Introductory Hydrology& Hydrometry 2021

Chapter 5: Hydrologic Losses

The hydrologic losses can be subdivided as:
i) Interception ii) Transpiration iii) Evaporation iv) Depression v) Infiltration

The various water losses that occur in nature are discussed below. If these losses are deducted from
the rainfall, the surface runoff can be obtained. That is
Rainfall - Losses = Runoff
(i) Interception loss: - due to surface vegetation that is water held by plant leaves and other physical
structures on earth. The precipitation intercepted by foliage (Plant leaves, forests) and buildings
and returned to atmosphere (by evaporation from plant leaves) without reaching the ground
surface is called interception loss. Interception loss is high in the beginning of storms and
gradually decreases, the loss is in the order of 0.5 to 2 mm per shower and it is greater in the case
of high showers than when the rain is continuous.
(ii) Transpiration: - Transpiration is the process by which the water vapor escapes from the living
plant leaves and inters the atmosphere. Botanists derived various methods for the measurement of
transpiration and one of the widely used methods is photometer. It consists of a closed watertight
tank with sufficient soil for plant growth with only the plant exposed; water is applied artificially
till the plant growth is complete. The equipment is weighed in the beginning as (W 1) and at the
end of the experiment as (W2). Water applied during the growth (W) is measured and the water
consumed by the transpiration (Wt) is obtained as:
Wt = (W1 + W) - W2
The experimental values (from the protected growth of the plant in the laboratory) have to be
multiplied by a coefficient to obtain the possible field results.

Transpiration ratio is the ratio of the weight of water absorbed (through the root system),
conveyed through and transpired from a plant during the growing season to the weight of the dry
matters produced exclusive of roots.

Transpiration ratio = Weight of water transpired

Weight of dry matter produced
For the weight of dry matter produced, sometimes, the useful crops such as grains of wheat,
grams etc. are weighed. The volume of transpiration ratio for different crops varies from 300 to
800 and for rice it varies from 600 to 800, the average being 700. Evaporation losses are high in
arid regions where water is impounded while transpiration is the major water loss in humid
region.
iii) Evaporation: - may be defined as the process by which the liquid water is converted into vapor.
Evaporation may occur:
(a) From water surface reservoir, lakes, ponds, river, channels etc.

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(b) From soil surface, and appreciably when the ground water table is very near the soil surface.
Evaporation from the water surface and soil are of great importance in hydro - metrological
studies.
(c) From intercepting body.
The factors affecting evaporation are air and water temperature, relative humidity, wind
Velocity, surface area (exposed) barometric pressures and salinity of the water; the last two have
a minor effect. The rate of evaporation is a function of the differences in vapor pressure at the
Water surface and in the atmosphere and the Dalton’s Law of evaporation is given by

E = K (ew - ea)
Where: E = daily evaporation
ew = saturated vapor pressure at the temperature of water
ea = vapor pressure of the air (about 2 m above)
K = a constant
Higher the temperature and wind velocity, greater is the evaporation, while greater the humidity and
dissolved salts, smaller is the evaporation.

Reduction of evaporation will be by:

 By reducing surface areas.
 By Mechanical covers.
 By Chemical films.
Evaporation Estimation from free water surface
Methods:
1) Water budget methods
2) Energy budget method
3) Mass transfer method
4) Empirical formulas
5) Evaporation measurements using pans (direct method of measuring evaporation)
Methods of Estimating Lake Evaporation
Evaporation from water surface can be determined from the following methods:
(i) Water budget methods
P + I ± Og = E + O ± S
Where P = precipitation
I = surface inflow
Og = subsurface inflow or outflow
E = evaporation
O = surface outflow
S = change in surface water storage.

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(ii) The energy budget: - This method involves too many hydro meteorological factors (variables)
with too much sophisticated instrumentation and hence it is a specialist approach.
(iii) Combination of aerodynamic and energy balance equations - Penman's equation (involves too
many variables).
Evaporation measurements using pans
The most common method of measuring evaporation is by means of an evaporation pan. Evaporation
is recorded in millimeter of depth of water in a given time. The reading s from a pan are known as
pan evaporation and because the water in a pan tends to be warmer than open water in a lake, the pan
evaporation has to be reduced by a pan factor to convert into open water evaporation. This factor for
class “A” pan (the most commonly used pan) varies between 0.4 and 0.85 depending upon climatic
conditions and geographical locations.

Types of Pans
(i) Floating pans (made of G.I) of 90 cm square and 45 cm deep are mounted on a raft floating in
water. The volume of water lost due to evaporation in the pan is determined by knowing the volume
of water required to bring the level of water up to the original mark daily and after making allowance
for rainfall, if there has been any.

(ii) Land Pan (Class 'A' Pan): Evaporation pans are installed in the vicinity of the reservoir or lake
to determine the lake evaporation. Land pan is 122 cm diameter and 25.5 cm deep, made of unpainted
G.I; and set of a wood grillage 10 cm above ground to permit circulation of air under the pan. The
pan has a stilling well, vernier point gauge, a thermometer with clip and may be covered with a wire
screen. The amount of water lost by evaporation from the pan can be directly measured by the point
gauge. Readings are taken twice at 08.30 and 17.30 hours. The air temperature is determined by
reading a dry bulb thermometer kept at the Stevenson's screen erected in the same enclosure of the
pan. A totalizing anemometer is normally mounted at the level of the instrument to provide the wind
speed information required. Allowance has to be made for rainfall, if there has been any. Water is
added to the pan from the graduated cylinder to bring the water level to the original mark in 5 cm
below the top of the pan. Experiments have shown that the unscreened pan evaporation is 1.144 times
that of the screened one.

(iii) Colorado sunken Pan: - This is 92 cm square and 46 to 92 cm deep and is sunk in the ground
such that only 5 to 15cm depth project above the ground surface and thus the water level is
maintained almost at the ground level. The evaporation is measured by a point gauge.

Pan coefficient: - Evaporation pan data cannot be applied to free water surface directly but must be
adjusted for the differences in physical and climatological factors. For example, a lake is larger and
deeper and may be exposed to different wind speed, as compared to a pan. The small volume of water
in the metallic pan is greatly affected by temperature fluctuations in the air or by solar radiations in

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contrast with large bodies of water (in the reservoir) with little temperature fluctuations. Thus the pan
evaporation data have to be corrected to obtain the actual evaporation from water surface of lakes and
reservoirs i.e. by multiplying by a coefficient called pan coefficient and is defined as:

Pan coefficient = Lake evaporation

Pan evaporation
The experimental values for pan coefficients range from 0.67 to 0.82 with an average of 0.7

Soil Evaporation
The evaporation from a wet-soil surface immediately after rain or escape of water molecules with
more resistance when the water table lies within a meter from the ground is called soil evaporation.
This expressed as a percentage of evaporation from free water surface is called evaporation
opportunity.

Evaporation opportunity = Actual evaporation from the land (soil) at a given time
Evaporation from an equivalent water surface

Soil evaporation will continue at a high rate for some time after the cessation of rainfall, then
decreases the ground surface starts drying, until a constant rate is reached which is dependent on the
depth of the water table and nature of the soil in addition to meteorological conditions.

Measurement of soil evaporation can be done with tanks (Lysimeters) filled with earth and with the
surface almost flush with the ground. To measure the evaporation from a soil whose surface is within
the capillary fringe, tanks equipped to maintain the water table at any desired elevation may be used.
The soil evaporation is determined by weighing the tanks at stated intervals and knowing the amount
of water that was added in the interim.
iv) Evapotranspiration: - Evapotranspiration may be defined as the water vapor produced the
watershed as a result of the growth of plants in the watershed. In its broader sense, evapotranspiration
or consumptive use is the total water lost from a cropped (or irrigated) land due to evaporation from
the soil and transpiration by the plants or used by the plants in building up of plant tissue. Potential
evapotranspiration is the evapotranspiration from the shore-green vegetation when the roots are
supplied with unlimited water covering the soil. It is usually expressed as a depth (cm, mm) over the
area.
Methods of Estimating Evapotranspiration
The following are some of the methods used in estimating evapotranspiration.
(i) Experimental methods (using field experimental plots, Tanks and Lysimeter experiments,
Installation of sunken (Colarado) tanks);
(ii) Theoretical method
(iii) Empirical method -these include the empirical methods such as: -

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a) Thornth Waite method,

b) Blaney - Criddle`x,
c) Pen-man, method,
d) Evaporation index method i.e. the empirical formula developed from pan evaporation
data as developed by Hargreaves and Christiansen, etc.
a) Thornth Waite method
The method uses the mean daily temperature, the latitude of the place and the month of the year to
compute the evapotranspiration. It assumes that a high degree of correlation exists between the mean
temperature and other variables such as radiation, atmospheric moisture, and wind. The formula
developed is
PET = CTma (1)
Where:
PET = monthly evapotranspiration or potential evapotranspiration,
C = coefficient,
Tm = mean monthly temperature, (C0)
a = constant,
Both ‘a’ and ‘C’ depend on the location. The exponent a can be calculated as
a = 67.5 X 10-8 I3- 77.1 X 10-6 I2 +0.0179I +0.4921
Where: I = the annual heat flux, given by

, If each day has 12hrs sunshine and each month has 30 days equation (1) reduces to

PET = 1.62
b) Blaney-Criddle method
The method estimates consumptive use by using the mean temperature, type of crop growth, the
latitude of the place and the season of the year. This is expressed mathematically:
CU = Kt
Where: CU = Monthly consumptive use, cm
K = monthly crop coefficient,
t = Monthly consumptive use factor

t=
Where: Tm = mean monthly temperature, (C0)
P = monthly percentage of annual daytime hours.
The seasonal consumptive use (CU) is obtained by summing the monthly consumptive use, the

amount over the growing season. i.e., CU = =K F.

Where: K is an average season consumptive coefficient factor.

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Note: for places with latitude less than 400N, the monthly % of annual daytime hour (P) can be from
table.
c) Pen man Method
The method estimates evapotranspiration by multiplying the evaporation values empirical constants
depending on latitude and length of daylight.
Eo = 0.35(La-Ld). (1+0.01U)
ET = (HT+0.27Lo)/(T+0.27)
H = RA (1-γ){0.18+0.55 n/N}-δTa4 (0.56-0.092 )(0.10+0.9 n/N)
Where:
H = daily heat budget at the surface, mm of water/day,
RA = mean monthly extraterrestrial radiation, mm of water/day,
γ = reflection coefficient, about 0.25,
n = actual duration of bright sunshine, hr/day,
N = maximum possible duration of bright sunshine, hr/day,
δ = Boetz man constant, 2.01 X10-19 mm/day,
Ta = mean daily air temperature (absolulte),
ld = saturation vapor pressure at mean dew point, mm/day,
Eo = Evaporation, mm/day,
La = saturation vapor pressure at mean air temperature, mm/day,
U =mean wind speed at 2m above the ground, miles/day
ET = Evapotranspiration of water, mm/day,
T = ratio, La/Ta.
(d) Evaporation index method
Analysis of data on consumptive use indicates a high degree of correlation between pan evaporation
values and consumptive use. The relationship between the evapotranspiration (E t) and pan
evaporation (Ep) is usually expressed as:
Et = KEp
Where: K is a coefficient (i.e. Et/Ep) and is found to vary according to the stage of growth of the crop.

The values of K for different cops at 50% increments of the crop-growing season are presented by
Hargreaves.

(v) Rainfall Infiltration

When water falls on a given formation, a small part of it is first of all, absorbed by the top thin layer
of soil, so as to replenish the soil moisture deficiency. Thereafter, excess water moves down ward,
where it is trapped in void and becomes ground water.
This process, when by the water enters the surface strata of the soil, is known as infiltration.

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Infiltration capacity
The ground water stored in the underground depends mainly upon the number of voids present in the
soil, which, in turn, does not depend upon the size of the soil particles but rather upon the
arrangement, shape and degree of compaction. Therefore, different soils will have different number if
voids, and hence, different capacities to absorb water. The maximum rate at which a soil in any given
condition is capable of absorbing water is called its infiltration capacity. It is generally denoted by
the letter fc.
Infiltration Rate
It is evident that the rain will enter the soil at full capacity rate (f) only during the periods when the
rainfall rate exceeds the infiltration capacity. When the rainfall intensity is less than the infiltration
capacity, the prevailing infiltration rate is approximately equal to the rainfall rate. Hence, the actual
prevailing infiltration rate may be equal to or less than the infiltration capacity. This actually
prevailing rate at which the water will enter the given soil at any given time is known as Infiltration
rate.

If the rain intensity (p) exceeds the infiltration capacity (f) the difference is called the excess rain rate
(pe), this excess water is first of all, accumulated on the ground as surface detention (D) and then
flows over land into the streams.
Soil Moisture
The water below the water table is known as the ground water and the water above the water table is
known as soil moisture. The region above the water table is divided into three zones:
(i) Capillary zone;
(ii) Intermediate zone, and
(iii) Soil zone

Extending above the water table, a distance usually ranging from about 0.3 to 3m, depending
principally upon texture, is a zone called the capillary zone or capillary fringe. Throughout this
capillary zone, the moisture content is maintained practically constant by capillarity.

Extending down from the ground surface is the soil zone which is defined as being the depth of
overburden that is penetrated by the roots of vegetation. Throughout this root zone, the moisture
content varies tremendously, ranging from a partly saturated state during and immediately following
the periods of heavy rains, to a minimum content after a spell of long continued drought.

The region between the capillary zone and the soil zone is called the intermediate zone. Throughout
this zone, except during the period of ground water accretion from rainfall, the amount of water
contained within any given space is nearly constant throughout the year. In some cases, the height of

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capillary fringe (or capillary zone) may be more, and may extend up to the soil zone. In that case,
there will be no intermediate zone.
Infiltration capacity curve
Infiltration capacity curve is the graphical representation of as how the infiltration capacity varies
with time during and a little after rain.

Infiltration capacity is generally very high at the beginning of a rainstorm that occurs after a long dry
period. During the rainstorm, the infiltration capacity is considerably reduced due to the various
factors, such as, surface detention, soil moisture, compaction due to rain, washing of fines, etc. After
a certain period of time (of the order of 1 to 3 hours) the infiltration capacity tends to become
constant.

Sometimes, the value of f is to be used for computing the surface runoff due to a given storm from a
given drainage basin; in that case, the value of f is so calculated as to include interception and
depression storage in itself and it is general practice to include interception and depression storage in
the infiltration itself.
Infiltration Indices
In hydrological calculations involving floods, it if found convenient to use a constant value of
infiltration rate of the duration of the storm. The average infiltration rate is called infiltration index.
Two types of indices are in common use:

f - Index: The f index is the average rainfall above which the rainfall value is equal to the runoff
volume; the f index is derived from the rainfall hyetograph with the edge of the resulting runoff
volume. The initial loss is also considered as infiltration. The f value is found by treating it as a
constant infiltration capacity. If the rainfall intensity is less than f, then the infiltration rate is equal to
the rainfall intensity; however, if the rainfall intensity is larger than f the difference between rainfall
and infiltration in an interval of time represent the runoff volume.

The amount of rainfall in excess of the index is called rainfall excess, The f index thus accounts of
the total abstraction and enables runoff magnitudes to be estimated for a given rainfall hyetograph.

W - Index: In an attempt to refine the f index the initial losses are separated from the total
abstractions and an average value of infiltration rate called the W- index is defined as:

W = P - R - Ia
te
Where: P = total storm precipitation (cm)

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R = total storm runoff (cm)

Ia = initial losses (cm)
te = duration of the rainfall excess i.e. the total time in which the rainfall intensity is
greater than W (in hours) and
W = average rate of infiltration (cm/h)
Since In values are difficult to obtain, the accurate estimation of the W index obtained under very wet
soil conditions, representing the constant minimum rate of infiltration of the catchment, is known as
Wmin. Both the W-index and f index vary from storm to storm.

In estimating the f index for design purposes, in the absence of any other data, an f index value of
0.10cm/h can be assumed.
Example: The table below contains average monthly evaporation measured at a station near a
reservoir; the evaporation was measured in class “A” tank and the pan coefficient for each month is
given. Determine the average monthly evaporation water losses from the nearby of the reservoir.

Month No of days in Class “A” Pan coefficient Reservoir

the month evaporation given evaporation
given in cm/day cm/day
Jan. 31 0.6 0.70 0.42
Feb. 28 0.65 0.95 0.62
March 31 0.70 0.75 0.53
April 30 0.75 0.70 0.53
May 31 0.65 0.60 0.39
June 30 0.75 0.65 0.49
July 31 0.65 0.66 0.43
August 31 0.60 0.68 0.41
September 30 0.55 0.70 0.39
October 31 0.50 0.71 0.36
November 30 0.50 0.71 0.35
December 31 0.45 0.70 0.34

Month Area Given ha Reservoir evaporation ha-m/day Volume ha-m/month

Jan. 250 1.05 32.55
Feb. 255 1.57 44.09
March 260 1.37 42.32
April 265 1.39 41.74
May 270 1.05 32.64
June 275 1.34 40.22

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July 240 1.03 31.92

August 235 0.96 29.72
September 235 0.90 27.14
October 240 0.65 26.41
November 240 0.84 25.20
December 245 0.83 25.03

Example: - Estimate the potential evapotranspiration for Alfa-Alfa crop at Prime Albert (50 0 N)
Canada with the mean monthly temperature given below.
Month Apr May June July August September October
0
Temp (C ) 1.5 11.5 19.5 17.3 21.6 9.0 4.3

The growing season for Alfa-Alfa is from May 15 to September 15.

Solution
Month (1) Temp (C0) (2)  Tm 
1.51
PET (Cm) Day light factor, Adjusted PET
  (4) given, (5) (Cm) =(4) x (5)
I=  5  (3)
April 1.5 0.16
May 11.5 3.70 6.09 1.33 8.11
June 19.5 7.81 9.99 1.36 13.56
July 17.3 7.69 8.90 1.37 13.54
August 21.6 9.05 11.07 1.25 13.76
September 9.0 2.43 4.61 1.06 4.89
October 4.3 0.80

PET = 1.62
a = 67.5 X 10-8 I3- 77.1 X 10-6 I2 +0.0179I +0.4921
= 1.03 ≈ 1.00
Estimated evapotranspiration of Alfa-Alfa is 16? 31(8.11) + 13.56 + 13.54 + 13.76 + 4.89/2 =
47.51cm.
Example: - Compute the irrigation requirements of wheat for the following season of wheat by the
Blaney Criddle method for the data with an average consumptive use factor for the season being 0.7
and irrigation efficiency of n = 0.75.

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Month Tm (C0) % Annual daytime Monthly consumptive Monthly rainfall R (cm)

hour (p), given use factor (f), (cm) given
Nov 18.3 7.10 11.86 2.08
Dec 15.1 7.14 10.73 0.00
Jan 13.6 7.30 10.47 11.17
Fe b 14.2 7.03 10.20 0.23
F = ∑t =43.34 ∑R = 13.48

t=
CU for the growing season = KF = 0.7 X 43.34 = 30.24cm.

Irrigation requirement with efficiency n = 75% = =22.48 cm.

Exercise: Determine the evapotranspiration and irrigation requirement for wheat, if the water
application efficiency is 65% and the consumptive use coefficient for the growing season is 0.8 from
the following data:
Month Mean Monthly Monthly percentage of Effective
temp, 0c sunshine hours rainfall, cm
November 18 7.20 2.6
December 15 7.15 2.8
January 13.5 7.30 3.5
February 14.5 7.10 2.0

Example: Assuming a growing season of 4 months, December - March for wheat, determine the
consumptive use of wheat in the month of January if the pan evaporation for the month is 9.5cm.
Take the consumptive use coefficient at 40% stage growth of the crop as 0.52.
Solution:
Et = k Ep
The crop season is Dec. to March i.e. 120 days. By middle of January the number of days of growth
is 47 i.e. 47/120 = 0.40 or 40% stage growth of the crop has reached and K for this stage is 0.52 and
Ep for the month of January is 9.5cm. \ Et = 0.52 x 9.5 = 4.94 cm. The daily consumptive use for the
month of January = 4.94/31 x 10 = 1.6mm/day

Example: A storm with 10.0 cm precipitation produced a direct runoff of 5.8 cm; Give the time
distribution of the storm as below, estimate the f index of the storm.

Time from start (h) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

in each hour (cm) 0.4 0.9 1.5 2.3 1.8 1.6 1.0 0.5

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Solution: Total infiltration = 10.0 - 5.8 = 4.2 cm

Assume te = time of rainfall excess = 8 h for the first initial
Then, f = 4.2 = 0.525 cm/h
8
But this value of f makes the rainfalls of the first hour and eight hour ineffective, as their magnitude
is less than 0.525 cm/h. The value of te is therefore modified.
Assume te = 6 h for the second trial. In this period,
Infiltration = (10.0 – 0.4 - 0.5 - 5.8) = 3.3 cm
 f = 3.3 = 0.55 cm/h
6
This value of f is satisfactory as it gives te = 6h and by calculating the rainfall excesses

Time from start (h) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Rainfall excess (cm) 0 0.35 0.95 1.75 1.25 1.05 0.45 0
Total rainfall excess = 5.8 cm = total runoff
Example: The rate of rainfall for the successive 30 min period of a 3-hour storm is:
1.6, 3.6, 5.0, 2.8, 2.2, and 1.0 cm/hr. The corresponding surface runoff is estimated to be
3.6 cm. Establish the f index. Also determine the W - index
Solution: Construct the hydrograph as shown in the attached normal graph paper.
S(i - f) t = Pnet and thus it follows
[(3.6 -f) + (5.0 -f) +(2.8 - f) +(2.2 -f)] 30 = 3.6
60
\ (13.6 - 4 f)½ = 3.6
Or, 4f = 13.6 - 7.2 = 6.4
\ f = 6.4 = 1.6 cm/h
4
Precipitation, P = (1.6 + 3.6 + 5.0 + 2.8 + 2.2 + 1.0) 30 = 8.1 cm
60
W - index = P - Q = 8.1 - 3.6 = 1.5 cm/h
te 3
Example: The following are the monthly pan evaporation data (Jan - Dec) at a lake in a certain year
in cm.
16.7, 14.3, 17.8, 25.0, 28.6, 21.4,16.7, 16.7, 16.7, 21.4, 16.7, 16.7.
The water spread area in a lake nearby in the beginning of January in that year was 2.80 km 2 and at
the end of December it was measured as 2.55 km 2. Calculate the loss of water due to evaporation in
that year. Assume pan coefficient of 0.7.
Solution:

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Mean water spread area of lake

1
( A 1+ A2 +√ A 1 A 2) , coneform
Aav = 3
1
( 2 . 08+2. 55+ √ 2 .80 x 2. 55 )
3
2
==2 . 673 Km
Annual loss due to evaporation (adding up the monthly value) = 228.7 cm.
Annual volume of water lost due to evaporation
= (2.673 x 106) x 228.7 x 0.7
100
= 4.29 x 10 m or 4.29 Mm3
6 3

Example: Compute the daily evaporation from a class “A” pan if the amounts of water added to
bring the level to the fixed point are as follows:
Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Rainfall (mm) 14 6 12 8 0 5 6
Water added / removed (mm) -5 3 0 0 7 4 3

What is the evaporation loss of water in this week from a lake (surface area - 640 ha) in the vicinity,
assuming a pan coefficient of 0.75?

Solution:
Pan evaporation, EP mm = Rainfall + water added or
- Water removed
Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Ep (mm) 14-5 = 9 6+3 = 9 12 8 7 5+4 = 9 6+3 =9
:

Pan evaporation = 7 S i-1 Ep = 63 mm.

Pan coefficient = EL
EP
\EL = EP x pan coefficient
= 63 x 0.75 = 47.25 mm
Water lost from the lakes = A x EL = 640 x 47.25
1000
= 30.24 ha m = 0.3 x 106 m3 = 0.3 Mm3
Example: The total observed runoff volume during a storm of 6-hr duration with a uniform intensity
of 15mm/hr is 21.6 Mm3. If the area of the basin is 300 km2, find the average infiltration rate and the
runoff coefficient for the basin.

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Solution:
i. Infiltration loss, Fp = Rainfall (p) - Runoff (R)
= 15 x 6 - 21.6 x 106m s x 100
300 x 106m2
= 90 - 72 = 18mm
fav = Fp = 18mm = 3mm/hr
t = 6 hr
ii. Runoff yield = C A P
= 21.6 x 106m3 = C (300 x 106m2) x 90
1000
\ C = 21.6 x 10 x 1000 m = 21.6 = 7.2
6 3

300 x 106 x 90m3 27 9

\ C = 0.8

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