Basic and Applied Concepts of Blood

Banking and Transfusion Practices 3rd

Edition Blaney Test Bank
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Chapter 7: Antibody Detection and Identification
Test Bank

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1. In the process of identifying an antibody, the technologist observed 2+ reactions with 3 of the
10 cells in a panel at the immediate spin phase. These reactions disappeared following
incubation at 37 C and the antihuman globulin phase of testing. The antibody most likely to
be responsible is:
a. anti-E.
b. anti-D.
c. anti-I.
d. anti-Lea.
ANS: D
The Lea antigen is typically found on three to four cells in a panel, and the antibody reacts best
at the immediate phase of testing.

DIF: Level 3 REF: p. 173

2. Rh system antibodies characteristically give:

a. mixed-field reactions on panels.
b. weak reactions with panel cells.
c. strong reactions with panel cells when read at immediate spin phase.
d. reactions that are enhanced with enzymes.
ANS: D
Rh system antibodies are typically strong and are enhanced with enzyme treatment.

DIF: Level 1 REF: p. 168

3. Which of the following situations can be found in a classic case of autoimmune hemolytic
anemia?
a. Positive direct antiglobulin test
b. False-positive Fya phenotyping
c. Crossmatch incompatibility at antihuman globulin
d. All of the above
ANS: D
Red cells of a patient with this condition are coated with IgG antibodies that are signaling
premature destruction in the spleen. Because the red cells are coated, attempts to test them
with antiglobulin reagent results in positive reactions, and the antibody in the serum will react
with all normal cells tested at the antihuman globulin phase.

DIF: Level 2 REF: p. 177

4. The next step in investigating a positive direct antiglobulin test using polyspecific antihuman
globulin reagent should be to:
a. repeat the direct antiglobulin test using warm saline.
b. perform an eluate.
 c. add IgG-sensitized red cells to verify positive reaction.
d. repeat the direct antiglobulin test using monospecific anti-IgG and anti-C3
reagents.
ANS: D
Polyspecific antihuman globulin contains both a complement and IgG component. To
determine which caused the positive reaction, red cells should be tested separately using
monospecific anti-IgG and anti-C3 reagents.

DIF: Level 2 REF: p. 160

5. Antibody screening cells are positive at the antihuman globulin phase of testing. The first step
of the investigation should be to:
a. check transfusion and pregnancy history.
b. perform a direct antiglobulin test using anti-C3.
c. repeat the ABO typing.
d. crossmatch units until one is compatible.
ANS: A
A positive screen indicates the presence of unexpected antibody. Patient history can aid in the
investigation.

DIF: Level 2 REF: p. 161

6. The phase of the agglutination reaction is important in the interpretation of the antibody
screen or antibody identification panel because it:
a. determines whether there is a delayed transfusion reaction.
b. provides clues on antibody dosage.
c. indicates the class of the antibody.
d. determines whether an autoantibody is present.
ANS: C
IgM antibodies typically react at room temperature. IgG antibodies require the antiglobulin
phase to detect.

DIF: Level 2 REF: p. 165

7. In an antibody identification panel, only one red cell was negative at the antihuman globulin
phase. On ruling out and matching the pattern, an anti-k was identified. What further testing is
necessary to confirm the antibody?
a. Two more k-negative cells should be tested.
b. Two more K-negative cells should be tested.
c. Treat the panel cells with enzymes and perform the panel again.
d. Perform an adsorption using “k”-positive cells.
ANS: A
To satisfy the “rule of three,” three negative and three positive reactions for the antigen should
be observed to rule in an antibody.

DIF: Level 3 REF: p. 166

 8. An anti-Fya was identified in a patient’s serum. The patient’s red cells phenotyped as Fya
positive using commercial antisera. The next step is to:
a. repeat the panel to confirm the antibody.
b. report the antibody because this result is normal.
c. investigate a recent transfusion history.
d. wash the cells and use monoclonal anti-Fya antibodies.
ANS: C
The patient’s red cells should be Fya negative to make anti-Fya unless a recent transfusion was
given of Fya positive red cells. If no Fya-positive red cells were recently transfused, the
antibody identified may be incorrect or the patient may have a positive direct antiglobulin test.

DIF: Level 3 REF: p. 166

9. If all the panel cells were reactive at the same strength at the antihuman globulin phase, no
negative reactions were observed, and the autocontrol was negative, what should be
suspected?
a. Multiple antibody specificities
b. Warm autoantibody
c. Antibody to a low-frequency antigen
d. Antibody to a high-frequency antigen
ANS: D
Reactions of similar strength suggest one specificity; a negative autocontrol rules out an
autoantibody, and all panel cells reactive suggest an antibody to an antigen that is of high
frequency in the population.

DIF: Level 3 REF: p. 169

10. Antibodies to low-incidence antigens include all of the following except:

a. anti-Vel.
b. anti-Cw.
c. anti-V.
d. anti-Lua.
ANS: A
Vel is an antigen found in high frequency in the population.

DIF: Level 1 REF: p. 171

11. Cold autoantibodies are typically of which specificity?

a. M
b. N
c. I
d. Leb
ANS: C
Cold autoantibodies are typically of the specificity anti-I. I is a high-frequency antigen found
on all adult red cells but is absent on cord red cells.

DIF: Level 1 REF: p. 174

12. If an anti-I is suspected in a patient’s sample that requires a transfusion, the most acceptable
course of action is to:
a. call the rare donor registry.
b. crossmatch cord blood.
c. perform a cold autoadsorption.
d. perform the prewarm technique.
ANS: D
Prewarming the patient’s serum and panel cells separately and then mixing at 37° C to avoid
cold temperatures usually avoids the reactivity of the anti-I, which is not clinically significant
but may mask other antibodies.

DIF: Level 2 REF: p. 176

13. What is the most important concern when trying to identify antibodies in a patient with a
warm autoantibody?
a. Identifying the specificity of the autoantibody
b. Determining whether there are underlying alloantibodies
c. Identifying the antibody found in the eluate
d. Determining whether complement is binding to the autologous red cells
ANS: B
Autoantibodies in the serum can mask underlying alloantibodies.

DIF: Level 2 REF: p. 178

14. An autoadsorption may be performed to investigate underlying autoantibodies. When is this

procedure acceptable?
a. When the autoantibody is reactive at 4° C
b. When the patient has not been recently transfused
c. Only if complement is coating the red cells
d. When the eluate is negative
ANS: B
If an autoadsorption is performed (using the patient’s red cells) and the patient has been
recently transfused, the adsorbing red cells may remove developing alloantibodies to the
transfused cells.

DIF: Level 2 REF: p. 180

15. Proteolytic enzymes should not be used to screen for antibodies because:
a. the reagent is too expensive for routine use.
b. clinically insignificant antibodies are enhanced.
c. red cells must be treated with enzymes first, which makes this technique
impractical.
d. some antigens are destroyed by enzymes, which would cause the antibodies to be
missed.
ANS: D
Proteolytic enzymes destroy some antigens in the Duffy and MNS system. Antibody screens
using enzymes would not detect antibodies to these antigens.
 DIF: Level 1 REF: p. 161

16. High-titer, low-avidity antibodies typically:

a. react with antigens of high frequency in the population.
b. react with antigens of low frequency in the population.
c. are clinically significant.
d. react best at colder temperatures.
ANS: A
High-titer, low-avidity antibodies are typically reactive with most panel cells at the antihuman
globulin phase and are not clinically significant. They may mask clinically significant
reactions.

DIF: Level 1 REF: p. 170

17. An example of a cold alloantibody includes:

a. anti-M.
b. anti-I.
c. anti-Lub.
d. anti-k.
ANS: A
Alloantibodies to anti-M react best at room temperature but can also demonstrate reactions at
37° C and antihuman globulin phases.

DIF: Level 1 REF: p. 172

18. The best description of the elution technique is that it is a technique used to:
a. disassociate IgM antibodies from red cells for further identification.
b. disassociate IgG antibodies from red cells for further identification.
c. adsorb IgG antibodies from serum.
d. separate IgG and IgM antibodies in serum.
ANS: B
Elution procedures remove IgG antibodies from sensitized red cells to be used for
identification using panel cells.

DIF: Level 2 REF: p. 179

19. All the following antigens are commonly found on screening cells except:
a. D.
b. k.
c. Kpa.
d. C.
ANS: C
Kpa is a low-frequency antigen in the Kell system that is typically not present on screening
cells.

DIF: Level 1 REF: p. 159

20. An autoadsorption uses what type of cells to remove antibody from the serum?
 a. Antibody screening cells
b. Donor red cells
c. Patient red cells
d. Antibody identification panel cells
ANS: C
Patient red cells are treated to remove IgG antibody and then are incubated with the patient’s
serum to remove more autoantibodies that are interfering with alloantibody identification.

DIF: Level 1 REF: p. 177

21. Anti-D, anti-K, and anti-Jka are the antibodies that are tentatively identified on a panel after
initially ruling out on negative cells. What selected cell from another panel should be chosen
to confirm the presence of anti-K?
a. K–, D+, Jk(a+)
b. K+, D+, Jk(a+)
c. K+, D–, Jk(a+)
d. K+, D–, Jk(a–)
ANS: D
To confirm the presence of the anti-K, a cell positive for K antigen and antigen negative for
the other two suspected antibodies will confirm anti-K if it is reactive against it.

DIF: Level 2 REF: p. 168

22. DTT (dithiothreitol) would be useful in the identification of which of the following
antibodies?
a. Anti-Jsa
b. Anti-Kpb
c. Anti-Vel
d. Anti-K
ANS: B
Anti-Kpb is a high-frequency antigen in the Kell system. If an Anti-Kpb is suspected, the panel
cells could be treated with DTT and the sample retested. If all reactions are eliminated, the
anti-Kpb is confirmed and other underlying alloantibodies are ruled out. Although K would
also be destroyed by DTT, there are sufficient negative cells on the panel to determine if
underlying antibodies exist and confirm the specificity.

DIF: Level 1 REF: p. 170

23. Anti-Sda should be suspected if:

a. weak reactions at the antiglobulin phase occur with several panel cells.
b. reactions are stronger with enzymes at the immediate spin phase.
c. the antibody reacts with most panel cells and are mixed field and refractile
microscopically.
d. weak reactions at the AHG phase titer out to high dilutions.
ANS: C
Anti-Sda antibodies are characteristically mixed field and refractile when observed under the
microscope. Sda is a high-frequency antigen; therefore, these reactions will be observed with
most cells tested.
 DIF: Level 2 REF: p. 170

24. A patient’s serum reacted weakly with all panel cells tested at the antiglobulin phase using
LISS and were not enhanced using PEG. The autocontrol was negative. Ficin-treated panel
cells were nonreactive. What is the most likely specificity of the antibody?
a. Anti-I
b. Anti-U
c. Anti-Ch
d. Anti-Jsb
ANS: C
Anti-Ch (anti-Chido) is an antibody to a high-frequency antigen in the high-titer low-avidity
category of antibodies that demonstrate weak reactions that are not normally enhanced with
potentiators. Anti-Ch reactions may be eliminated when testing with ficin-treated cells.

DIF: Level 2 REF: p. 170

25. Which of the following medications is most likely to cause the production of autoantibodies?
a. Tetracycline
b. Cephalothin
c. Methyldopa
d. Acutane
ANS: C
Methyldopa is medication often associated with autoantibody formation and can be observed
in the serum and the eluate without the presence of the drug (drug-independent mechanism).

DIF: Level 2 REF: p. 179

26. An antibody was detected at immediate spin and 37° C that appeared to have anti-Leb
specificity. To confirm the antibody identity and determine if there were other antibodies in
the serum, a Lewis neutralization technique was performed. Results of the control are as
follows:
Reaction with Le(b) positive cells
Patient serum + Lewis substance 0
Patient serum + saline control 1+
What conclusion can be made from these results?
a. anti-Leb is confirmed
b. the antibody was diluted, therefore no conclusion can be made
c. the antibody was not neutralized, therefore anti-Leb has not been identified
d. an antibody other than anti-Leb is most likely in the serum
ANS: A
Since the saline control demonstrated a positive reaction, the antibody was not diluted by the
neutralization procedure. The antibody to the Lewis antigen was neutralized since it did not
react with the Lewis positive cells.

DIF: Level 3 REF: p. 173

MATCHING
 Match the tentative interpretation of antibody screen and direct antiglobulin test (DAT) with
the results given below.
a. Alloantibody, IgG
b. Alloantibody, IgM
c. Autoantibody, IgM
d. Autoantibody or transfusion reaction, IgG

1. All screening cells 2+ at antihuman globulin phase, DAT positive, IgG 2+

2. One screening cell 1+ at antihuman globulin phase, DAT negative
3. All screening cells positive 1+ at IS, DAT positive, C3 1+
4. All screening cells positive 1+ at IS, DAT negative

1. ANS: D DIF: Level 2

2. ANS: A DIF: Level 2
3. ANS: C DIF: Level 2
4. ANS: B DIF: Level 2
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 Longfellow says,—

“Deeds are better things than words are.”

Longfellow somewhere says that deeds are better than words.

2. When words are quoted from a foreign language, they should be printed in
italics, and the quotation marks omitted; as, “They have their good glebe lands in
manu, and care not much to rake into title deeds.”—Lamb.
3. When words are to be italicized, a straight mark should be drawn underneath
the words.
4. When a quotation is followed by a comma, semicolon, colon, or period, the
punctuation mark should be placed within the quotation marks; as, “Mr. M’Adam
writes sometimes with genuine humor, and an occasional entirely original simile
shows evidence of the possession of what phrenologists call the faculty of
‘comparison;’ but the charm of the book is its rare perspicacity.”—Harper’s
Magazine.
5. When a quotation is followed by an exclamation or an interrogation point, the
punctuation mark should be placed within the quotation marks, if it forms a part of
the quotation; as, “I feel almost like groaning, when a young mother shows me
some marvel of embroidery or machine-stitching, saying triumphantly, ‘There, I did
every stitch of that myself!’”—Scribner’s Monthly.
6. When a quotation is followed by an exclamation or an interrogation point, the
punctuation mark should be placed outside of the quotation marks, if it belongs to
the whole sentence and not to the quotation; as, “We wonder what Handel would
have said to Mozart’s scoring of ‘I know that my Redeemer liveth’!”—Atlantic
Monthly. “Why cannot we hear, for instance, the wonderful curioso, ‘He gave his
back to the smiters,’ that forms the second part of the air, ‘He was despised,’ and
the duet for contralto and tenor, ‘O death where is thy sting’?”—Atlantic Monthly.

Rule II. Titles of Books.—Titles of books are generally inclosed in

quotation marks.

examples.
Morris’s “Story of Sigurd.”—Scribner’s Monthly.
“The Mikado’s Empire.”—N. A. Review.
“Daniel Deronda.”—Contemporary Review.
 The Rev. W. W. Capes’s history of “The Early Roman Empire.”—
Appleton’s Journal.

remarks.
1. The names of magazines and papers are generally printed in italics; as, The
Atlantic, N. Y. Nation, Fraser’s Magazine, Appleton’s Journal, Nature, Popular
Science Monthly.
2. In examining The Atlantic, Nation, Scribner’s Monthly, Harper’s, Appleton’s
Magazine, Lippincott’s, Popular Science Monthly, Galaxy, Eclectic, N. A. Review,
New Englander, London Quarterly, British Quarterly, Westminster Review,
Edinburgh Review, Contemporary Review, The Fortnightly Review, we find that
thirteen of these use quotation marks, and four use italics, in referring to the titles
of books; eleven use italics, and six use quotation marks, in referring to magazines
and papers.

Rule III. A Quotation within a Quotation.—When there is a

quotation within a quotation, single marks should be used in addition
to double marks.

examples.
“Who was the blundering idiot who said that ‘fine words butter no
parsnips.’ Half the parsnips of society are served and rendered
palatable with no other sauce.”—Thackeray.
“There is a small but ancient fraternity, known as the Order of
Gentlemen. It is a grand old order. A poet has said that Christ
founded it; that he was ‘the first true gentleman that ever lived.’”—
Winthrop.

remarks.
1. Sometimes the quotation within a quotation has a word or phrase that is
quoted. The word or phrase must be inclosed in double marks.
2. In quoting Scripture, it is customary to place only double marks at the
beginning and end of the quotation; as, “And Jesus, moved with compassion, put
forth his hand, and touched him, and saith unto him, I will; be thou clean.”—Mark i.
41.
 Rule IV. Paragraphs.—When several paragraphs are quoted in
succession, double marks should be placed at the beginning of each
paragraph, and at the end of the entire quotation.

example.
“The children woke. The little girl was the first to open her eyes.
“The waking of children is like the unclosing of flowers, a perfume
seems to exhale from those fresh young souls. Georgette, twenty
months old, the youngest of the three, who was still a nursing baby
in the month of May, raised her little head, sat up in her cradle,
looked at her feet, and began to chatter.
“A ray of morning fell across her crib; it would have been difficult to
decide which was the rosiest, Georgette’s foot or Aurora.”—Hugo.

remarks.
1. A paragraph usually consists of several sentences. It begins on a new line,
and is distinguished by a blank space on the left, at the commencement of the
paragraph.
2. When parts of a quotation are omitted, use several stars to indicate the
omission (* * * *), or place double marks at the beginning and end of each
detached part of the quotation.

THE APOSTROPHE.

Rule I. Letters Omitted.—The apostrophe is used to indicate the

omission of a letter or letters.

examples.
“O Marcia, O my sister, still there’s hope!”—Addison.

“Thou knowest ’tis common; all, that live, must die,

Passing through nature to eternity.”—Shakespeare.

remark.
 The apostrophe is made like a comma, but is placed above the line.

Rule II. Possession.—The apostrophe is used to denote

possession.

examples.
Taine’s “English Literature.” Rawlinson’s “Ancient Monarchies.”

remarks.
1. The apostrophe and s should be used with nouns in the singular, even when
the word ends in s or x; as,—

“Dickens’s Works.”—Appleton’s Journal.

“Cox’s General History of Greece.”—Harper’s Magazine.
“Evans’s observations.”—Edinburgh Review.
“Mr. Hayes’s responsibility.”—N. Y. Nation.

In addition to the periodicals given above, The Atlantic, Scribner’s Monthly,

Lippincott’s Magazine, Popular Science Monthly, Galaxy, N. A. Review, London
Quarterly, British Quarterly, Fortnightly Review, use the additional s. The
Westminster omits the additional s. In the Contemporary and Edinburgh Review,
the s is used by some writers and omitted by others.
2. In the plural of nouns, the apostrophe and s are used to denote possession,
when the word does not end in s; as, men’s deeds. If the word ends in s, the
apostrophe only is used; as, my neighbors’ house.
3. The apostrophe should not be used before s in ours, yours, hers, theirs, its.

THE HYPHEN.

Rule I. Compound Words.—The hyphen is used to connect the

parts of a compound word.

examples.
“My household-gods plant a terrible fixed foot, and are not to be
rooted up without blood.”—Lamb.
 “The breezy call of incense-breathing morn.”—Gray.

remarks.
1. A compound word is formed by placing together two simple words.
2. Sometimes several words are connected together by hyphens; as, “He had a
lively touch-and-go-away with him, very pleasant and engaging I admit.”—Wilkie
Collins.
3. When a compound word comes into very general use, the hyphen is
sometimes omitted; as, railroad, steamboat, bookstore.
4. To-day, to-night, to-morrow, should always be written with a hyphen.
5. When there is any doubt whether two words should be united by a hyphen or
written as one word, some standard dictionary should be consulted. It will,
however, be found that even dictionaries differ somewhat in the use and omission
of the hyphen in compound words. In order to preserve some uniformity in spelling
and in the formation of compound words, every writer should make either Webster
or Worcester the final authority.

Rule II. Prefixes.—When a prefix ends in a vowel, and the word to

which it is joined commences with a vowel, they should be separated
by a hyphen.

examples.
Re-admit, co-ordinate, pre-existence, pre-eminent.

remarks.
1. A prefix is a letter, syllable, or word, placed before some word, thus forming a
new word.
2. If, instead of two vowels, a vowel and a consonant come together, the prefix
and the word to which it is joined should usually be written as one word; as,
rewrite, predetermine.
3. Vice-president, and most words with vice as a prefix, should be written with a
hyphen.
4. Some writers use the diæresis instead of the hyphen. With prefixes it is better
to use the hyphen, but in other words containing two vowels that do not form a
diphthong, the diæresis should be used; as, Zoölogy.
 Rule III. Division of Words.—When it is necessary to write part of
a word at the end of a line and part at the beginning of the next line,
the division should be made at the end of a syllable, and the parts
should be connected by a hyphen, at the end of the line.

example.
“Knowledge is of two kinds. We know a sub-
ject ourselves, or we know where we can find in-
formation upon it.”—Dr. Johnson.

remarks.
1. It is better to divide a word as near the middle as possible.
2. When two words one at the end of a line and the other at the commencement
of the following line, are separated by a punctuation mark, it should be placed at
the end of the line, and never at the beginning.

MISCELLANEOUS MARKS.
I. Two Commas (”) indicate that the word under which they are
placed is to be repeated.
Charles Harrison, Adrian, Mich.
Clinton Hardy, ” ”
II. The Caret (^) indicates that something is written above the line
that forms a part of the sentence. It is only used in writing.

III. Marks of Ellipsis (—, ....., * * * * *) indicate the omission of

letters, words, or sentences.
1. “I was the true descendant of those old W—s.”—Lamb.
 2. “I have a belief of my own, ... that by desiring what is perfectly
good, even when we don’t quite know what it is, ... we are a part of a
divine power against evil, widening the skirts of light, and making the
struggle with darkness narrower.”—George Eliot.
Four words are omitted where the first dots are, and five where the
second are.

3. “My lov’d, my honour’d, much respected friend!

* * * * * * * * *
To you I sing, in simple Scottish lays,
The lowly train in life’s sequester’d scene,
The native feeling strong, the guileless ways;
What Aiken in his cottage would have been.”—Burns.

In the above, three lines are omitted.

IV. Leaders (......) are used to indicate a connection between
words at the beginning of the line and what is at the end of the line.

Winnowed Wheat ................... Nellie R. Luck.

Dreams, a Poem ................... Octa E. Wise.

V. In writing, one line drawn under a word indicates that it is to be

printed in italics; two lines, in small capitals; three lines, in capitals.
VI. Marks of Reference are used to refer to notes at the bottom of
the page, or to remarks in the margin. They are the following:—
The Star (*), the Dagger (†), the Double Dagger (‡), the Section
(§), Parallel Lines (‖), the Paragraph (¶).
The above marks are given in the order in which they are used.
The Paragraph (¶) is also used, in written compositions, to denote
that what follows should commence a new line.
 Capitals.
INTRODUCTION.
It has been the custom among some writers to commence every
important word with a capital, so that some printed productions have
fairly bristled with capitalized words; as,—
“Modern authors have with unwearied Pains made many useful
Searches into the weak Sides of the Ancients, and given us a
comprehensive Lift of them.”—Swift.
“There were a Race of Men who delighted to nibble at the
Superfluities and Excrescences of Books.”—Swift.
The custom of commencing all nouns with a capital is still
prevalent among the Germans of the present day.
 It is a somewhat interesting fact that the use and value of capitals
has been subject to a rise and fall in the literary market, written
productions during some centuries abounding in them, while in other
centuries they have, in a great measure, been discarded, and have
become comparative strangers in English composition.
In the early part of this century, there was a tendency to use them
to an inconsiderate extent, owing principally to German imitators like
Carlyle and others, who adopted, in a somewhat modified form, the
German method of capitalizing words. Just at present there seems to
be a reaction setting in, and there is a tendency among some of our
leading publishing houses to dispense with their use as much as
possible. In democratic America, there has always been a somewhat
unreasonable fear of official titles, and when they are used, they are
frequently belittled with small letters. This has had a tendency to
encourage the use of small letters in many words that should
properly commence with capitals.
There is no doubt that a judicious use of capitals assists the eye
very much in reading what another has written, and in understanding
a writer’s meaning. While, on the other hand, an injudicious use
lessens their value, and disfigures a printed page.
Although the taste and judgment of each writer may be consulted
in the capitalization of some words to which he may assign a special
meaning, there are a number of well established principles,
sanctioned by long usage, that should govern all writers in the use of
capital letters.

CAPITALS.

Rule I. Sentences.—The first word of every sentence should

commence with a capital.

examples.

“The price we challenge for ourselves is given us.”—Schiller.

 “The elder brother of Franklin ventured to start a newspaper,
though warned that America could never support two
newspapers.”—William Russel.

“Trust in yourself, and you have learnt to live.”—Goethe.

remarks.
1. A sentence is an assemblage of words making complete sense, and followed
by a period. Sometimes a sentence has an interrogation or an exclamation point at
its close; as,—

“For of the wholly common is man made,

And custom is his nurse!”—Schiller.

2. Any expression that is equivalent to a sentence should commence with a

capital; as, Very affectionately. Price $5.00.
3. As a period indicates the close of a sentence, the word following the period
should commence with a capital; as, “The little soul is like a vapor that hovers
around a marshy lake. It never rises on the green hill, lest the winds meet it
there.”—Ossian.
If, however, a period is used to indicate an abbreviation, it should not be
followed by a capital, unless it is at the close of a sentence, or the word that
follows it requires a capital; as, In Germany, the degrees of M. D., LL. D., and Ph.
D. are only gained after passing a severe examination.
4. Although a capital is generally used after an interrogation or an exclamation
point, as they usually indicate the close of a sentence, this is not always the case;
as,—

“How poor! how rich! how abject! how august!

How complicate! how wonderful is man!
How passing wonder He who made him such!
Who centered in our make such strange extremes!”—Young.

Rule II. Poetry.—The first word of every line of poetry should

commence with a capital.

examples.

“There is a day of sunny rest

 For every dark and troubled night;
And grief may bide an evening guest,
But joy shall come with early light.”—Bryant.

“But far more numerous was the herd of such,

Who think too little and who talk too much.”—Dryden.

Rule III. Persons and Places.—Names of persons, countries,

cities, islands, rivers, mountains, &c., should commence with
capitals.

examples.
“The finest thief of old history is the pirate who made that famous
answer to Alexander, in which he said that the conqueror was only
the mightier thief of the two.”—Leigh Hunt.
America, France, London, New York, West Indies, Hudson, Rhine,
Rocky Mountains, Mount Vernon, Pacific.

remarks.
1. When North, South, East, &c., refer to political or geographical divisions, they
should commence with capitals; as, “But sectional bitterness has in a great
measure passed away; the fatal cause of discord between North and South has
been removed.”
When these words refer merely to the points of the compass, they should be
written with small letters.
2. Words derived from the names of persons should commence with capitals;
as, Socratic, Platonic, Elizabethan.
When words derived from the names of persons or places lose their individual
character, and are used as common words, they should commence with small
letters; as, god-like, hector, turkey, china-ware, laconic.
3. Heaven and hell are written with small letters in the Bible. Satan is always
printed with a capital, but devil commences with a small letter, unless it stands for
Satan; as, “Then was Jesus led up of the Spirit into the wilderness to be tempted
of the devil.”—Mat. iv. 1.
 Rule IV. Nations.—The names of nations, or words derived from
the names of nations, should commence with capitals.

examples.
“‘Simply to be poor,’ says my favorite Greek historian, ‘was not
held scandalous by the wise Athenians; but highly so, to owe that
poverty to our own indiscretion.’”—Fielding.
American, German, French, Latins, Americanize, Latinize,
Hellenize.

remark.
Italics and Italicize are frequently written with small letters.

Rule V. Sects and Parties.—The names of religious sects and

political parties should commence with capitals.

examples.
Christian, Mohammedan, Lutheran, Catholic, Protestant,
Episcopal, Presbyterian, Baptist, Unitarian.
Republican, Federalist, Democrat, Whig, Tory, Radical.

remarks.
1. When republican, radical, &c., are used as common words, and not as the
names of political parties, they should commence with small letters; as, republican
institutions, radical measures.
2. Some writers use small letters, when referring to political parties. If, however,
it is incorrect to write Congregational, Methodist, with small letters, why is it not
incorrect to commence Republican, Whig, with small letters?
3. Church should be written with a capital, when it refers to a religious sect; as,
the Episcopal Church, meaning the whole body of Christians belonging to that
denomination. When the word refers to a place of worship, it should commence
with a small letter.
 Rule VI. Months and Days.—The names of months and days
should commence with capitals.

examples.
“No one ever regarded the first of January with indifference. It is
that from which all date their time, and count upon what is left. It is
the nativity of our common Adam.”—Lamb.
February, March, April, May; Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday,
Sunday, Good Friday, Easter.

remark.
Spring, summer, autumn, winter, should be written with small letters.

Rule VII. Titles of Books.—All the words, with the exception of

articles, conjunctions, and prepositions, in the titles of books, should
commence with a capital.

examples.
Forsyth’s “Life of Cicero.” “The Fall of the Roman Republic,” Rev.
C. Merivale.

remarks.
1. It is just as necessary to capitalize the title of a book, as it is the name of a
person.
2. The title of an oration, essay, article for a newspaper, or of any written
production, follows the same rule as the title of a book.
3. Names of sacred writings should always be capitalized; as, Bible, Old and
New Testament, the Scriptures, Acts, Revelation, Gospel of John, Koran, Vedas.

Rule VIII. Title-Pages.—The title-pages of books are generally

printed entirely with capitals. The title-page of any book will illustrate
this rule.

remarks.
 1. This rule concerns more especially the printer.
2. The first word of a chapter is generally printed in small capitals, the first letter
of the word being a large capital.
3. In handbills and advertisements, all important words are capitalized, so as to
attract special attention.

Rule IX. Titles of Persons.—All titles of respect or honor should

be capitalized.
There are three classes of titles:—
1. Common Titles.
Mr., Mrs., Miss, Master.
2. Professional Titles.
Prof, Dr., D. D., LL. D., &c.
3. Official Titles.
Hon., His Excellency, His Honor, President,
Secretary, Senator, Mr. Chairman, &c.

examples.
President Hayes, Senator Morton, Hon. Thomas W. Ferry, Dr.
Chas. Rynd, Mr. Fred. J. Todd.

remarks.
1. A distinction should always be made between words used as titles, and words
used in a general sense. For example, senator should commence with a small
letter, if it is not placed before the name of a person as a title, or does not refer to a
particular individual. This is the same with president, secretary, doctor, &c.; as, “A
patient owes some thanks to a doctor who restores him with nectar smooth and
fragrant, instead of rasping his throat and flaying his interior with the bitters sucked
by sour-tempered roots from vixenish soils.”—Winthrop.
2. Father, brother, sister, aunt, uncle, cousin, &c., should commence with a
capital, when they are used like titles with the names of persons; as, Father
Pierce, Cousin Blackmar.
 3. Sir, father, brother, friend, &c., when used as introductory words to a letter,
should commence with capitals, as a mark of respect; as, My dear Sir, My dear
Friend.
4. In writing such titles as the President of the United States, Secretary of State,
Alexander the Great, all the words in the title should commence with a capital,
except of and the.

Rule X. The Deity.—All names of the Supreme Being or his Son

should commence with a capital.

examples.
“But it is now time to depart,—I to die, but you to live. But which of
us is going to the better state is unknown to every one but God.”—
Socrates.
“For God so loved the world that he gave his only begotten Son,
that whosoever believeth in him should not perish but have
everlasting life.”—John iii. 16.

remarks.
1. Writers differ somewhat in the use of capitals in words referring to the Deity.
Some capitalize all words in any way referring to the Supreme Being, while others
simply capitalize the words that to them seem important. There should be some
uniformity in the use of capitals in words of this character. As a general rule, it is
better to follow the usage of an authorized version of the Scriptures.
2. Such words as First Cause, First Principle, Almighty God, Supreme Being,
Lord God Almighty, Infinite One, should always be written with capitals.
3. King of kings, Lord of lords, Son of man, Father of lights, Father of spirits,
God of hosts, Father of mercies, Prince of life, Prince of kings, and expressions of
a similar character, should only commence with a capital. This is the almost
invariable usage of the Scriptures. These expressions are not commonly used in
the Bible as titles, in the strict sense of the word. For example, King of kings really
means that the Deity is the supreme King of all human kings. For illustration see 1
Tim. vi. 15; Dan. vii. 13; Jas. i. 17; Heb. xii. 9; Psa. lxxx. 7; 2 Cor. i. 3; Acts iii. 15;
Mat. xii. 32. When these forms are used as titles, they may be capitalized like
titles.
4. The adjectives eternal, divine, heavenly, are not printed with capitals in the
Scriptures, when referring to the Deity; as, the eternal God, heavenly Father. See
Deut. xxxiii. 27; Heb. ix. 14; Mat. vi. 32; 2 Pet. i. 3. When, however, these
adjectives are used in an emphatic or special sense, they may commence with
capitals.
5. The pronouns referring to the Deity should not be capitalized, when they are
used with some name of the Supreme Being; as, “At that time Jesus answered
and said, I thank thee, O Father, Lord of heaven and earth, because thou hast hid
these things from the wise and prudent, and hast revealed them to babes.”—Mat.
xi. 25. Any chapter of the New Testament will give similar illustrations.
When, however, a pronoun referring to the Deity stands alone, it should
commence with a capital; as,—

“O Thou! with whom the night is day,

And one the near and far away.”—Whittier.

6. The capitalization of pronouns is sometimes carried to a ridiculous excess by

some writers, especially in poetry; as,

“We praise Thee, O God! for the Son of Thy love.”

7. God, goddess, deity, applied to heathen divinities, should not commence with
a capital.

Rule XI. Quotations.—When the exact words of another are

given, the first word of the quotation should commence with a
capital, if it forms a complete sentence.

examples.
“When the celebrated Chesterfield was asked by a Parisian lady,
‘Why, my Lord, does England still retain Christianity?’ ‘Madame,’ he
replied, with that mixture of repartee and philosophy which met the
case he was dealing with, ‘Madame, because, as yet, we have been
able to find nothing better.’”
Fielding somewhere says, “A good face is a letter of
recommendation.”

remarks.
1. When a quotation is introduced by that, it should not commence with a capital;
as, Napoleon banished Madame de Stael because he said that “she carried a
quiver of arrows that could hit a man if he were seated on a rainbow.”
2. When only a part of a sentence is quoted, a small letter should be used; as,
“For what satisfaction hath a man, that he shall ‘lie down with kings and emperors
in death,’ who in his lifetime never greatly coveted the society of such
bedfellows?”—Lamb.
3. Sometimes a single word comprises the entire saying of another. When this is
so, it should commence with a capital; as, “He shouted, ‘Victory.’”
4. When examples are given as illustrations of some general principle, they
naturally follow the same rule as quotations. If an entire sentence is given as an
example, it should commence with a capital. When disconnected words are given,
small letters may be used, unless the words themselves require capitals.

Rule XII. Resolutions.—In writing resolutions, the word

immediately following Resolved, should commence with a capital.

example.
“Resolved, That the Declaration, passed on the fourth, be fairly
engrossed on parchment, with the title and style of ‘The Unanimous
Declaration of the Thirteen United States of America;’ and that the
same, when engrossed, be signed by every member of Congress.”

remark.
Resolved commences with a capital in resolutions, and a comma immediately
precedes That.

Rule XIII. Special Words.—Words used in a special sense, or of

special importance, commence with capitals.

examples.
“As nowadays we build monuments to great men, so in the Middle
Ages they built shrines or chapels on the spots which saints had
made holy.”—Froude.
“The Reformation broke the theological shackles in which men’s
minds were fettered.”—Froude.
 “That Popularity is alone valuable and enduring which follows you,
not that which you run after.”—Lord Mansfield.

remark.
Although it is the universal custom to capitalize a word when used in a special
sense to mark an important period or event in history, there is another class of
words to which writers assign a special importance, the capitalization of which
must necessarily be left to the judgment and taste of each writer. It should,
however, be remembered that an injudicious or too frequent use of capitals
lessens their value and force, and disfigures a written or printed page.

Rule XIV. Words Personified.—When things without life are

represented as persons, they may commence with capitals.

example.
“Father Time is not always a hard parent, and though he tarries for
none of his children, he often lays his hand lightly upon those who
have used him well; making them old men and women inexorably
enough, but leaving their hearts and spirits young and in full vigor.
With such people the gray head is but the impression of the old
fellow’s hand in giving them a blessing, and every wrinkle but a
notch in the quiet calendar of a well-spent life.”—Dickens.

remark.
Care should be taken not to carry this rule to an excess. Unless the
personification is vivid and emphatic, use small letters; as,—

“Many a daylight dawned and darkened,

Many a night shook off the daylight
As the pine shakes off the snow-flakes
From the midnight of its branches.”—Longfellow.

Rule XV. I and O.—The pronoun I and the interjection O should

always be written with capitals.

examples.
 “True faith, I tell thee,
Must ever be the dearest friend to man:
His nature prompts him to assert its rights.”—Schiller.

“As wise as when I went to school.”—Goethe.

“O day! O day! O day! O hateful day!

Never was seen so black a day as this.”—Shakespeare.

Rule XVI. References.—In referring to passages in books,

numbers are sometimes represented by capital letters.

examples.
Irving’s “Life of Washington,” vol. III. p. 77.
Mommsen’s “History of Rome,” vol. IV. p. 18.

remarks.
1. Some commence volume and chapter with a capital, but this is not the usual
custom.
2. The volume, chapter, and page may be given, but the volume and page are
sufficient.
3. In referring to passages in the Bible, the chapter and verse are given; as
Luke, chap. ix. 15. It is the usual custom to omit the word chapter, the letters
representing the chapter; and the number, the verse; as, “It may be fit to remember
that Moses, Lev. xi. 9, Deut. xiv. 9, appointed fish to be the chief diet of the best
commonwealth that ever yet was.”—Izaak Walton.

Rule XVII. Divisions of a Statement.—When a general statement

is divided into separate and distinct parts, it is better to commence
each division with a capital, even when they do not form complete
sentences, and are not separated from each other by a period. This
is especially the case when the divisions are numbered.

example.
 “The history of the normal development of the individual has its
counterpart in the history of humanity. There is, 1. The age of
popular and unconscious morality; 2. The transitional, skeptical, or
sophistical age; and 3. The philosophic or conscious age of morality.”

remarks.
1. When each division commences with a capital and is also numbered, they will
be more readily recognized and understood.
2. Some writers number the divisions, but do not commence them with capitals;
as, “The teaching of composition requires, (1) a cultivation of thought; and (2) a
cultivation of the faculty of expression.” It is better to commence each division with
a capital.
3. When a sentence is broken off to commence a new line, in order to give
special prominence to a statement, or to attract attention, a capital should be used;
as,—
I am, dear Mother,
Your dutiful son,
Sam. Johnson.