Types of Communicative Strategies

Sometimes conversation become complex when misunderstanding occurs. According to Cohen

(1990) that strategies must be used to start and maintain good conversation.

A communication strategy is defined as an individual's attempt to find a way to fill the gap
between their communication effort and immediate available linguistic resources (Maleki,
2007).

Moreover, Faerch and Kasper (1983) define CS as "potentially conscious plans" which are used
by an individual to solve a problem in order to reach a specific communication goal.
1. Nomination – refers when a speaker carries out the nomination to collaboratively and
productivity establish the topic. Basically, when you employ this strategy, you try to
open a topic with the people you talking to. Topic establishment.

You may start with:

1. News inquiries
2. News announcement
3. Suggestion
4. Greetings
5. Asking information

Examples:

1. “Hi, how are you?”

2. “What is the latest news?”
3. “How’s the weather there?”
4. “Have ever notice the weird weather condition nowadays? “Is that a sign of climate
change?”
2. Restriction – refers to any limitation you may have as a speaker. It is a process by which
a speaker constrains the response/ reactions within a certain set of categories.

Example: In the classroom, your teacher asked you to brainstorm on peer pressure. In this
case, the conversation between you and your friend is limited. You are restraining to talk
about only about peer pressure.

Are you good at solving Math problem? Yes/No (This is an example of restriction because the
speaker constrains the response for just 2 options only)

3. Turn-Taking – pertains to the process by which people decide who takes the
conversational floor. This may happen when people are given unequal opportunities to
talk because others take much time during the conversation.

Example:
1. “That’s a good idea, do you like it?”
 2. “Does that make sense to you?”
Rules of turn-taking:
1. Recognizing when to take a turn.
2. Signaling that you want to speak
3. Holding the floor during your turn.
4. Recognizing when others want to
speak
4. Topic control – covers how procedural formality affects the development of the topic in
conversation. It is used to control and prevent unnecessary interruptions and topic
shifts in a certain conversation. Refers to acceptance or development of a certain topic.
Example:
1.“Let's go back to the topic”, “We’re talking about school here, right?”
2.“Go on with your ideas. I'll let you finish first before I say something.”
Remember:
You can actively involve the conversation without overly dominating by using:
1. By simple expression such “Yes”, “okay”,” go on”
2. By asking tag questions such as “You are excited, aren’t you?”, “it was unexpected, wasn’t,
it?” or
3. By simple facial expression such smiling and laughing.
5. Topic Shifting - involves moving from one topic to another. It is where one part of a
conversation ends and where another begins. When shifting from one topic to another,
you have to be very intuitive by making sure that the previous topic was nurtured
enough to generate adequate views which uses effective conversational transitions.
Conversational Transitions are the following:
1. “By the way”;
2. “In addition to what you said”;
3. “Which reminds me of”
Example:
“We are currently suffering from financial difficulties that drives us to triple our hard work in
order to survive, you have a point with that, by the way, aren’t we’re going to talk about your
vacation in Hongkong last year? Let’s forget problems for a while.”
6. Repair - refers to how the speakers address the problems in speaking listening, and
comprehending that they may encounter in a conversation. It is the self-righting
mechanism in any social interaction.
1. “Excuse me, will you please talk one at a time, I can’t understand if all will talk together.”
2. “Take this moment as learning opportunity. Let’s take a note regarding this matter.”
3. “‘I’m sorry, could you repeat your question please? i didn’t hear it clearly.
7. Termination - refers to the conversation participants ‘close initiating expression that
ends a topic in a conversation. Most of the time, the topic initiator takes responsibility
to signal the end of the discussion as well. Although not all topics may have clear ends,
try to signal the end of the topic through concluding cues.
Example:
1. Yes, got it, I’ll meet you there, bye!
Using Communicative Strategies Effectively
Basically, there is a need to be acquainted with speech context so that we will know what style
and act to use in communicating with others. Then we go for the best words to say by means of
applying the communicative strategies. Whenever there is a shift on any of these, the
language form, duration of interaction, relationship of speaker, role and responsibilities of
the speaker, message and delivery are affected. Therefore, all of these can affect how we
approach, what we say, and how long we ought to speak with others.
Studies show that the following are the strategies that speakers commonly resort to
when communication problems arise:
 Message Abandonment - you leave the message unfinished because of language
difficulty.
 Topic Avoidance- you try not to talk about concepts difficult for you to express.
 Circumlocution - you describe or paraphrase the target object or action.
 Approximation - you use an alternative term (e.g. ship) to express the meaning of the
target word (e.g. sail) as closely as possible.
 Use of all-purpose-words - you expand a general word to the context where certain
words are lacking like the overuse of the words: thing, stuff, make, do, what-do-you-
call-it, and what-is-it.
 Word Coinage - you create a new English word based on what you know of the way
English works like “vegetarianist” (which is not in the dictionary) for the “vegetarian”.
 Use of nonverbal means - you mime, the gesture, use facial expression, and imitate
sound to express the meaning you want.
 Literal translation - you translate a word or an idiom from your mother tongue to
English using the structure of your first language.
 Foreignizing - you use the word in your native language but pronounce it like English.
 Code switching - you use the native word or expression for the English term that
expresses the meaning you want.
 Appeal for Help - you ask others for help when you do not know or forget some words,
structures or idioms.
 Use of Fillers/hesitation devices - you use filling words (e.g. uhhmmmm) to gain time
to think.
 Extemporaneous – Little preparation.
 Manuscript – Reading from a script.
 Impromptu – No preparation, on the spot.
Language Forms: Informal, formal

Types of sentences:
  Declarative (making statements)
 Interrogative (asking questions)
 Imperative (commands/requests)
 Exclamatory (expressing strong emotions)

Speech Contexts:

 Intrapersonal – internal thoughts or internal monologuing. Relating to individual self.

 Interpersonal – involve interaction and relationships between people.
 Public Communication – conveying information towards an audience.
 Mass Communication – Conveying information using print or electronic media. Ex.
Television.

Speech Styles:

 Intimate – the most informal speech style. Private language.

 Casual – language used between friends and acquaintances.
 Formal – Standard English in workplace environments, job interviews, etc.
 Frozen – Memorized, oaths, Panatang Makabayan, etc.
 Speech acts:
 Assertive – Informing, reporting, showing, explaining.
 Directive – used when the speaker wants the listeners to do something.
 Commissive – commit to a future action; promises.
 Declarative – to declare, to cause something to happen. Ex. “You’re fired.”
 Expressive – Feeling, apology, attitude.

A shift in speech context, style, act, and communicative strategy affects the following:

 language form
 duration of interaction
 relationship of the speaker - The speaker creates positive relationship among his/her
listeners.
 role and responsibilities of the speaker - In intrapersonal and frozen, it involves only
the speaker. The
 rest can interchange roles as speaker and receiver.

The speaker can use various speech acts and communicative strategies to relay his/her
INTENDED MESSAGE.

 message – content, core concept of the interaction

  delivery – manner on how the speech is presented

Principles of Effective Speech Writing

Speech writing is an art of conveying a message to your audience. The process for writing is
not chronological or linear; rather, it is recursive. That means you have the opportunity to
repeat a writing procedure indefinitely, or produce multiple drafts first before you can
settle on the right one.

Jocelyn Tyson, a 42-year-old pharmacist from Mount Laurel, New Jersey, won the
Toastmasters World Championship of Public Speaking on Saturday, August 19, 2023

Prewriting

Audience analysis entails looking into the profile of your target audience. This is done so
you can tailor-fit your speech content and delivery to your audience. The profile includes
the following information.

Items to consider: Demography (male female ratio, age range), Psychology (Interests,
values), and Situation (time, venue size, and occasion.)

Purpose – to inform, to persuade, or to entertain. In a declamatory manner.

Declamatory (way of speaking is dramatic and confident.

The topic is your focal point of your speech, which can be determined once you have
decided on your purpose.

Narrowing down a topic - means making your main idea more specific and focused. The
strategies in selecting a topic can also be used when you narrow down a topic.

Data gathering is the stage where you collect ideas, information, sources, and references
relevant or related to your specific topic.

Writing patterns, in general, are structures that will help you organize the ideas related to
your topic.
INFORMATIVE

 Chronological - Presents the idea in time order

 Topical - Presents related categories supporting the topic
 Spatial – Describing details in the order of their physical location.
 Causal - Presents cause effect relationships
 Biographical - Presents descriptions of your life or of a person, famous or not
 Comparison/ contrast – Presents comparison/ contrast of two or three points
PERSUASIVE

 problem-solution
 Monroe’s Motivated Sequence (Monroe, 1949)
 An outline is a hierarchical list that shows the relationship of your ideas. The elements of
an outline include introduction, body, and conclusion.

The body of the speech provides explanations, examples, or any details that can help you
deliver your purpose and explain the main idea of your speech.

The body of your speech should only have one central idea. The following are some strategies
to highlight your main idea.

The introduction is the foundation of your speech. Here, your primary goal is to get the
attention of your audience and present the subject or main idea of your speech.

The conclusion restates the main idea of your speech. Furthermore, it provides a summary,
emphasizes the message, and calls for action.

Editing/Revising your written speech involves correcting errors in mechanics, such as

grammar, punctuation, capitalization, unity, coherence, and others. Andrew Dlugan (2013), an
award-winning public speaker, lists six power principles for speech editing.

 Edit for focus - Ensure that everything you have written, from introduction to
conclusion, is related to your central message.
 Edit for clarity - Make all ideas in your speech clear by arranging them in logical order
(e.g., main idea first then supporting details, or supporting details first then main idea).
 Edit for concision Keep your speech short, simple, and clear by eliminating unrelated
stories and sentences and by using simple words.
 Edit for continuity - Keep the flow of your presentation smooth by adding transition
words and phrases.
 Edit for variety - Add spice to your speech by shifting tone and style from formal to
conversational and vice-versa, moving around the stage, or adding humor.
 Edit for impact and beauty - Make your speech memorable by using these strategies:
surprise the audience, use vivid descriptive images, write well-crafted and memorable
lines, and use figures of speech.

Rehearsing gives you an opportunity to identify what works and what does not work for you
and for your target audience.
 Principles of Speech Delivery

According to Stephen Lucas (2011), author of The Art of Public Speaking, a good delivery
means that you are capable to present your message in a clear, coherent, and interesting way.

Articulation - It is the physical act of using your tongue, jaw, teeth, lips, and palate (roof of your
mouth), and breath to create sounds. It is the formation of clear and distinct sounds in speech.

The first act of speech is breathing, in which you get air into a storage chamber; second is
phonation, the process by which you force air into vibration by the action of the vocal folds;
third, resonation, in which your mouth, nose and throat cavities amplify the sound so you can
hear it; and

Enunciation - It is how clearly a person says the word and how clearly each sound is made.
Both articulation and enunciation hand in hand.

Pronounciation - It is the way the word sounds based on our region, upbringing, etc. For
example, people say “tomato” two different ways: “tomAEto” or “tomAHto.”

Modulation - This refers to the speaker’s ability to adjust or manipulate the resonance and
timbre of one’s voice.

Stage Presence - This refers to the speaker’s ability to “own” the stage, filling it with one’s
personality and projecting it to the audience or group of listeners.

FACIAL EXPRESSIONS are meaningful visible symbols of speech. This reflects the speaker’s
thinking and emotional attitudes.

Two Principles

 manifest facial expression naturally by freeing yourself of inhibition

 Avoid planning or rehearsing facial expressions in advance for they should be directed
by the meaning of the words being conveyed.
Common Sins in the Use of Facial Expressions
 Poker face - is a product of nervous tension which inhibits facial expression.
 Mugger - is an exaggerated facial grimace which distracts the attention of the
audience for it calls to itself not to the message of the speech
 Facial contortionist - is a way whereby the speaker releases pent-up tension through
random activity of the facial muscles

B. MOVEMENTS / BODILY ACTIONS are supplements to good speech with its being transformed
into actual replacement for the audible code.
 Common Sins in the Use of Movements

 Statue / stone - The speaker appears incapable of movement.

 Pacer - The speaker paces and walks from one side of the platform to the other and back.
 Swayer - The speaker rhythmically moves his body from side to side or forward and
backward followed by the shifting of weight.

C. GESTURES are purposive movements of some parts of the body, but not the entire body.
These include movements of heads, shoulders, arms and occasionally feet.

Common Sins in the Use of Gesture

 Random action includes fidgeting with pencils, button, bracelets, beads, pockets, coat
lapels, wiggling; doing dance strokes with heels or soles; rubbing chin and nose; running
fingers through the hair; taking eyeglasses off and putting them on
 Perpetual motion is a constant and continued use of hands will hinder reinforcement of
meaning.
 Abortive gesture is an incomplete or not adequately executed movement.
Stress of words:

 ACCURACY - [ak-yer-uh-see]
 DEVOTEE - [dev-uh-tee]
 ACNE - [ak-nee]  DIABETES - [dahy-uh-bee-tis]
 ACCESSORY - [ak-ses-uh-ree]  DIOXIDE [dahy-ok-sahyd]
 DOSAGE - [doh-sij]
 ADMINISTRATIVE - [ad-min-uh-strey-tiv]  ELIGIBLE - [el-i-juh-buh l]
 ADMIRABLE - [ad-mer-uh-buh l]  EQUITABLE - [ek-wi-tuh-buh l]
 EVACUEE - [ih-vak-yoo-ee]
 ADOLESCENCE - [ad-l-es-uh ns]
 EXPRESSWAY - [ik-spres-wey]
 ALIAS - [ey-lee-uh s]  EYEBROW - [ahy-brou]
 BURIAL - [ber-ee-uh l]  FLUORESCENT - [floo-res-ent]
 GROSS - [grohs]
 CACHE - [kash] (no stress)
 GUITARIST - [gi-tahr-ist]
 CADAVER - [kuh-dav-er]  HONORABLE - [on-er-uh-buh l]
 CAFFEINE - [ka-feen]  INCOMPARABLE - [in-kom-per-uh-buh
l]
 CANDIDACY - [kan-di-d uh-see]  INFAMOUS - [in-fuh-muh s]
 CATEGORY - [kat-i-gawr-ee]  INTERESTED [in-ter-uh-stid]
 INTESTINE - [in-tes-tin]
 CEMETERY - [sem-i-ter-ee]
 MARGARINE - [mahr-jer-in]
 CENTIMETER - [sen-tuh-mee-ter]  MUNICIPAL - [myoo-nis-uh-puh l]
 CEREMONY - [ser-uh-moh-nee]  ORATOR - [awr-uh-ter]
 PAPAL - [pey-puh l]
 CHARACTERISTIC - [kar-ik-tuh-ris-tik]
 PENICILLIN - [pen-uh-sil-in]
 CLEANLINESS - [ klen-lee-nes]  RESUME - [ri-zoom]
 COLLEAGUE - [kal-eeg]  RÉSUMÉ - [rez-oo-mey]
 ROBOT - [roh-buh t]
 COMFORTABLE - [kuhmf-tuh-buh l]  SALMON - [sam-uh n]
 COMPETITIVE - [kuh m-pet-i-tiv]  SOUTHERN - [suhth -ern]
 TALENTED - [tal-uh n-tid]
 CONDOLENCE - [kuh n-doh-luh ns]
 TESTIMONY - [tes-tuh-moh-nee]
 CONTINUITY - [kon-tn-oo-i-tee]  UTENSIL - [yoo-ten-suh l}
 COUNTRY - [kuhn-tree]  TEACHER – [tee·chr]
 ENGINEER – [en·juh·neer]
 COVET - [kuhv-it]
 Mischievous – [mis·chuh·vuhs]
 CULINARY - [kyoo-luh-ner-ee]  Millionaire – [mi·lee·uh·nehr]
 CULTURE - [kuhl-cher]