In this chapter, we study functions, called multiplicative functions, that are defined on integers.

These
functions have the property that their value at the product of two relatively prime integers is equal to
the product of the value of the functions at these integers. We start by proving several theorems about
multiplicative functions that we will use later. We then study special functions and prove that the Euler
ϕϕ -function that was seen before is actually multiplicative. We also define the sum of divisors and the
number of divisors functions. Later define the Mobius function which investigate integers in terms of
their prime decomposition. The summatory function of a given function takes the sum of the values of
ff at the divisors of a given integer nn . We then determine the Mobius inversion of this function which
writes the values of ff in terms of the values of its summatory function. We end this chapter by
presenting integers with interesting properties and prove some of their properties.

number-theoretic function is a complex-valued function defined for all positive integers. It can be
viewed as a sequence of complex numbers.

The word "integer" is derived from the Latin word integer, which means "whole." Integers are written
without using a fractional component. Examples are 2, 3, 1042, 28, 0, −42, −2. Numbers that are
fractional—such as \frac{1}{4}, 0.33, and 1.42—are not integers.

Key Takeaways: A few things to be careful of when working with integers.

Be sure not to confuse a problem like −3 − 8 with −3(−8).

The −3 − 8 problem is subtraction because the subtraction sign separates the −3 from what comes after
it.

The −3(−8) is a multiplication problem because there is nothing between the −3 and the parenthesis. If
there is no operation written in between the parts, then you assume that you are multiplying.

Be careful not to mix the pattern for adding and subtracting integers with the pattern for multiplying and
dividing integers. They can look very similar. For example:

If the two numbers in an addition problem are negative, then keep the negative sign, such as in −3 + (−7)
= −10.
If the signs of the two numbers in a multiplication problem match, the answer is positive, such as in (−3)
(−7) = 21.

1] Integers[2] are all the positive whole numbers, all the negative whole numbers, and zero. As this is
intended to be a review of integers, descriptions and examples will not be as detailed as in a normal
lesson.

When adding integers, there are two cases to consider. The first is when the signs match—that is, the
two integers are both positive or both negative.

The second case is when the signs don’t match, and there is one positive and one negative number.
Subtract the numbers (as if they were all positive), then use the sign from the number with the greatest
absolute value. This means that, if the number with the greater absolute value is positive, the answer is
positive. If it is negative, the answer is negative.

For subtraction of negatives, change the problem to an addition problem, which is then solved using the
above methods. The way to change a subtraction problem to an addition problem is by adding the
opposite of the number after the subtraction sign to the number before the subtraction sign. Often, this
method is referred to as “adding the opposite.”

Multiplication and division of integers both work in a very similar pattern. The short description of the
process is to multiply and divide like normal. If the signs match (numbers are both positive or both
negative), the answer is positive. If the signs don’t match (one positive and one negative), then the
answer is negative.

As with so many concepts we will see, congruence is simple, perhaps familiar to you, yet enormously
useful and powerful in the study of number theory. If nn is a positive integer, we say the integers aa and
bb are congruent modulo nn, and write a≡b(modn)a≡b(modn), if they have the same remainder on
division by nn. (By remainder, of course, we mean the unique number rr defined by the Division
Algorithm.) This notation, and much of the elementary theory of congruence, is due to the famous
German mathematician, Carl Friedrich Gauss—certainly the outstanding mathematician of his time, and
perhaps the greatest mathematician of all time.

Example 3.1.1 {…,−6,1,8,15,…}{…,−6,1,8,15,…} are all congruent modulo 7 because their remainders on
division by 7 equal 1. {…,−4,4,12,20,…}{…,−4,4,12,20,…} are all congruent modulo 8 since their
remainders on division by 8 equal 4. □◻

Here is a wonderfully useful result.

Lemma 3.1.2 a≡b(modn)a≡b(modn) if and only if n|(a−b)n|(a−b).

Proof. We break the proof into two parts:

(only if) If a≡b(modn)a≡b(modn), then there are integers qq, q′q′ and rr, with a=qn+ra=qn+r and b=q
′n+rb=q′n+r. So a−b=(qn+r)−(q′n+r)=(q−q′)na−b=(qn+r)−(q′n+r)=(q−q′)n, which means n|a−bn|a−b.

(if) Suppose n|a−bn|a−b, so there is an xx with a−b=xna−b=xn, that is, a=b+xna=b+xn. Suppose rr is the
remainder on dividing nn into bb; we need to show that rr is also the remainder on dividing nn into aa.
Since b=qn+rb=qn+r, we have a=b+xn=qn+r+xn=(q+x)n+ra=b+xn=qn+r+xn=(q+x)n+r. Thus, when nn is
divided into aa, the remainder is rr as desired.

If the value of nn is clear from the context, we often write simply a≡ba≡b. Congruence of integers shares
many properties with equality; we list a few here.

Theorem 3.1.3 Congruence modulo nn satisfies the following:

1. a≡aa≡a for any aa;

2. a≡ba≡b implies b≡ab≡a;

3. a≡ba≡b and b≡cb≡c implies a≡ca≡c;

4. a≡0a≡0 iff n|an|a;

5. a≡ba≡b and c≡dc≡d implies a+c≡b+da+c≡b+d;

6. a≡ba≡b and c≡dc≡d implies a−c≡b−da−c≡b−d;

7. a≡ba≡b and c≡dc≡d implies ac≡bdac≡bd;

8. a≡ba≡b implies aj≡bjaj≡bj for each integer j≥1j≥1.

Proof. Parts 1, 2, 3 and 4 are clear by the definition of congruence. (Aren't they? Check!) We'll prove
parts 6 and 8, leaving parts 5 and 7 as exercises. Part 6: By hypothesis n|a−bn|a−b and n|c−dn|c−d, so
we have n|(a−b)−(c−d)n|(a−b)−(c−d). Rearranging the terms, this means n|(a−c)−(b−d)n|(a−c)−(b−d), so
a−c≡b−da−c≡b−d. Part 8: This follows from part 7, but it is easy to prove it directly: since a≡ba≡b, n|
a−bn|a−b. Therefore,

n|(a−b)(aj−1+aj−2b+…+abj−2+bj−1)=aj−bj,

n|(a−b)(aj−1+aj−2b+…+abj−2+bj−1)=aj−bj,

so aj≡bjaj≡bj. Be sure you notice how often we have used lemma 3.1.2.

Parts 5–8 can be summarized by saying that in any expression involving +,−,⋅+,−,⋅ and positive integer
exponents (that is, any "polynomial''), if individual terms are replaced by other terms that are congruent
to them modulo nn, the resulting expression is congruent to the original.

Example 3.1.4 Any perfect square is of the form 4x4x or 4x+14x+1, that is, if you divide 44 into a perfect
square, the remainder is never 22 or 33: Suppose k2k2 is some perfect square. Then kk is congruent
modulo 4 to exactly one of 0,1,20,1,2 or 33, so k2k2 is congruent to 02=002=0, 12=112=1, 22≡022≡0 or
32≡132≡1, so it is never congruent to 22 or 33. □◻

Example 3.1.5 Find all integers xx such that 3x−53x−5 is divisible by 1111. Put in somewhat more familiar
terms, we are trying to solve the congruence 3x≡5(mod11)3x≡5(mod11) for xx, much as we might try to
solve an equation for an unknown. Let's assume 3x≡53x≡5 and see what that tells us about xx. Since
4⋅3=12≡14⋅3=12≡1,

3x≡5⇒4⋅3x≡4⋅5⇒12x≡20⇒x≡9.

3x≡5⇒4⋅3x≡4⋅5⇒12x≡20⇒x≡9.

So if 3x≡53x≡5 then x≡9x≡9, or x∈{…,−13,−2,9,20,…}x∈{…,−13,−2,9,20,…}. We also want to know that in

fact all of these values are solutions, that is, if x≡9x≡9 then 3x≡53x≡5. This is easy. (Right?) □◻
Example 3.1.6 You are probably familiar with the old rule ("casting out nines'') that an integer is divisible
by 9 if and only if the sum of its digits is divisible by 9. Here is a proof. Suppose xx is some positive
integer and when we write it in decimal form it looks like dkdk−1…d1d0dkdk−1…d1d0 (where each didi
is between 0 and 9). This means

x=dk⋅10k+dk−1⋅10k−1+…+d1⋅10+d0.

x=dk⋅10k+dk−1⋅10k−1+…+d1⋅10+d0.

Observe that 10≡1(mod9)10≡1(mod9) and so 10i≡1i=1(mod9)10i≡1i=1(mod9) for every ii. This implies
that

x≡dk+dk−1+…+d1+d0(mod9).

x≡dk+dk−1+…+d1+d0(mod9).

This actually proves more than we need. It says that an integer and the sum of its digits are congruent
modulo 9. In particular, one is congruent to 0 (that is, divisible by 9) if and only if the other is. □◻

Carl Friedrich Gauss. Gauss (1777–1855) was an infant prodigy and arguably the greatest mathematician
of all time (if such rankings mean anything; certainly he would be in almost everyone's list of the top five
mathematicians, as measured by talent, accomplishment and influence). Perhaps the most famous story
about Gauss relates his triumph over busywork. As Carl Boyer tells the story: "One day, in order to keep
the class occupied, the teacher had the students add up all the numbers from one to a hundred, with
instructions that each should place his slate on a table as soon as he had completed the task. Almost
immediately Carl placed his slate on the table, saying, `There it is;' the teacher looked at him scornfully
while the others worked diligently. When the instructor finally looked at the results, the slate of Gauss
was the only one to have the correct answer, 5050, with no further calculation. The ten-year-old boy
evidently had computed mentally the sum of the arithmetic progression 1+2+ ⋯+1001+2+ ⋯+100,
presumably through the formula m(m+1)/2m(m+1)/2.''

The word integer originated from the Latin word “Integer” which means whole. It is a special set of
whole numbers comprised of zero, positive numbers and negative numbers and denoted by the letter Z.

Examples of Integers: – 1, 6, 15.

Fractions, decimals, and percents are out of this basket.

Rules of Integers

Rules defined for integers are:

Sum of two positive integers is an integer

Sum of two negative integers is an integer

Product of two positive integers is an integer

Product of two negative integers is an integer

Sum of an integer and its inverse is equal to zero

Product of an integer and its reciprocal is equal to 1

Now, let us discuss the addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of signed integer numbers with
examples.

Addition of Signed Integer Numbers

While adding the two integers with the same sign, add the absolute values, and write down the sum
with the sign provided with the numbers.

For example,

(+4) + (+7) = +11

(-6) + (-4) = -10

While adding two integers with different signs, subtract the absolute values, and write down the
difference with the sign of the number which has the largest absolute value.

For example,

(-4) + (+2) = -2
(+6) + (-4) = +2.

Subtraction of Signed Integer Numbers

While subtracting two integers, change the sign of the second number which is being subtracted, and
follow the rules of addition.

For example,

(-7) – (+4) = (-7) + (-4) = -11

(+8) – (+3) = (+8) + (-3) = +5

Multiplication and Division of Signed Integer Numbers

While multiplying and dividing two integer numbers, the rule is simple.

If both the integers have the same sign, then the result is positive.

If the integers have different signs, then the result is negative.

For example,

(+2) x (+3) = +6
(+3) x (-4) = – 12

Similarly

(+6) ÷ (+2) = +3

(-16) ÷ (+4) = -4

Properties of Integers

The major Properties of Integers are:

Closure Property

Associative Property

Commutative Property

Distributive Property

Additive Inverse Property

Multiplicative Inverse Property

Identity Property

Closure Property

According to the closure property of integers, when two integers are added or multiplied together, it
results in an integer only. If a and b are integers, then:

a + b = integer

a x b = integer

Examples:

2 + 5 = 7 (is an integer)
2 x 5 = 10 (is an integer)

Commutative Property

According to the commutative property of integers, if a and b are two integers, then:

a+b=b+a

axb=bxa

Examples:

3 + 8 = 8 + 3 = 11

3 x 8 = 8 x 3 = 24

But for subtraction and division, commutative property does not obey.

Associative Property

As per the associative property , if a, b and c are integers, then:

a+(b+c) = (a+b)+c

ax(bxc) = (axb)xc

Examples:

2+(3+4) = (2+3)+4 = 9
2x(3×4) = (2×3)x4 = 24

This property is applicable for addition and multiplication operations only.

Distributive property

According to the distributive property of integers, if a, b and c are integers, then:

a x (b + c) = a x b + a x c

Example: Prove that: 3 x (5 + 1) = 3 x 5 + 3 x 1

LHS = 3 x (5 + 1) = 3 x 6 = 18

RHS = 3 x 5 + 3 x 1 = 15 + 3 = 18

Since, LHS = RHS

Hence, proved.

Additive Inverse Property

If a is an integer, then as per additive inverse property of integers,

a + (-a) = 0

Hence, -a is the additive inverse of integer a.

Multiplicative inverse Property

If a is an integer, then as per multiplicative inverse property of integers,

a x (1/a) = 1

Hence, 1/a is the multiplicative inverse of integer a.

Identity Property of Integers

The identity elements of integers are:

a+0 = a

ax1=a

Example: -100,-12,-1, 0, 2, 1000, 989 etc…

As a set, it can be represented as follows:

Z= {……-8,-7,-6, -5, -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,……}

For more properties, click here.

Types of Integers

Integers come in three types:

Zero (0)

Positive Integers (Natural numbers)

Negative Integers (Additive inverse of Natural Numbers)

Zero

Zero is neither a positive nor a negative integer. It is a neutral number i.e. zero has no sign (+ or -).

Positive Integers

The positive integers are the natural numbers or also called counting numbers. These integers are also
sometimes denoted by Z+. The positive integers lie on the right side of 0 on a number line.

Z+ → 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30,
….

Negative Integers

The negative integers are the negative of natural numbers. They are denoted by Z–. The negative
integers lie on the left side of 0 on a number line.

Z– → -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9, -10, -11, -12, -13, -14, -15, -16, -17, -18, -19, -20, -21, -22, -23, -24, -25,
-26, -27, -28, -29, -30,…..

Applications

Integers are not just numbers on paper; they have many real-life applications. The effect of positive and
negative numbers in the real world is different. They are mainly used to symbolize two contradicting
situations.

For example, when the temperature is above zero, positive numbers are used to denote temperature,
whereas negative numbers indicate the temperature below zero. They help one to compare and
measure two things like how big or small or more or fewer things are and hence can quantify things.
Some real-life situations where integers come into play are player’s scores in golf, football and hockey
tournaments, the rating of movies or songs, in banks credits and debits are represented as positive and
negative amounts respectively.