 -0.03 0.03
Sum = 46.97 cm -------- Sum = 0.11 cm

46.97 cm
x= = 7.83 cm ,
6
0.11 cm
a.d . = = 0.02 cm ,
6
a. d . 0.02 cm
and, A. D. = = = 0.008 cm .
n 6
The significance of A.D. is that chances that the true value of the length will
lie within the range (7.83  0.008) cm are 50%, while the chances it will lie
outside of this range are also 50%. Also,

0.008 cm
% A. D. = 100 % = 0.1% .
7.83 cm

7
 Experiment 1
Addition of Vectors

Pre-lab Questions
1. How can you find the resultant of two vectors graphically and
analytically using a ruler and protractor?
2. Can the magnitude of a resultant of two vectors be less than the
magnitude of either vector?
3. What is an equilibrant force?

Objectives
The objectives of the experiment are

• To add vectors experimentally using a force table

• To add vectors graphically and analytically

Apparatus
The instruments necessary in the experiment are Force table, Pulleys, Slotted
masses, hunger, Ruler, Protractor, Pencil, Graph paper.

Theory

Physical quantities are classified into vectors and scalars. Scalar quantities have
magnitude without direction. Some examples of scalar quantities are distance,
speed, mass, time, etc. On the other hand, physical quantities that have both
magnitude and direction are termed vectors. Some of the vector quantities are
displacement, velocity, force, acceleration, etc. Since vectors are not ordinary
numbers, they follow specific rules of addition. We can add vectors employing
graphical (geometrical) or analytical method. In graphical method, we represent
a vector by directed line segment (arrow). The length and tip (head) of the arrow
respectively represent the magnitude and direction of the vector.

Geometrically vectors can be added using either triangular or parallelogram

method. In a triangular method, the vectors to be added are joined tail to head,

8
as shown in Fig. 1a. The resultant vector is then directed from the tail of the first
vector to the head of the last vector.

In a parallelogram method, we join the two vectors to be added tail to tail. The
resultant vector is the main diagonal of the parallelogram formed by the two
vectors, as shown in Fig.1b.

When we add vectors analytically, we first resolve the vectors into their x-and y-
components, as depicted in Fig. 2a. The resultant vector is obtained by adding all
the x-components together and all the y-components together (Fig. 2b).

Fig. 1a Triangular method of adding

vectors
Fig. 1b Parallelogram method of adding vectors

Fig. 2a Components of a vector

Fig. 2b Analytical method of adding vectors

In this experiment, you will find the resultant of two force vectors experimentally
employing a force table (Fig. 3). It is a large metal disk ruled in degrees like a
9
protractor. Four pulleys are clamped to the edge of the table; they can be set at any
angles. Different masses hang from strings passing over the pulleys. The pulleys
merely change the direction of the force exerted by the strings, from downward to
outward along the surface of the table. These strings are tied to, and pull on, a central
ring that is free to move. If the forces from the three strings balance (add vectorially
to zero) the ring will remain at rest.

Fig. 3 A force table

Procedures
Part I: Finding resultant force experimentally

1. Fix a pulley at 200 mark and place 0.1kg mass including the weight of the
hanger.
2. Fix a second pulley at 900 mark and hang 0.2 kg.
3. By sliding a third pulley over the edge of the turn table, determine the
magnitude and position of a mass needed to balance the two forces. Note
that the mass and angle should be adjusted so that the ring is centered on

10
 the table, and is not touching the center post. Record this mass and the
angle. The weight of this mass is the equilibrant force.

Part II: Finding resultant force graphically

1. Choose an appropriate scale and draw the first force F1 from the origin of
a coordinate system at the proper angle.
2. Join the tail of the second force F2 to the head of the first force.
3. Draw a vector directed from the origin to the head of the second force
vector. This is the resultant force FR.
4. Using a ruler and protractor, measure the length of the resultant force
and the angle it makes with positive x-axis. Fill Table 1.
5. Convert the length into force using the chosen scale.

Part III: Finding the resultant force analytically

1. Using a ruler, measure the x-and y-components of the three forces on the
force diagram drawn in part II. Record your result in Table 2.
2. Add the x-components of the first and second forces. Compare this with
the x-component of the resultant force.
3. Add the y-components of the first and second forces. Compare this with
the y-component of the resultant force.
4. Employing the components of the first and second forces, obtain the
magnitude and direction of their resultant force.

Data and Observation

Part I:
1. 𝑚1 = 0.1𝑘𝑔, 𝜃1 = 200 , 𝐹1 = __________𝑁
2. 𝑚2 = 0.2𝑘𝑔, 𝜃2 = 900 , 𝐹2 = ___________𝑁
3. 𝑚3 = __________𝑘𝑔,
𝜃3 = ___________,
𝐹𝑒𝑞𝑢 = _________𝑁

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 Part II:
Scale : _________________

Force (N) Length (cm) Direction (degrees)

F1

F2

FR

Table 1

Part III:

Force x-component y-component Direction (degrees)

cm N cm N

F1

F2

FR

Table 2

Data Analysis
1. Calculate the resultant force of the two forces graphically.
2. Find the x and y components of the two forces and calculate their
resultant force analytically.
3. Measure the magnitude and direction of the resultant force.

Results and Discussion

1. What is the experimental value of the resultant force?
2. What is the resultant force obtained employing the triangular method?
3. What is the resultant force obtained analytically?
4. How do you compare the theoretical and experimental values of the
resultant force?

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 Questions
1. Consider six vectors that are added tail-to-head, ending up where they started
from. What is the magnitude of their resultant?
2. Consider two forces F1=10.0 N at 00 and F2 = 10.0 N at 900. Calculate the
magnitude and direction of the equilibrant force.
3. For two force vectors F1= 5.0 N at 1350 and F2 = 6.0 N at 2700, find
(i) 𝐹⃗1 + 𝐹⃗2 using the analytical method;
(ii) 𝐹⃗1 + 𝐹⃗2 using the triangular method; and
(iii) 𝐹⃗1 − 𝐹⃗2 using the analytical method.

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 Experiment 2
Measurement of the Earth’s Gravitational Field Intensity
Objective

The objective of the experiment is to determine the earth’s gravitational field

intensity.

Apparatus

The instruments necessary in the experiment are a stand, a meter ruler, a scale
pan, a stopwatch and different weights.

Theory

The gravitational force between two masses can be considered as an action at a

distance. That is, the two masses interact even though they are not in contact with
each other. An alternative approach in describing the gravitational interaction is
to introduce the concept of gravitational field at every point in space. When a

particle of mass, m, is placed at a point where the gravitational field intensity is g
 
, the particle experiences a force F = mg . In other words, the gravitational field,

g , exerts a force on the particle. Hence, the gravitational field intensity is defined
by

 F
g= . (1)
m

That is, the gravitational field intensity at any point equals the gravitational force
that a test mass experiences divided by the test mass.

Assume that the earth is a non-rotating uniform sphere. The magnitude of the
gravitational force acting on a particle of mass, m, located outside the earth a
distance, r, from the center of the earth is given by

GM e m
F= , (2)
r2

14
where Me is the mass of the earth and G is the universal gravitational constant.

Comparing Eqns. (1) and (2), the gravitational field, g , at a distance r from the
center of the earth is found to be:

 GM 
g = 2 e er , (3)
r

where er is a unit vector directed from the center of the earth to the mass, on the
line that connects the centers of the two masses.

Procedures

A) To determine the mass per unit length ()

•
1. Setup the apparatus as shown in Fig 1. That
is, suspend the light spring (A) on the clamp
•
and attach a light pointer (P) to the spring. C
Suspend a fixed meter rule (C) beside the A

spring, A. Finally, attach the scale-pan (B) to P

the spring.
B
2. Then, add suitable weights on the scale pan
noting the readings of the pointer each time.
Do this for about eight different weights.
Fig 1: Experimental setup.
3. Then remove each weight and record the
reading of the position of P on the meter rule
each time, as in Table 1. If the spring has not
been permanently strained the readings of P
will return to its original reading when all the
weights on the scale-pan have been
removed.

4. Measure the mass (M0) of the scale-pan.

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 Mass (m) on Reading of the Total mass, Extension
No. scale-pan meter rule (in m)
M= m + M0 (in kg)
1
2
3
4
5
Table 1:

Data analysis

1 Plot the mass whose weight extended the spring (M = m + M0) versus the
extension. Draw the best straight line through the origin.

2 From the graph, calculate the mass per unit length (). Note that,

 = the slope of the straight line.

B) To determine the earth’s gravitational field intensity

1. Using the spring and the scale-pan as before, add a suitable mass to the
scale-pan.

2. Pull the scale-pan down slightly and release it, so that the spring makes
simple harmonic oscillations. Record the time required for N complete
oscillations; for N = 10 or N = 20.

3. Add increasing masses to the scale-pan and at the same time record the
time required for N oscillations.

4. Repeat step 3 for at least five sets of loads, each time recording the
corresponding time for N oscillations.
 Load on the Time for N Total load on Period, T
No. oscillations spring, m + M0 T2 (in s2)
scale-pan (m) (in s)
(in sec) (in kg)
1
2
3
4
5
6
Table 2

Data Analysis

1. Add the scale-pan mass (M0) to the load to find the total load (M = m +
M0) on the spring; column 4 of Table 2.

2. Calculate T and T2 and enter in the table of measurements.

3. Plot T2 versus M (where M is the total mass on the spring, including the
mass of the scale pan). Draw the best straight line through the points and
determine the slope of the line.

The period T is given by

M + m0
T = 2 , (4)
k

where m0 is a constant that depends on the mass of the spring itself and k
is the force constant of the spring. The slope of the graph T2 versus M is

4 2
Slope = . (5)
k

4. Using the slope, calculate the force constant of the spring. That is,

4 2
k= . (6)
Slope

5. Finally, determine the earth’s gravitational intensity, which is given by

17
 k
g= , (7)


where k is the force constant of the spring and  is the mass per unit
length, calculated in Part I of the experiment.

Error analysis

1. Calculate the percentage error and discuss the possible sources of

error.

18
 Experiment 3
Conservation of Momentum
Pre-lab Questions
1. In the case of inelastic collision, how do you compare kinetic energies
before and after collision? Which one is greater? Why?
2. How does momentum of an object vary with its mass and speed?
3. How do you distinguish between one-dimensional collision and two-
dimensional?
Objectives
The objective of the experiment is to verify the law of conservation of linear
momentum with the help of the one-dimensional collisions.

Apparatus
The instruments necessary in the experiment are:
❖ Two spherical steel balls(big and small),
❖ Meter stick, clamp,
❖ Grooved curved ramp,
❖ Carbon paper, white paper,
❖ Plumb and rope

Theory
Linear momentum p ⃗⃗ of an object of mass m moving with velocity v
⃗⃗ is defined as
the product of its mass and velocity:

𝑝⃗ = 𝑚𝑣⃗

Thus, the momentum p ⃗⃗ is a vector that has the same direction as the velocity
vector, but a magnitude that is m times the magnitude of the velocity.

19
We recall from Newton’s first law that if the net force acting on a moving object
is zero, its velocity remains constant. Thus, in the absence of net external force,
linear momentum remains constant or conserved.

We can, therefore, write the law of conservation of linear momentum as

𝑝⃗𝑖 = 𝑝⃗𝑓

Consider an isolated system consisting of two colliding objects of masses m1 and

m2 . Suppose the velocities of the masses before collision are v ⃗⃗1i and v
⃗⃗2i and the
velocities after collision are v
⃗⃗1f and v
⃗⃗2f . The law of conservation of momentum
for the system is expressible as

𝑚1 𝑣⃗1𝑖 + 𝑚2 𝑣⃗2𝑖 = 𝑚1 𝑣⃗1𝑓 + 𝑚2 𝑣⃗2𝑓

Collisions can be classified into elastic and inelastic.

Elastic collision: is collision in which both kinetic energy and linear momentum
are conserved. For a system consisting of two colliding masses, conservation of
kinetic energy can be written as

kinetic energy before collision = kinetic energy after colision

Or
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
𝑚1 𝑣1𝑖 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑖 = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑓 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑓
2 2 2 2
Inelastic collision: is type of collision in which linear momentum is conserved but
kinetic energy is not. In a perfectly inelastic collision of two masses, the colliding
objects stick together after collision and move with a common velocity 𝑉 ⃗⃗𝑓 . We
can thus express the law of conservation of linear momentum for completely
inelastic collision in the form

⃗⃗𝑓
𝑚1 𝑣⃗1𝑖 + 𝑚2 𝑣⃗2𝑖 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑉

One-dimensional elastic collision (head-on elastic collision): Consider head-on

elastic collision of two masses as shown in Fig.1.

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 Fig. 1(a) Fig. 1(b)

Given the initial velocities v ⃗⃗1i and v

⃗⃗2i before collision, the expressions for the
final velocities 𝑣⃗1𝑓 and 𝑣⃗2𝑓 after collision can be obtained applying conservation
of linear momentum and conservation of kinetic energy. We can thus verify that
⃗⃗1𝑖
(𝑚1 −𝑚2 )𝑣 ⃗⃗2𝑖
2𝑚2 𝑣
𝑣⃗1𝑓 = + (one-dimensional elastic collision)
𝑚1 +𝑚2 𝑚1 +𝑚2

⃗⃗2𝑖
(𝑚2 −𝑚1 )𝑣 ⃗⃗1𝑖
2𝑚1 𝑣
𝑣⃗2𝑓 = + (one-dimensional elastic collision)
𝑚1 +𝑚2 𝑚1 +𝑚2

Two-dimensional elastic collision (glancing collision):

Consider two-dimensional elastic collision of two particles with masses m1 and

m2 in which m2 is initially at rest, as indicated in Fig.2.

After collision, m1 is deflected in a direction making an angle θ with its initial

direction and m2 is deflected in a direction making an angle 𝜙.

Fig. 2

Since momentum is a vector, each component is conserved separately.

Conservation of x-component of momentum of the system can thus be written
as
21
 𝑝𝑖𝑥 = 𝑝𝑓𝑥

or

𝑚1 𝑣1𝑖 = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙

And conservation of y-component of momentum results in

0 = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙

Given the initial velocities v

⃗⃗1i and v⃗⃗2i and the angles of deflection θ and 𝜙, we
can calculate the final velocities v⃗⃗1f and v⃗⃗2f .

In this experiment, we investigate one-dimensional collision of two masses in

which, one of them is initially at rest.

Procedures
Part I: Determination of the initial velocity of the projectile

1. Set up the grooved curved ruler as shown in Fig 3a.

2. Measure the height h of the table and the masses of the balls.
3. Tape the paper to the floor and put a carbon paper above it.
4. Suspend the plumb bob vertically from the end of the incline and mark
the sharp end point of the plumb. This point is the reference point for
measuring distance. Do not change the position of the paper until the end
of the experiment.
5. Release the smaller ball from the top end of the grooved ruler five times.
6. Note the mark where the ball strikes the floor on the carbon paper.
7. Measure the distance 𝑥 (Fig.3b) from the reference point to each point
of fall and record your data.
Part II: One-dimensional collision of the two balls
1. Now place the larger steel ball on the support screw (see Fig 3c) so that
the collision is head-on.
2. Roll the projectile ball down the grooved ruler to produce head-on
collision.

22
 3. Record the landing positions of the two balls by using carbon paper at
the appropriate places. Immediately mark on the paper the points
according to the collision number.
4. Measure the distance 𝑥 for both balls separately.
5. Repeat steps 3-5 five times.

Fig. 3a
Fig. 3b

Fig. 3c

23
 Part III: Two-dimensional collision of the two balls

1. Now slightly move the support screw aside so that the balls undergo
glancing collision.
2. Put the target ball on the support screw and roll the projectile ball
down the grooved ruler.
3. Record the landing positions of the two balls by using carbon paper
at the appropriate places. Immediately mark on the paper the points
according to the collision number.
4. Measure the x- and y-components of the distance travelled by both
balls separately. Note that both the x- and y-components of the
distance travelled are measured on the ground.
5. Repeat the experiment five times.

Data and Observation

Part I:

Height of the table h = _____ cm, m1 = _________ g, m2 = ________ g

Trial 1 2 3 4 5

x(cm)

Part II:

Trial 1 2 3 4 5

x1(cm)

x2(cm)

24
Part III:
Trial 1 2 3 4 5

x1(cm)

y1(cm)

x2 (cm)

y2 (cm)

Data Analysis
Part I:
1. Calculate the time of fall of the ball.
2. Using the height of the table and the horizontal distance travelled by the
projectile ball, calculate its velocity immediately before collision and fill the
table shown below.
3. Calculate the initial momentum of the projectile ball.
Trial 1 2 3 4 5 Average value

x(cm)

Initial velocity(m/s)

Initial momentum
(kg.m/s)

Part II: Calculate the velocity of the projectile and target balls immediately after
collision using the height of the table and their respective horizontal distances
and fill the table below. Calculate the momentum of each ball just after collision.

25
Trial 1 2 3 4 5 Average
value

x1 (cm)

x2 (cm)

v1xf (m/s)

v2xf (m/s)

P1xf (kg.m/s)

P2xf (kg.m/s)

Part III: Calculate the x- and y-components of the velocities of the projectile
and target balls immediately after collision using their respective vertical and
horizontal distances and fill the table below.

Calculate the x- and y- components of the momentum of each ball just after
collision.
Trial 1 2 3 4 5 Average value

x1 (cm)

y1 (cm)

x2 (cm)

y2 (cm)

v1xf (m/s)

v1yf (m/s)

v2xf (m/s)

v2yf (m/s)

P1xf (kg.m/s)

P1yf (kg.m/s)

26
P2xf (kg.m/s)

P2yf (kg.m/s)

Results and Discussion

1. What are the main results of this experiment? Discuss the possible sources
of error.

2. Is momentum conserved in your experiment? Why?

3. Is the collision elastic or inelastic? Why?
Question

1. In a physics lab, a 0.500-kg cart moving at 36.4 cm/s collides inelastically

with a second cart which is initially at rest. The two carts move together
with a speed of 21.8 cm/s after the collision. Determine the mass of the
second cart.
2. A 9230-kg truck collides head-on with a 1250-kg parked car. The vehicles
entangle together and slide a linear distance of 10.6 meters before coming
to rest. Assuming a uniform coefficient of friction of 0.820 between the
road surface and the vehicles, determine the pre-collision speed of the
truck.
3. A proton (mass 1 u) collides elastically with a stationary deuteron (mass 2
u). If the proton is deflected 370 from its original direction, what fraction
of its kinetic energy does it transfer to the deuteron?

27
 Experiment 4
Investigation of Torque and Equilibrium
Pre-lab Questions
1. Does a force necessarily cause torque?
2. Mention a situation where the net force on a system is zero, but the net
torque is not.
3. When do we say a rigid body in static equilibrium?
Objectives
The objectives of the experiment are:-

❖ to calculate torques produced by different forces

❖ apply the conditions of equilibrium to determine unknown mass
❖ to determine the center of mass of a meter stick

Apparatus
The instruments required for this experiment are:-

❖ Meter stick,
❖ Knife edge,
❖ Known hooked masses of varying values,
❖ Unknown masses with hook,
❖ Balance

Theory
When a force is exerted on a rigid object pivoted about an axis, the object tends
to rotate about that axis. The tendency of a force to rotate an object about some
axis is measured by a vector quantity called torque τ⃗⃗ (tau).
Consider the wrench pivoted on the axis through O in Fig. 1a. The applied force
𝐹 acts at an angle 𝜙 to the horizontal and at a distance 𝑟 from the axis. The
component 𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 of the applied force has no tendency of rotating the wrench,
as this component passes through the axis of rotation. On the other hand, the

28
component 𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 tends to rotate the wrench, thereby causing torque. The
magnitude of the torque associated with the force F is thus given by
τ = 𝑟𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 = (𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙)𝐹 = 𝑑𝐹, (1)
where 𝑑 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 is perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line of action
of the force and is called lever arm or moment arm of the force. In a vector form,
we define torque as the cross product of the applied force 𝐹⃗ and the position
vector r⃗ from the pivot to the point of application of the force as
𝜏⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗ (2)

Fig.1a Fig.1b

From the definition of torque given by Eq. (1), we see that the torque increases
as the magnitude of the applied force F increases and as the lever arm d
increases. This explains the observation that it is easier to close a door if we push
at the doorknob rather than at a point close to the hinge. We also want to apply
our push as close to perpendicular to the door as we can. Pushing sideways on
the doorknob will not cause the door to rotate.
Figure 1b shows that a plumber can exert greater torque using a wrench with a
long lever arm.
If two or more forces are applied to an object, each force produces a torque. The
net torque acting on the object about the same pivot point is therefore the
vector sum of all the forces acting on it.

29
By convention, torques causing counterclockwise rotations are considered to be
positive and torques causing clockwise rotations are negative. As an illustration,
consider four masses suspended from a meter stick pivoted at its center as
shown in Fig.2. It can be seen that the forces 𝐹1 and 𝐹2 cause counterclockwise
torque and 𝐹3 and 𝐹4 produce clockwise torque.

Fig. 2
Since the respective lever arms and forces are perpendicular to each other, the
net clockwise torque about the pivot is

𝜏𝑐𝑐 = 𝑟3 𝐹3 + 𝑟4 𝐹4 (3)

And the net counterclockwise torque is

𝜏𝑐𝑤 = 𝑟1 𝐹1 + 𝑟2 𝐹2 (4)

If the counterclockwise and clockwise torques have equal magnitude but

opposite directions, the meter stick does not rotate. In this case we say the
meter stick is in rotational equilibrium. The condition of rotational equilibrium
can thus be written as

𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑠 = 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑠

or

𝑟1 𝐹1 + 𝑟2 𝐹2 = 𝑟3 𝐹3 + 𝑟4 𝐹4 (5)

30
Since the forces are due to the weight of the suspended objects, we note that

𝑟1 𝑚1 + 𝑟2 𝑚2 = 𝑟3 𝑚3 + 𝑟4 𝑚4 (6)

A rigid body is said to be in static equilibrium if it is both in translational and

rotational equilibrium. Translational equilibrium requires that the net force
should be zero and the body is not linearly moving. This is called the first
condition of equilibrium. That is

∑ 𝐹⃗𝑖 = 0 (first condition of equilibrium)

If all the forces lie in xy plane, the first condition of equilibrium is expressible as

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 and ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0.

An object in translational equilibrium may rotate about some fixed axis of

rotation. Thus to be in static equilibrium, the net torque acting on the object
about any axis should also be zero. This is called the second condition of
equilibrium and can be written mathematically as
∑ 𝜏⃗𝑖 = 0 (second condition of equilibrium)

Procedures
Part I: Investigating conditions of equilibrium

1. Balance the unloaded meter stick horizontally on the knife-edge and

note the position of the knife-edge. Gently secure the meter stick at this
position with the setscrew. The point at which the stick balances is
the center of gravity of the meter stick.
2. Place a 100g mass at the 10cm mark and place a 200g mass on the
opposite side of the fulcrum so that the meter stick remains balanced
horizontally (Fig.3). Record the masses and lever arm in table 1.
3. Repeat step 2 with different masses at different positions.

31
Fig. 3

Part II: Determining the mass of the meter stick using torques

1. Adjust the knife edge so that it is at the 30 cm mark on the meter

stick.
2. Place a 300 g mass at the 10 cm mark and place a 100 g mass on the
other side of the fulcrum in a position so as to balance the system.
Record the mass and lever arm in table 2.
3. Repeat step 3 with different masses at different locations.
4. Weigh the meter stick on a balance to measure its mass.
Part III: Determining the unknown mass
1. Adjust the knife-edge so that it is at the center of mass of the meter
stick.
2. Place one of the unknown masses at the 80 cm mark.
3. Place a known mass on the opposite side of the fulcrum so that it
balances the system. Record the known mass and both lever arms in
table 3.
4. Repeat step 3 with a different known mass.
5. Weigh the unknown mass on a balance to measure its mass.

32
Data and Observations

Part I:

Position of fulcrum: 𝑥0 = ______________

Mass (g) Lever arm (cm)

left right left right

Part II: Position of fulcrum: ___________;

Center of mass of meter stick: _____________

Mass(g) Lever arm (cm) Mass of meter

stick (g)

left right left right

33
 Part III: Position of fulcrum: __________

Mass (g) Lever arm (cm)

known unknown Known mass Unknown mass

Data Analysis

Part I: Calculate clockwise and counterclockwise torques and fill the table.

Mass (g) Lever arm (cm) Torque (N.m)

left right left right clockwise counterclockwise

Part II:

1. Calculate clockwise, counterclockwise, and net torques about the fulcrum.

2. Calculate the mass of the meter stick and fill the table.
Mass (g) Lever arm Torque (N.m) Mass of meter stick (g)
(cm)

left right left right clockwise Anticlockwise net measured calculated

34
 Part III:

1. Calculate the torques due to the known and unknown masses.

2. Calculate the unknown mass.
Mass (g) Lever arm (cm) Torque (N.m) Unknown mass (g)

known unknown known unknown known unknown measured calculated

Results and Discussion

1. Where is the center of mass of the meter stick? Is it at its geometric
center?
2. How do you compare the calculated mass of the meter stick with its
measured mass?
3. How do you compare the calculated mass and the measured mass of the
unknown object?
4. What are the possible sources of error in your experiment?
Questions
1. A person exerts a horizontal force of 32 N on the end of a door 96 cm wide.
What is the magnitude of the torque if the force is exerted (a)
perpendicular to the door and (b) at a 60.0° angle to the face of the door?
2. A 4.2-m-long beam is supported by a cable at its center. A 65-kg
steelworker stands at one end of the beam. Where should a 190-kg bucket
of concrete be suspended for beam to be in static equilibrium?

35
 Experiment 5
Moment of Inertia of a Solid Sphere
Objectives
The objective of the experiment is to determine the moment of inertia of
spherical balls by using the law of conservation of energy.

Apparatus
The instruments necessary in the experiment are:
- solid spheres,
- meter stick,
- balance,
- grooved ruler,
- pieces of paper and carbon, and
- vernier caliper.

Theory

Consider a rigid body rotating about

B
an axis AB, as shown in Fig. 1. The
infinitesimal mass element dm at
point P lies at a perpendicular
distance r from the axis of rotation.
r
Now if ω is the angular speed of the
body about its axis of rotation, the dm

linear speed of the element of mass A

dm is given by v = ω r. Hence, the Fig 1
rotational kinetic energy of this
element is dT = ½(dm)(v2) =
½(dm)(ωr)2. The total rotational
kinetic energy, T, of the entire rigid
body can be obtained by integrating
dT over the entire rigid body. That is,

36
 1 2 2 1
T =  dT =   r dm = I 2 , (1)
2 2

where the quantity

I =  r 2 dm , (2)

is called the moment of inertia of the body with respect to the axis AB, dI = r2 dm
is the differential moment of inertia.

Let us calculate the rotational inertia of a solid sphere of radius R about an axis
through its center. Imagine that the sphere is cut into thin cylinders, having wall
thickness dx, whose axis is identical with the axis of rotation, as shown in Fig 3.2.
The moment of inertia of each cylinder of thickness dx, radius x and height 2y is
given by 𝑑𝐼 = 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑚, where the differential mass element is 𝑑𝑚 = 4𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥
and  is the density of the sphere. From Fig 3.2, we see that y = R 2 − x 2 . Using
this identity, we find that Y

dI = 4 x 3 R 2 − x 2 dx . (3)
• dx
Integrating Eqn. (3) over x (0  x  R), we obtain
R y
x=R • X
8 x
I = 4 x R − x dx =   R 5 , (4)
3 2 2

x =0
15

or, sphere axis of

rotation
2 Fig 2
I= M R2 , (5)
5

4
where M =  R 3 is the mass of the solid sphere.
3

Parallel axis theorem

The parallel axis theorem states that the moment of inertia of a system with
respect to any axis L which is parallel to the axis passing through the center of
mass (c.m.) is equal to the sum of the moment of inertia of the system with

37
respect to the center of mass and Mh2, where M is the total mass of the system
and h is the distance between the two axes. i.e.,

I L = I cm + M h 2 . (6)

Rolling spherical ball down an inclined plane

Consider a spherical ball that is rolling down an inclined plane, as shown in Fig 3.
It is shown that at the given instant of time the ball is in contact with the plane
at point O. Corresponding to the point there exists an instantaneous axis of
rotation (the line that is perpendicular to the plane of the paper passing through
O) about which the ball is performing pure rotational motion. The rotational
inertia of the sphere about an axis through O, using the parallel-axis theorem, is
given by

2 7
I O = I cm + M R 2 = M R2 + M R2 = M R2 (7)
5 5

The magnitude of the translational velocity (v) of the center of mass (c.m.) and
the angular velocity ω are related by

v = 2 R . (8)

velocity (v)
c.m.
•
mg sin  O
mg cos 
mg

Fig 3

38
 .

Method of the experiment

A sphere starts from rest at position 1, as shown in Fig 4, and rolls on an inclined
plane covering a distance S downward reaching a translational velocity v0 at the
end of the inclined plane (position 2). This translational speed can be calculated
by using the law of conservation of energy as follows:

+x Position 1 Grooved
ruler

+y
S
v0x=v0 cos  Position 2 h1 h


v0 Table

v0y=v0 sin  h2

Position 3
Floor
d
Fig 4
The potential energy at position 1 is equal to the kinetic energy at position 2
(assumed to be our reference position). That is,

1 1 I 0 v02
mgh1 = I 0 =
2
, (9)
2 2 R2

where m is the mass, R is the radius and ω is the angular speed of the sphere, and
I0 is the moment of inertia of the sphere about an axis perpendicular and passing
through the paper at the contact point. Replacing h 1 by S sin  (see Fig 4) in Eqn.
(9), we get

2 m g S R 2 sin 
v02 = , (10)
I0

and solving for I0 gives

39
 2 m g S R 2 sin 
I0 = . (11)
v02

Starting from position 2 to position 3, the motion of the sphere is projectile

motion. The horizontal distance covered by the sphere as it strikes the ground
depends on the speed v0. Introducing a coordinate system at position 2, the x- and
y-components of the velocity v0 are v0x = v0 cos  and v0y = v0 sin . The motion
along the x-direction is uniform so that

x = v0 x t = (v0 cos  ) t . (12)

The motion along the y-direction is uniformly accelerated. Thus,

1 2 1
y = v0 y t + gt = (v 0 sin  ) t + gt 2 , (13)
2 2

where g is the acceleration due to gravity. The sphere hits the surface when y = h2
and x = d after a certain time t’. Hence,
1 '2
h2 = (v 0 sin  ) t ' + gt , (14)
2

d = (v0 cos  ) t ' . (15)

Solving Eqn. (15) for t’ and using it in Eqn. (14), we obtain

gd2
v =
2
. (16)
2(h2 − d tan  ) cos2 
0

Now by measuring d, h2 and  and using g = 9.8 m/s2, we can calculate v02. And
also using Eqn. (11), we can determine the rotational inertias I 0 and Icm of the
sphere.

Procedures
1. Arrange the grooved ruler as shown in Fig 4 and determine S, d, h and ℓ (the
length of the ruler) and h2. Record the values.

2. Measure the mass and dimensions of both balls and record the values.

40
 3. Roll the first ball down the grooved ruler. Repeat this 10 times for one
distance S and measure the corresponding horizontal distances d 1, d2, ---,
d10. Tabulate the results as in Table 1.

4. Repeat step 3 for the second ball.

d1 d2 d3 d4 d5 d6 d7 d8 d9 d10
S (cm)
First
ball

Second
ball

Table 1:

Data Analysis
1) Calculate sin  and cos  from h and I.
2) Compute the theoretical values of Icm and I0 for both balls using the results
of step 2.
3) Find the average distances d of distances found in step 3, the corresponding
velocity v0, using Eqn. (16) and the moment of inertia I0, using Eqn. (11).
4) Find the average deviation of the mean (A. D.) of the distances d and
express the difference between the theoretical value of I0 and that found in
(b) and the value of I0 from (c) in percent.
5) Repeat (c) and (d) for the second ball.

Results and Discussion

What are the main results of this experiment? Discuss the possible sources
of error.

Question
What portion of the total kinetic energy of a rolling object is translational
energy and what portion is rotational energy?

41
 Experiment 6
The Rigid Pendulum
Objectives

The objectives of the experiment are to determine the acceleration due to gravity
and the moment of inertia of a rigid bar.

Apparatus

The instruments necessary in the experiment are:

- a metal bar with holes at regular intervals,
- a knife edge,
- a stop watch,
- a meter ruler, and
- balance.

Theory

A rigid pendulum consists of a rigid body rotating about a fixed horizontal axis. In
Fig 1, a rigid body is shown in its equilibrium position. When the center of gravity
is pulled to one side of the equilibrium position by an angle , as shown in Fig 2, a
torque acts on the body. The torque is given by

 = −mgh sin  , (1)

where h is the distance between the center of gravity and the axis of rotation
centered at point O, m is the mass of the rigid body and g is the acceleration due
to gravity. Due to the torque the body begins to swing back-and-forth when it is
1 1’
released. 2
2 1
O•
O•
h h

c.m.• • c.m.

mg sin 

Fig 1
42 mg
Fig 2
The negative sign in Eqn. (1) indicate that the torque acting on the body is a
restoring torque. According to Newton’s second law of rotational dynamics, the
equation of motion of a rotating rigid body is given by

d 2
 = I0  = I0 = − mgh sin  (2)
d t2

where d 2 is the angular acceleration and I0 is the moment of inertia of the

=
d t2

rotating about the rotation axis.

For small angle , we may approximately write sin    . That is,

d 2 (3)
I0 = − mgh 
d t2

This equation shows that the angular acceleration (α) is directly proportional to
the negative of the angular displacement (). This means that for small angular
displacement the motion of the rigid pendulum is simple harmonic and is
described by

 (t ) =  m cost (4)

where m is the amplitude of the harmonic oscillation and ω is the angular

frequency defined by

=
mgh (5)
I0

Since ω = 2/T, where T is the period of the simple harmonic motion, Eqn. (5) may
be expressed in terms of T as

I0 (6)
T = 2
mgh

Moreover, applying the parallel-axis theorem, I0 may be expressed in terms of the

moment of inertia of the rigid body abut an axis through the center of mass (I cm)
as I0=Icm + mh2. Consequently, Eqn. (6) becomes

43
 I cm + mh 2
T = 2 (7)
mgh

This equation describes the dependence of the period T on the distance h

between the axis of rotation and the center of gravity of the rigid body. The
minimum value of T could be found by setting dT/dh = 0. Here we will differentiate
T2 with respect to h instead of T, for simplicity. That is squaring Eqn. (7) and
differentiating with respect to h, we obtain

dT 2 d  2 I cm + mh 2  I 4 2 (8)
=  4  = −4 2 cm 2 + =0
dh dh  mgh  mgh g

Solving Eqn. (8) for h and setting h = hmin, we get

I cm
hmin = (9)
m

And substituting Eqn. (9) into Eqn. (7) and solving for Tmin, we get

Tmin = 2
2 I cm . (11)
g m

Therefore, by varying h, we get the smallest period, Tmin.

Moment of rotational inertia of a rectangular bar

Consider a rectangular bar of length ℓ, breadth b and thickness t. we know that

the moment of inertia of the bar about an axis passing though its center of mass
is given by

I cm = r
2
dm (12)
whole
bar

where dm =  dv,  is the density of the bar, dv = t dx dy and r2 = x2 + y2. Thus,

b2 + 2 b2 + 2
b / 2 b/2
, (13)
I cm =  t  ( x 2 + y 2 ) dx dy = 4  t   (x + y 2 ) dx dy =  t b  = V
2

whole x =0 y =0
12 12
bar

 I cm = m
b2 + 2 , (14)
12

where m =  V is the mass of the rectangular bar and V = tbℓ is its volume.

44
Procedures

In this experiment a rectangular bar is used as a rigid pendulum and the period T
is determined for different distances h between the axis of rotation and the center
of gravity. From the plot of T versus h the smallest period Tmin and the
corresponding hmin can be determined. And also from Tmin and hmin the moment of
inertia Icm of the bar as well as the acceleration due to gravity can be found. To this
end we follow the following procedures:

1. Determine the length ℓ, breadth b, thickness t and mass m of the bar. Note
that the bar is a uniform bar and thus its center of mass (center of gravity)
is located at ℓ/2. Record these values.

2. Measure each distance h between the center of mass and the holes (axis of
rotation) and record the values, as in Table 4.1.

3. Support the pendulum with the knife edge at the greatest distance from
the center of gravity, displace the pendulum aside by very small angle  and
measure the time for 20 oscillations and record the values.

4. Calculate the period T for one oscillation from step 3 and record the values.

5. Repeat steps 2 and 3 for all possible positions of the knife edge with respect
to the center of gravity.

Time for 20 Time for one oscillation,

h (in m) g (m/s2)
oscillations (in sec.) i.e., T (in sec.)

Table 1:

Data Analysis

1) Calculate the theoretical value of the moment of inertia of the bar Icm using
the results of step 1 of the procedure and Eqn. (14).

2) From the data of step 5 of the procedure, plot a graph of T versus h and find
the smallest period Tmin and the corresponding distance hmin from the graph.
45
 3) Calculate Icm using hmin found in step 2 and express the difference between
the theoretical value and this one in percent.

4) Solve Eqn. (7) for g and calculate it from the data of step 4 determine the
average value. Use Icm found in step 1.

5) Find the average deviation of the mean (A. D.) of the acceleration due to
gravity.

Results and Discussion

1. What are the main results of this experiment?

2. Discuss the possible sources of error in the experiment.

Questions

1) In observing the time required to make a number of oscillations, would it

be more accurate to record the time when the pendulum is moving through
the equilibrium position or when it is passing one of its extreme positions?
Why?

2) What is a simple pendulum? Determine the period of a simple pendulum

from Eqn. (7).

46
 Experiment 7
Resonance in Air Columns
Objectives
The objective of the experiment is to determine the velocity of sound by using a
resonance tube.

Apparatus
A resonance apparatus is shown in the figure below. It consists of
- a glass resonance tube (R) supported vertically on an iron stand,
- a reservoir (V), whose height is regulated by sliding it upon an iron stand,
- a rubber tube for connecting the reservoir and the resonance tube,
- a meter rule (S), attached to the resonance tube or mounted beside it,
- a speaker mounted on the top of the resonator,
- a signal generator to provide AC-power to the speaker,
- a single-beam oscilloscope to measure the frequency of the AC- source,
- rubber bands,
- a thermometer, and
- access to the laboratory barometer is needed.

Theory
Sound travels in material medium by means of longitudinal waves. In such waves
the particles of the medium oscillate parallel to the direction of motion of the
wave. Longitudinal waves consist of a regular sequence of compressions and
rarefactions which themselves travel through the medium. The number of
compressions or rarefactions passing a given point in one second is referred to as
the frequency (). The period (T), is the time interval between two successive
compressions or rarefactions passing the point. Thus,  and T are related by
1
 = . (1)
T
The distance between two successive compressions or successive rarefactions is equal to
one wavelength (). It takes T seconds for one compression or rarefaction to move a
distance equal to , so that the speed (v) of the wave is related to T and  by

47
 
V = =  . (2)
T

Speaker

Single beam S R V
Oscilloscope
Signal
generator ..
Fig. 1:

This equation affords a means of determining the velocity of sound by measuring

the wavelength of the waves produced by a source of known frequency. The
experimental determination of  involves the production of standing waves.

If two waves of the same frequency and amplitude are travelling in opposite
directions in a medium (one can be the result of reflection of the other as in this
experiment), such as a column of air in a resonance tube, the resulting effect is
called a standing wave. Choosing the position of the origin in such a way that the
displacement of the particle at an initial time is zero, the equation for the wave
traveling to the right from the origin may be given by

x 
y2 = A2 sin 2  − t  (3)
 

And that of the wave traveling to the left is given by

x 
y 2 = A2 sin 2  +  t  (4)
 

Where x is the distance of a point from the origin and y is the displacement of any
particle from its equilibrium position. When both of these waves are present, the
resulting displacement, yR, at any point from the origin will be the displacement
of y1 and y2. Thus
48
 x  x 
y R = y1 + y 2 = A1 sin 2  −  t  + A2 sin 2  −  t  (5)
   

The oppositely moving waves are assumed to have the same amplitude, i.e., A 1 =
A2 = A. Hence, (5) reduces to

 x  x 
y R = A sin 2  −  t  + A2 sin 2  −  t  (6)
    

2x
Letting  = ,  = 2 t and using the trigonometric identities


sin ( +  ) = sin  cos  + cos sin  ,

sin ( −  ) = sin  cos  − cos sin 

in equation (6), we get

 2 x 
y R = 2 A sin   cos (2 t ) (7)
  

This relationship tells us that at a point x from the origin the displacement of the
particle varies as cos (2 t ) and the amplitude of the wave varies with x as
 2 x  2 x
2 A sin   . The amplitude of this vibration will always be zero, when − n ,
   
where n is an integer. Considering the resonance tube in the experiment, the
closed end of the glass tube may be regarded as one of such points (permanent
nodes (N)) since no vibration of any sort can occur there. On the other hand, the
open end of the resonance tube behave as an anti-node (A) since at that end the
particles of air have the greatest freedom of motion (Fig. 2).

Note that choosing the closed end of the resonance tube in the experiment, as an
origin is advisable for it eliminates unnecessary complications.

Our discussion of stationary waves in air columns shows that the vibrating air
column has a certain set of natural frequencies. When such a system of air column
is acted on by a periodic series of impulses having a frequency equal or nearly
equal to one of the natural frequencies of oscillations of the system, it is set in
oscillation with a relatively large amplitude. This phenomenon is called resonance
and the system is said to resonate with the applied impulses.
49
In this experiment, the speaker connected to the signal generator produces the
periodic impulses. This situation may be briefly argued as follows. A wave is sent
down through the air in the tube, it is reflected at the end and is once again
reflected when it reaches the position of the vibrating source. If the tube is just
the proper length, the reflected wave will be reinforced by the vibrating source as
it travels down the tube a second time. Hence, the vibrating source builds up a
large motion (large amplitude) in the same way as a swing can be pushed very
high with a series of small pushes. One should not conclude from here, though,
that once resonance starts the intensification process will continue wit ever
increasing manner so long as the vibrating source is not removed. This is so
because the increase in amplitude always causes a change of period and this
throws the vibrating air column out of synchronization with the source.

Thus, the shortest closed tube, which will resonate with a source of given
frequency, , is one whose length is one quarter of a wavelength. A tube three
times as long as the minimum will also resonate with the same note. A little
thought will show that any closed pipe whose length is an odd number of
multiples of a quarter wavelength will produce resonance.

A
/4

N
3/4
5/4

Fig. 2: Modes of vibration in an open pipe.

50
It has been pointed out that an anti-node must exist near the top of the tube.
Analysis shows that its position is slightly above the top of the tube (about 0.6
times the radius of the tube). Therefore, it is not advisable to try to determine the
wavelength using only the first anti-node and the first node since the distance
(/4) cannot be accurately determined. However, the distance between the
successive resonance points (successive nodes) may be accurately determined
and represents the value of /2.

The velocity of sound in air (or any gas) is related to the physical properties of the
medium by the equation

P
V=  (8)


where P is the pressure and  is the density of the gas, and  is a constant called
the ratio of the specific heat for the gas at constant temperature (for air  = 1.4).

The speed of sound in a gas also depends on the average temperature of the
medium apart from small vibrations of temperature in compressions or
dilatations. When the temperature of the gas is raised, its pressure remaining
constant, it expands and its density is decreased. If the density at 00C is 0 and at
temperature, T (in 0C) the density  is the  = 0/(1+αT), where α is the coefficient
of expansion of the gas, i.e., α = 1/2730C. Substituting this in (8), we get

P T 
V=  1 +  (9)
 0  2730 C 
When T = 00C, (9) reduces to (8). Thus, (9) gives the relation between the speed
of sound at a temperature T0C and 00C.

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Procedures

1. Slip several rubber bands over the tube to be used as marks of the water
level,

2. With the reservoir at its highest position, fill the resonance tube nearly full
of water.

3. Adjust the frequency of the speaker to a frequency 1 = 400Hz. This is done

using the signal generator and the oscilloscope. From the oscilloscope you
can read the period (T). Use the relation  = 1/T to find the appropriate
frequency.

4. Put the reservoir on the ground and allow the water from the resonance
tube to flow out to the reservoir. At the same time, listen to the sound and
observe when resonance occurs. Mark the position of the water level where
resonance occurred, using the rubber bands found on the tube. Continue
this process until the water from the reservoir is exhausted. Record the
positions of the rubber band, i.e., the positions of the nodes. Tabulate the
readings as in the Table 1, shown below.

1 = 400Hz

Positions of nodes (di)

1st trail 2nd trail 3rd trail

5. Repeat steps 2-4, for a frequency of 2 = 500Hz.

6. Repeat steps 2-4, for a frequency of 3 = 600Hz.

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Data Analysis

(i) Calculate the inter-nodal distances for each trial, 1 =400Hz, of the
values tabulated in Table 1.

(ii) Calculate the average inter-nodal distance (d) for a frequency of 1

=400Hz and find the wavelength  = 2d of the sound waves.

(iii) Using the wavelength determine the location of the first anti-node by
adding /4 to the position of the first node. Can you confirm the
theoretical statement that is about 0.6 times the radius of the tube
above the tube top?

(iv) Repeat steps (i) to (iii), for the frequencies 2 = 500Hz and 3 = 500Hz.

(v) Calculate the speed of sound using all the three frequencies, using v =
.

Results and Discussion

1. What are the main results of this experiment?

2. Discuss the possible sources of error in the experiment and indicate to what
degree each affects the result.

Question

Describe a method of using the apparatus to determine the frequency of all

unknown fork if a fork of known frequency is available.

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 Experiment 8

Measurement of the Specific Heat of Solids

Objective

The objective of the experiment is to measure the specific heat of certain

solid specimens using the method of mixtures.

Apparatus

The instruments used in the experiment are:

- calorimeter,
- boiler,
- heating device (electric stove),
- solid specimens,
- stirrer,
- balance,
- standard weights and
- water vessel.
Theory

The measurement of heat quantities called, calorimetery, is frequently

carried out using the so-called “Methods of Mixtures”. This method makes
use of the following principles:

1. When two bodies, initially at different temperatures, are placed in

good thermal contact with each other, the hot body gives up heat and the
cold body gains heat; and the system finally reaches a condition of
equilibrium at some temperature, which is uniform throughout.

2. The heat given by the hot body is equal to the heat gained by the cold
body provided that there is no heat gained from or lost to the surroundings.

54
The applications of these two facts make it possible to determine some
unknown parameters of an experiment in which several substances at
different temperatures are brought together. The method of mixtures,
described above, is commonly used in calorimetery for the determination
of the specific heat. Substances that differ from one another in the quantity
of heat (measured in Joules) produce a given rise in temperature in a given
mass. The ratio of the heat ∆Q supplied to a body to its corresponding
temperature rise ∆T is called the heat capacity (C) of the body. The heat
capacity per unit mass of a body is called the specific heat capacity and
denoted by c. The specific heat capacity is a characteristic of the material
from which the body is composed. That is,
C Q
c= = (1)
m m T

Thus the heat ∆Q needed to raise the temperature of a mass m by ∆T is

given by

Q = C T = c m T (2)

Procedures

(1) Determine the common mass M of the calorimeter and the stirrer and
record it.

(2) Measurement of the heat capacity (C) of the calorimeter

➢ Fill the calorimeter about half full of water. Determine the mass of
the water added to the calorimeter by measuring the total mass of
the calorimeter, the stirrer and the water and subtracting the mass
M of the of the calorimeter and the stirrer found in step 1.
➢ Fill the boiler about one-third full of water and heat it until its
temperature reaches the boiling point.
➢ Measure and record the temperature T1 of the hot water and the
temperature T0 of the cold water in the calorimeter.
➢ Pour all the hot water of temperature T1 from the boiler into the
calorimeter. Using the stirrer, stir to mix the cold water and the hot
water and determine the temperature T2 of the mixture.
55
 ➢ Determine the mass m’ of the hot water added to the calorimeter by
measuring the mass of the mixture, the calorimeter and the stirrer
together, and subtracting the mass m of the cold water and the mass
M of the calorimeter and the stirrer.

Record clearly the data in a table similar to Table 1.

Table 1
Mass of the Mass of cold Mass of hot Temperature Temperature Temperature
calorimeter water in the water added of cold water of hot water of the
and stirrer calorimeter to the in the added to the mixture (T2)
(M) (m) calorimeter calorimeter calorimeter
(m’) (T0) (T1)

(3) Measurement of the specific heat capacity (c) of the given specimen

➢ Take one of the specimen (name it specimen I) and determine its mass (M1).
➢ Empty the calorimeter and add about 100gm of cold water and determine the
exact value of M1 of the water added to the calorimeter by weighing the water
plus the calorimeter plus the stirrer and subtracting the mass M found in step 1.
➢ Fill the boiler about one-third full of water. Place the specimen in the boiler
and heat both until the temperature is about 950C. Keep the specimen well
stirred.
➢ Measure carefully the temperature T’1 of the hot water, which is identical to
the temperature of the hot specimen, and the temperature T’0 of the cold
water in the calorimeter and quickly put the hot specimen into the calorimeter.
Stir the specimen with the stirrer and measure the temperature T’ 2 of the
water.
➢ Record clearly the values for specimen I as in a table similar to Table 2.
Mass of the Mass of the Mass of cold Temperature Temperature Temperature
calorimeter specimen water added of cold water of hot water of the
and stirrer (M1) to the in the added to the mixture (T’2)
(M) calorimeter calorimeter calorimeter
(m1) (T’0) (T’1)

56
Table 2:

4) Repeat step 3 for the second specimen (specimen II) and record the
corresponding data clearly as in a table similar to Table 2.

Data analysis

1. Solve Eqn. (1) for C and calculate the common heat capacity C’ of the
calorimeter and the stirrer using the results of step 2.

2. Solve Eqn. (2) for c and calculate the specific heat capacity cI of the
first specimen using the results of step 3.

3. Repeat step (2) above to calculate the specific heat capacity cII of the
second specimen using the results of step 4.

Questions

➢ Three quantities of water of masses m1 = 100gm, m2 = 200gm and m3

= 500gm having temperatures of T1 = 900C, T2 = 700C and T3 = 400C
are mixed. Calculate the temperature of the mixture.

57